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REPORT

OF THE

EIGHTY-FOURTH MEETING OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

AUSTRALIA; 1914

JULY 28—AUGUST 31

LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
1915

Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W.

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CONTENTS.

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Page

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1914—1915..............cccecececeeeceseceeeeceneeeeeeeoes ili
RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION...........0cccececeececsaececeeentee esses v
Tasies: Past ANNUAL MEETINGS: *

Trustees, General Officers, &c. (1831-1914) .....ecesesseeeseeeee teens xxi

Sectional Presidents and Secretaries (1901-1914) .............::0se0ee XXxli

Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences of Delegates (1901-1914) xxx

Evening Discourses (1901-1914) ............s.seseeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeerene 0.6.0.6

Lectures to the Operative Classes and Public Lectures (1901-1914) xxxi

Grants for Scientific Purposes (1901-1913)...... ee. cee eee eee XXXiil

Reporr oF THE CouNcIL TO THE GENERAL Committee, 1913-1914 ... xxxix
GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT, 1913-1914 .... eee eee eee cess eee ees xliv

AvsTRALIAN MEETING, 1914: SECTIONAL OFFICERS.........0..c0ceceseeeeeees xlvi

AnnvuaL Mertines: Praces and Dates, PRESIDENTS, ATTENDANCES,
RECEIPTS, AND SUMS PAID ON ACCOUNT OF GRANTS FOR SCIENTIFIC
Purposes (1831-1914) ........ eee Pears aceGt see aeeceat eevee dedciee ticlaccs xlvili

POM REVAIS: OF) ACRDENDANGES 2<ccccc ons ciclel iniictlscties ceclecciecs cdeedehscccdiscesaenclecs l

AUSTRALIAN MEETING :

FRGReArC Uw OMI TTEOS) eo. cee oes oe teaseateecee emcees dae haswdnseswessaisiiaess lii
Communications ordered to be printed 27 extenso ............. sence es lxiv
Resolutions referred to the Council ...................ceccceneeeeee eeeeee lxiv
SryaIOpsIN On CiRaNts OF MONGY ec iencac;rorcsseash mosses oRdatasescsaecesase Ixvi
MINTER NRW Seino Satiate tse cece sia sicnceesacesn dele cocibces «Dastiecth ess seseenesae Ixvili

* Particulars for early Meetings not furnished in the following Tables will
be found in Volumes for 1911 and previous years.
A2

—

ll CONTENTS.

Page
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, ProressoR WILLIAM Barsson, M.A.,F.RS. 3

IREPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, KC. 2... 0.2.0... 002k. cccenesnsesceserscene 41

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS:

A.—Mathematical and Physical Science ..............:eeeeeeeeeceeees 285
We AO MOBUISERY cana cts rewenejessecessssesecace as) ss+escenseatnesnes"en6t ep 522
(CFR Grell Oniyeree asc deremecsese omrc de> ccscssecohessnssnevontececatenadatem a B44
MDF LOL ODty meecepene ence ree ess cercccce’ sistent os +eseeer ses emssi urn searnee 383
By —(GeOprapliy sec neg te see: tonccek Chea cb gsauceceseessesaccoerenssassnnenes 426
F.— Economie Science and Statistics .........scscsc..5 sesseseveereeeers 453
(r= EIA OUT CUI Dereon eMC ovis |= ov en's sos eoinessiesjecenanaesweaween 490
GA CRO DOL OV apereere er tein = daseGaatondnes \socan sot sentecesbesseeneneae 515
HEE IO LOD Yi ere aereser dee ae saci east =f -wakse<o' ov ecieanoesucasasesenaae 537
KB GORE eee oaie eecawebee senate sweat teiscesbeon acs foavievdvoebteds dada dar 560
L.—Education ......... 5 $60) RO pao toe Ce EEE Chere 592
M.—Agriculture. ............. Deen ceria ecthennd soe scetens be ieaeet . 636
NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING .........-.+..- 679

Visit oF MEMBERS OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION TO THE MBETING OF
L’AssocraTion FRANCAISE AT HAvRE—REpoR? oF THE ComMITTEE 720

REPORT OF THE CORRESPONDING SOCIETIFS COMMITTEE................00005 722

REPORT OF THE CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIFIIES 722

WAGTVEN: | Scewewe vise ca coees =< sees eeete seas he Oe eos de aac ena Teno ap onen ees w nae ee seam 757
ISt OF SRUBITCATIONS) + <. os. Geccne o<6 Meee = cdleten sese soos sap eted tttaee cose eae rama 783
ars OR MEMOIRS; (000 r. .. <aaceeaens mepeeea hot ateeeaats tie aecearecenerees saaerk 172 pages

LIST OF PLATES.

Puate I.—Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigations.

Prats H,—Illustrating the Report on the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Dura Den.

Puates III, anp [V.—Illustrating the Report on Belmullet Whaling Station.

Pirate V.—Illustrating Dr. Lyman Briggs’ Paper on Dry-Farming Investiga-
tions in the United States.

Puare VI.—Illustrating Prof. H. E. Armstrong’s Remarks on the Structure of
Atoms and Molecules.

Puate VII.—Illustrating Prof. W. J. Pope’s Address to the Chemistry Section.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1914-1915.

PATRON. »
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT.
PROFESSOR WILLIAM BATESON, M.A., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS,

His Excellency the Governor-General of the Com- ; The Honourable the Premiers of New South Wales,

monwealtbh of Australia. Victoria, Queensland, Sonth Australia, Western
Their Excellencies the Governors of New South | Australia, Tasmania.
Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia. The Right Honourable the Lord Mayors of Sydney
Western Australia, Tasmania, and Melbourne.
The Honourable the Prime Minister of the Com- | The Right Worshipful the Mayors of Brisbane.
monwealth. Adelaide, Perth, Hobart.

The Chancellors of the Universities of Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Tasmania, Queensland,
Western Australia.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor ARTHUR SCHUSTER, PH.D., SEC.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

The Right Hon.the Lord Mayor of Manchester. | The High Sheriff of Cheshire.
The Right Hon. Lorp SHurrLeEwortTu, LL.D., The Worshipful the Mayor of Salford.
Lord-Lieutenant of Lancashire. The Right Rey. the Bishop of Salford.
|

‘The High Sheriff of Lancashire. The Right Hon. Sir H. EB. Roscor, Ph.D., D.C.L.,
The Right Hon. Viscount MorLey oF BLACcK- F.R.S.

BURN, O.M., D.O.L., F.R.S., Chancellor of Man- | The Right Hon. Sir WiLLiAM MATHER, LL.D.
chester University. | The Vice-Chancellor of the University of Man-
His Grace the DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE. | chester.
The Right Hon. the Eart or Dersy, K.G. | Sir EDWARD DonneER, Bart., LL.D.
The Right Hon. the EARL or ELLESMERE, M.V.O. | Sir FRANK FORBES ADAM, O.1.E., LL.D.
The Right Hon. ViscounrT Bryce, D.C.L,,LL.D., | Alderman Sir T. THORNHILL SHANN, J.P.
F.R.S. Professor Horace Lamp, D.Sc., F.R.S.
The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of Manchester, | R. NoTON Barcray, Esq.
The Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. I

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor JOHN Perry, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES,
Professor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. | Professor H. H. Turner, D.Sce., D.C.L., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
0. J. R, HOWARTH, M.A., Burlington House, London, W.

CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER.
H. O. STEWARDSON, Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT MANCHESTER.
Alderman Epwarp Hott, J.P.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT MANCHESTER.

Professor S. J. Hickson, D.Sce., F.R.S, | Principal J.O, Max wet Gannerr, M.A.
Councillor E, D. Sion, M.1.0.E,

lv OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. HALL, A. D., F.R.S.

BRABROOK, Sir EDWARD, C.B. / HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S.
Braae, Professor W. H., F.R.S. IM THURN, Sir E. F., K.0.M.G.
OLERK, Dr. DUGALD, F.R.S. LODGE, ALFRED, M, A,

ORAIGIE, Major P. G., C.B. Lyons, Captain H, G., F.R.S,
CROOKE, W., B.A. | MELDOLA, Professor R., FR. Ss.
DENDY, Professor A., F.R.S. MyreEs, Professor J. L., M.A.
Drxey, Dr. F. A., F.R.S. RUTHERFORD, Sir E., F. RS.

Drxon, Professor H. B., F.R.S. SAUNDERS, Miss E. R.

Dyson, Sir F. W., F.R.S. / STARLING, Professor E. H., F.R.S.
GRIFFITHS, Principal E. H., F.R.S. TEALL, Dr, J. J. H., F.R.S.
Happow, Dr. A. C., F.R.S. THOMPSON, Dr. SILVANUS P., F.R.S.

WEIss, Professor F. E., D.Sc.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the

President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past

Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord RayLeieu, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Sir ARTHUR W. RicKeEr, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
Major P. A. MacManon, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOOIATION.

Lord Rayleigh, 0.M., F.R.S. | Sir James Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. | Sir J.J. Thomson, 0.M., F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D. a L., F.B.S. | Sir Norman Lockyer, K. 6. B.,F.R.S.| Prof. T. G. Bonney. § c.D., F.R.S.
Sir A. Geikie, K.0.B.,0.M., F.R.S. Arthur J. Balfour, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Sir W. Ramsay, K.O.B., F.R.S.
Sir W. Orookes, 0. M., Pres.R.S. | Sir E.Ray Lankester,K.O.B.,F.R.S. | Sir E. A. Schiifer, LL. D. . F.B.S
Sir W. Turner, K.O.B., F.R.S. Sir Francis Darwin, F. R.S. Sir Oliver Lodge, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S. ‘

PAST GENERAL OFFIOERS OF THE ASSOOIATION.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, Sc.D., F.R.S. | Sir E. A. Schafer, LL.D., F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson.
A. Vernon Harcourt, D.O.L., F.R.S. | Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S. Major P, A, MacMahon, F,R.S.
Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S. Dr. G. Oarey Foster, F.R.S.

AUDITORS.
Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B. I Professor H.t!McLeod, LL.D., F.R.S.

RULES OF
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

[Adopted by the General Committee at Leicester, 1907,
with subsequent amendments. |

CHAPTER I.

Objects and Constitution.

1. The objects of the British Association for the Advance- Objects.
ment of Science are: To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the
intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts
of the British Empire with one another and with foreign
philosophers ; to obtain more general attention for the objects
of Science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public
kind which impede its progress.

The Association contemplates no invasion of the ground
occupied by other Institutions.

2. The Association shall consist of Members, Associates, Constitution.
and Honorary Corresponding Members.

The governing body of the Association shall be a General
Committee, constituted as hereinafter set forth; and its
affairs shall be directed by a Council and conducted by
General Officers appointed by that Committee.

3. The Association shall meet annually, for one week or Annual
longer, and at such other times as the General Committee Meetings.
may appoint. The place of each Annual Meeting shall be
determined by the General Committee not less than two years
in advance ; and the arrangements for these meetings shall
be entrusted to the Officers of the Association.

Cuaprer II.
The General Committee.

1. The General Committee shall be constituted of the Constitution.
following persons :—

(i) Permanent Members—

(a) Past and present Members of the Council, and past
and present Presidents of the Sections.

Vi RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

(b) Members who, by the publication of works or
papers, have furthered the advancement of know-
ledge in any of those departments which are
assigned to the Sections of the Association.

(ii) Temporary Members—

(a) Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections.

(5) Honorary Corresponding Members, foreign repre-
sentatives, and other persons specially invited
or nominated by the Council or General Officers.

(d) Delegates—not exceeding altogether three in
number—from Scientific Institutions established
at the place of meeting.

Admission. 2. The decision of the Council on the qualifications and
claims of any Member of the Association to be placed on the
General Committee shall be final.

(i) Claims for admission as a Permanent Member must
be lodged with the Assistant Secretary at least one
month before the Annual Meeting.

(ii) Claims for admission as a Temporary Member may be
sent to the Assistant Secretary at any time before or
during the Annual Meeting.

Meetings. 3. The General Committee shall meet twice at least during
every Annual Meeting. In the interval between two Annual
Meetings, it shall be competent for the Council at any time
to summon a meeting of the General Committee.

Functions. 4. The General Committee shall

(i) Receive and consider the Report of the Council.
(ii) Elect a Committee of Recommendations.
(iii) Receive and consider the Report of the Committee
of Recommendations.
(iv) Determine the place of the Annual Meeting not less
than two years in advance.
(v) Determine the date of the next Annual Meeting.
(vi) Elect the President and Vice-Presidents, Local Trea-
surer, and Local Secretaries for the next Annual
Meeting.
(vii) Elect Ordinary Members of Council.
(viii) Appoint General Officers.
(ix) Appoint Auditors.
(x) Elect the Officers of the Conference of Delegates.
(xi) Receive any notice of motion for the next Annual
Meeting.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. vii

Cuapter IIT,
Committee of Recommendations.

1. * The ea officio Members of the Committee of Recom-
mendations are the President and Vice-Presidents of the
Association, the President of each Section at the Annual
Meeting, the Chairman of the Conference of Delegates, the
General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and
the Presidents of the Association in former years.

An Ordinary Member of the Committee for each Section
shall be nominated by the Committee of that Section.

If the President of a Section be unable to attend a meeting
of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Com-
mittee may appoint a Vice-President, or some other member
of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice of such
appointment being sent to the Assistant Secretary.

2. Every recommendation made under Chapter IV. and
every resolution on a scientific subject, which may be sub-
mitted to the Association by any Sectional Committee, or by
the Conference of Delegates, or otherwise than by the Council
of the Association, shall be submitted to the Committee of
Recommendations. If the Committee of Recommendations
approve such recommendation, they shall transmit it to the
General Committee ; and no recommendation shall be con-
sidered by the General Committee that is not so transmitted.

Every recommendation adopted by the General Committee
shall, if it involve action on the part of the Association, be
transmitted to the Council ; and the Council shall take such
action as may be needful to give effect to it, and shall report
to the General Committee not later than the next Annual
Meeting.

Every proposal for establishing a new Section or Sub-
Section, for altering the title of a Section, or for any other
change in the constitutional forms or fundamental rules of
the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of Recom-
mendations for their consideration and report.

3. The Committee of Recommendations shall assemble,
for the despatch of business, on the Monday of the Annual
Meeting, and, if necessary, on the following day. Their
Report must be submitted to the General Committee on the
last day of the Annual Meeting.

* Amended by the General Committee at Winnipeg, 1909.

Constitution.

Functions.

Procedure.

Constitution.

Proposals by
Sectional
Committees,

Tenure.

Reports.

Viil RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

CuHapTerR LV.
Research Committees.

1. Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of
money in aid of special research, which is made in any
Section, shall be considered by the Committee of that Section ;
and, if such proposal be approved, it shall be referred to the
Committee of Recommendations.

In consequence of any such proposal, a Sectional Com-
mittee may recommend the appointment of a Research
Committee, composed of Members of the Association, to
conduct research or administer a grant in aid of research,
and in any case to report thereon to the Association ; and the
Committee of Recommendations may include such recom-
mendation in their report to the General Committee.

2. Every appointment of a Research Committee shall be
proposed at a meeting of the Sectional Committee and adopted
at a subsequent meeting. The Sectional Committee shall
settle the terms of reference and suitable Members to serve
on it, which must be as small as is consistent with its efficient
working ; and shall nominate a Chairman and a Secretary.
Such Research Committee, if appointed, shall have power to
add to their numbers.

3. The Sectional Committee shall state in their recommen-
dation whether a grant of money be desired for the purposes
of any Research Committee, and shall estimate the amount
required.

All proposals sanctioned by a Sectional Committee shall
be forwarded by the Recorder to the Assistant Secretary not
later than noon on the Monday of the Annual Meeting for
presentation to the Committee of Recommendations.

4. Research Committees are appointed for one year only.
If the work of a Research Committee cannot be completed
in that year, application may be made through a Sectional
Committee at the next Annual Meeting for reappointment,
with or without a grant—or a further grant—of money.

5. Every Research Committee shall present a Report,
whether interim or final, at the Annual Meeting next after
that at which it was appointed or reappointed. Interim
Reports, whether intended for publication or not, must be sub-
mitted in writing. Each Sectional Committee shall ascertain
whether a Report has been made by each Research Committee
appointed on their recommendation, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations on or before the Monday of
the Annual Meeting.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. ix

6. In each Research Committee to which a grant of money
has been made, the Chairman is the only person entitled to call
on the General Treasurer for such portion of the sum granted
as from time to time may be required.

Grants of money sanctioned at the Annual Meeting
expire on June 30 following. The General Treasurer is not
authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants.

The Chairman of a Research Committee must, before
the Annual Meeting next following the appointment of
the Research Committee, forward to the General Treasurer
a statement of the sums that have been received and ex-
pended, together with vouchers. The Chairman must then
return the balance of the grant, if any, which remains un-
expended ; provided that a Research Committee may, in the
first year of its appointment only, apply for leave to retain
an unexpended balance when or before its Report is presented,
due reason being given for such application.*

When application is made for a Committee to be re-
appointed, and to retain the balance of a former grant, and
also to receive a further grant, the amount of such further
grant is to be estimated as being sufficient, together with
the balance proposed to be retained, to make up the amount
desired.

In making grants of money to Research Committees, the
Association does not contemplate the payment of personal
expenses to the Members.

A Research Committee, whether or not in receipt of a
grant, shall not raise money, in the name or under the auspices
of the Association, without special permission from the General
Committee.

7. Members and Committees entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of any description shall include in their
Reports particulars thereof, and shall reserve the specimens
thus obtained for disposal, as the Council may direct.

Committees are required to furnish a list of any ap-
paratus which may have been purchased out of a grant made
by the Association, and to state whether the apparatus is
likely to be useful for continuing the research in question or
for other specific purposes.

All instruments, drawings, papers, and other property of
the Association, when not in actual use by a Committee, shall
be deposited at the Office of the Association.

* Amended by the General Committee at Dundee, 1912.

GRANTS.
(a) Drawn by
Chairman.

(bd) Expire on
June 30.

(ec) Accounts
and balance
in hand

(d) Addi-
tional Grant,

(e) Caveat.

Disposal of
specimens,
apparatus,

ke.

x RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

CHAPTER V.
The Council.

Constitution. 1. The Council shall consist of ex officio Members and of
Ordinary Members elected annually by the General Com-
mittee.

(i) The ex officio Members are—the Trustees, past Presi-
dents of the Association, the President and Vice-
Presidents for the year, the President and Vice-
Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers
and General Secretaries, past Assistant General
Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local
Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting.

(ii) The Ordinary Members shall not exceed twenty-five in
number. Of these, not more than twenty shall have
served on the Council as Ordinary Members in the
previous year.

Functions. 2. The Council shall have authority to act, in the name and
on behalf of the Association, in all matters which do not con-
flict with the functions of the General Committee.

In the interval between two Annual Meetings, the Council
shall manage the affairs of the Association and may fill up
vacancies among the General and other Officers, until the next
Annual Meeting.

The Council shall hold such meetings as they may think
fit, and shall in any case meet on the first day of the Annual
Meeting, in order to complete and adopt the Annual Report,
and to consider other matters to be brought before the General
Committee.

The Council shall nominate for election by the General
Committee, at each Annual Meeting, a President and General
Officers of the Association.

Suggestions for the Presidency shall be considered by the
Council at the Meeting in February, and the names selected
shall be issued with the summonses to the Council Meeting in
March, when the nomination shall be made from the names
on the list.

The Council shall have power to appoint and dismiss
such paid officers as may be necessary to carry on the work
of the Association, on such terms as they may from time to
time determine.

THE COUNCIL. xl

3. Election to the Council shall take place at the same
time as that of the Officers of the Association,

(i) At each Annual Election, the following Ordinary
Members of the Council shall be ineligible for re-
election in the ensuing year :

(a) Three of the Members who have served for the
longest consecutive period, and
(b) Two of the Members who, being resident in or near
London, have attended the least number of meet-
ings during the past year.
Nevertheless, it shall be competent for the Council, by
an unanimous vote, to reverse the proportion in the
order of retirement above set forth.

(ii) The Council shall submit to the General Committee,
in their Annual Report, the names of twenty-three
Members of the Association whom they recommend for
election as Members of Council.

(iii) Two Members shall be elected by the General Com-
mittee, without nomination by the Council ; and this
election shall be at the same meeting as that at which the
election of the other Members of the Council takes place.

Any member of the General Committee may propose
another member thereof for election as one of these two
Members of Council, and, if only two are so proposed,
they shall be declared elected ; but, if more than two
are so proposed, the election shall be by show of hands,
unless five Members at least require it to be by ballot.

Cuaprer VI.
The President, General Officers, and Staff.

1. The President assumes office on the first day of the
Annual Meeting, when he delivers a Presidential Address.
He resigns office at the next Annual Meeting, when he
inducts his successor into the Chair.

The President shall preside at all meetings of the Associa-
tion or of its Council and Committees which he attends in his
capacity as President. In his absence, he shall be represented
by a Vice-President or past President of the Association.

Elections,

The Presi-
dent.

2. The General Officers of the Association are the Genera] General

Treasurer and the Genera! Secretaries.

Officers.

The General
Treasurer.

The General
Secretaries.

The Assistant
Secretary.

Assistant
Treasurer,

Financial
Statements.

xil RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Tt shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Association, in any matter of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
meeting.

3. The General Treasurer shall be responsible to the
General Committee and the Council for the financial affairs
of the Association.

4. The General Secretaries shall control the general
organisation and administration, and shall be responsible to
the General Committee and the Council for conducting the
correspondence and for the general routine of the work of
the Association, excepting that which relates to Finance.

5. The Assistant Secretary shall hold office during the
pleasure of the Council. He shall act under the direction
of the General Secretaries, and in their absence shall repre-
sent them. He shall also act on the directions which may
be given him by the General Treasurer in that part of his
duties which relates to the finances of the Association.

The Assistant Secretary shall be charged, subject as afore-
said : (i) with the general organising and editorial work, and
with the administrative business of the Association ; (ii) with
the control and direction of the Office and of all persons
therein employed ; and (iii) with the execution of Standing
Orders or of the directions given him by the General Officers
and Council. He shall act as Secretary, and take Minutes, at
the meetings of the Council, and at all meetings of Com-
mittees of the Council, of the Committee of Recommendations,
and of the General Committee.

6. The General Treasurer may depute one of the Staff, as
Assistant Treasurer, to carry on, under his direction, the
routine work of the duties of his office.

The Assistant Treasurer shall be charged with the issue of
Membership Tickets, the payment of Grants, and such other
work as may be delegated to him.

CuaptTer VII.
Finance.

1, The General Treasurer, or Assistant Treasurer, shall
receive and acknowledge all sums of money paid to the
Association. He shall submit, at each meeting of the
Council, an interim statement of his Account; and, after

FINANCE. xi

June 30 in each year, he shall prepare and submit to the
General Committee a balance-sheet of the Funds of the
Association.

2. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited,
annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee.

3. The General Treasurer shall make all ordinary pay-
ments authorised by the General Committee or by the
Council.

4, The General Treasurer is empowered to draw on the
account of the Association, and to invest on its behalf,
part or all of the balance standing at any time to the credit
of the Association in the books of the Bank of England,
either in Exchequer Bills or in any other temporary invest-
ment, and to change, sell, or otherwise deal with such tem-
porary investment as may seem to him desirable.

5. In the event of the General Treasurer being unable,
from illness or any other cause, to exercise the functions of
his office, the President of the Association for the time being
and one of the General Secretaries shall be jointly empowered
to sign cheques on behalf of the Association.

Cuaprer VIII.
The Annual Meetings.

1. Local Committees shall be formed to assist the General
Officers in making arrangements for the Annual Meeting, and
shall have power to add to their number.

2. The General Committee shall appoint, on the recom-
mendation of the Local Reception or Executive Committee for
the ensuing Annual Meeting, a Local Treasurer or Treasurers
and two or more Local Secretaries, who shall rank as officers
of the Association, and shall consult with the General Officers
and the Assistant Secretary as to the local arrangements
necessary for the conduct of the meeting. The Local Treasurers
shall be empowered to enrol Members and Associates, and to
receive subscriptions.

3. The Local Committees and Sub-Committees shall under-
take the local organisation, and shall have power to act in the
name of the Association in all matters pertaining to the local
arrangements for the Annual Meeting other than the work of
the Sections.

Audit.

Expenditure,

Investments,

Cheques.

Local Offi-
cers and
Committees,

Functions.

Xiv RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

CHaptrer IX.
The Work of the Sections.

THE 1. The scientific work of the Association shall be trans-

SECTIONS. acted under such Sections as shall be constituted from time
to time by the General Committee.

It shall be competent for any Section, if authorised by the
Council for the time being, to form a Sub-Section for the
purpose of dealing separately with any group of communica-
tions addressed to that Section.

Sectional 2. There shall be in each Section a President, two or

Officers. more Vice-Presidents, and two or more Secretaries. They
shall be appointed by the Council, for each Annual Meet-
ing in advance, and shall act as the Officers of the Section
from the date of their appointment until the appoint-
ment of their successors in office for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.

Of the Secretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section,
and one shall be resident in the locality where the Annual
Meeting is held.

Rooms. 3. The Section Rooms and the approaches thereto shall
not be used for any notices, exhibitions, or other purposes
than those of the Association.

SECTIONAL 4, The work of each Section shall be conducted by a

COMMITTEES. Sectional Committee, which shall consist of the following :—

Constitution. (i) The Officers of the Section during their term of office.

(ii) All past Presidents of that Section.

(iii) Such other Members of the Association, present at
any Annual Meeting, as the Sectional Committee,
thus constituted, may co-opt for the period of the
meeting :

Provided always that—
Privilege of (a) Any Member of the Association who has served on
Old Members, the Committee of any Section in any previous year,
and who has intimated his intention of being present
at the Annual Meeting, is eligible as a member of
that Committee at their first meeting.
Daily (6) A Sectional Committee may co-opt members, as above
Co-optation. set forth, at any time during the Annual Meeting,
and shall publish daily a revised list of the members.

THE WORK OF THE SECTIONS. XV

(c) A Sectional Committee may, at any time during the
Annual Meeting, appoint not more than three persons
present at the meeting to be Vice-Presidents of the
Section, in addition to those previously appointed
by the Council.

5. The chief executive officers of a Section shall be the
President and the Recorder., They shall have power to act on
behalf of the Section in any matter of urgency which cannot
be brought before the consideration of the Sectional Com-
mittee ; and they shall report such action to the Sectional
Committee at its next meeting.

The President (or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presi-
dents) shall preside at all meetings of the Sectional Committee
or of the Section. His ruling shall be absolute on all points
of order that may arise.

The Recorder shall be responsible for the punctual trans-
mission to the Assistant Secretary of the daily programme of
his Section, of the recommendations adopted by the Sectional
Committee, of the printed returns, abstracts, reports, or papers
appertaining to the proceedings of his Section at the Annual
Meeting, and for the correspondence and minutes of the
Sectional Committee.

6. The Sectional Committee shall nominate, before the
close of the Annual Meeting, not more than six of its own
members to be members of an Organising Committee, with
the officers to be subsequently appointed by the Council, and
past Presidents of the Section, from the close of the Annual
Meeting until the conclusion of its meeting on the first day of
the ensuing Annual Meeting.

Each Organising Committee shall hold such meetings as
are deemed necessary by its President for the organisation
of the ensuing Sectional proceedings, and shall hold a meeting
on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting : to nominate
members of the Sectional Committee, to confirm the Pro-
visional Programme of the Section, and to report to the
Sectional Committee.

Each Sectional Committee shall meet daily, unless other-
wise determined, during the Annual Meeting: to co-opt
members, to complete the arrangements for the next day, and
to take into consideration any suggestion for the advance-
ment of Science that may be offered by a member, or may
arise out of the proceedings of the Section.

No paper shall be read” in any Section until it has been
accepted by the Sectional Committee and entered as accepted
on its Minutes.

Additional
Vice-Presi-
dents.

EXECUTIVE
FUNCTIONS

Of President

and of
Recorder.

Organising
Committee.

Sectional
Committee.

Papers and
Reports.

Recommen-
dations.

Publication.

xvl RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Any report or paper read in any one Section may be read
also in any other Section.

No paper or abstract of a paper shall be printed in the
Annual Report of the Association unless the manuscript has
been received by the Recorder of the Section before the close
of the Annual Meeting.

It shall be within the competence of the Sectional Com-
mittee to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Annual Meetings, as published in the Annual Reports of the
Association, and the communications made to the Section at
its current meetings, for the purpose of selecting definite
objects of research, in the promotion of which individual or
concerted action may be usefully employed ; and, further, to
take into consideration those branches or aspects of knowledge
on the state and progress of which reports are required: to
make recommendations and nominate individuals or Research

- Committees to whom the preparation of such reports, or the task

of research, may be entrusted, discriminating as to whether,
and in what respects, these objects may be usefully advanced
by the appropriation of money from the funds of the Associa-
tion, whether by reference to local authorities, public institu-

‘tions, or Departments of His Majesty’s Government. The

appointment of such Research Committees shall be made in
accordance with the provisions of Chapter IV.

No proposal arising out of the proceedings of any Section
shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations unless
it shall have received the sanction of the Sectional Com-
mittee.

7. Papers ordered to be printed in eatenso shall not be
included in the Annual Report, if published elsewhere prior
to the issue of the Annual Report in volume form. Reports
of Research Committees shall not be published elsewhere
than in the Annual Report without the express sanction of
the Council.

8. The copyright of papers ordered by the General Com-
mittee to be printed im extenso in the Annual Report shall
be vested in the authors ; and the copyright of the reports
of Research Committees appointed by the General Committee
shall be vested in the Association.

ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. XVil

CHAPTER X.
Admission of Members and Associates.

1. No technical qualification shall be required on the
part of an applicant for admission as a Member or as an
Associate of the British Association; but the Council is
empowered, in the event of special circumstances arising, to
impose suitable conditions and restrictions in this respect.

* Every person admitted as a Member or an Associate
shall conform to the Rules and Regulations of the Association,
any infringement of which on his part may render him liable
to exclusion by the Council, who have also authority, if they
think it necessary, to withhold from any person the privilege
of attending any Annual Meeting or to cancel a ticket of
admission already issued.

It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Council, on any occasion of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
Meeting.

2, All Members are eligible to any office in the Association.

(i) Every Life Member shall pay, on admission, the sum
of Ten Pounds.

Life Members shall receive gratis the Annual
Reports of the Association.

(i) Every Annual Member shall pay, on admission, the
e sum of Two Pounds, and in any subsequent year
the sum of One Pound.

Annual Members shall receive gratis the Report
of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay,
without intermission, their annual subscription. An
Annual Member who omits to subscribe for any
particular year shall lose for that and all future
years the privilege of receiving the Annual Reports
of the Association gratis. He, however, may resume
his other privileges as a Member at any subsequent
Annual Meeting by paying on each such occasion
the sum of One Pound.

(ili) Every Associate for a year shall pay, on admission,
the sum of One Pound.

* Amended by the General Committee at Dublin, 1908.
1914,

Applications.

Obligations.

Conditions
and Privileges
of Member-
ship.

Correspond-
ing Members.

Annual Sub-
scriptions.

The Annual
Report.

AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES.

ASSOCIATED
SOCIETIES.

XVill RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Associates shall not receive the Annual Report
gratuitously. They shall not be eligible to serve on
any Committee, nor be qualified to hold any office in
the Association.

(iv) Ladies may become Members or Associates on the
same terms as gentlemen, or can obtain a Lady’s
Ticket (transferable to ladies only) on the payment
of One Pound.

3. Corresponding Members may be appointed by the
General Committee, on the nomination of the Council. They
shall be entitled to all the privileges of Membership.

4. Subscriptions are payable at or before the Annual
Meeting. Annual Members not attending the meeting may
make payment at any time before the close of the financial
year on June 30 of the following year.

5. The Annual Report of the Association shall be forwarded
gratis to individuals and institutions entitled to receive it.

Annual Members whose subscriptions have been inter-
mitted shall be entitled to purchase the Annual Report
at two-thirds of the publication price ; and Associates for a
year shall be entitled to purchase, at the same price, the
volume for that year.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of
publication can only be issued by direction of the Council.

Cuaprer XI.
Corresponding Societies: Conference of Delegates.
Corresponding Societies are constituted as follows :

1. (i) Any Society which undertakes local scientific inves-
tigation and publishes the results may become a
Society affiliated to the British Association.

Each Affiliated Society may appoint a Delegate,
who must be or become a Member of the Associa-
tion and must attend the meetings of the Conference
of Delegates. He shall be ex officio a Member of
the General Committee.

(ii) Any Society formed for the purpose of encouraging
the study of Science, which has existed for three
years and numbers not fewer than fifty members,
may become a Society associated with the British
Association.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES : CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. Xix

Each Associated Society shall have the right
to appoint a Delegate to attend the Annual Con-
ference. Such Delegates must be or become either
Members or Associates of the British Association,
and shall have all the rights of Delegates appointed
by the Affiliated Societies, except that of member-
ship of the General Committee. —

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed
on the list of Corresponding Societies. Such application must
be addressed to the Assistant Secretary on or before the Ist of
June preceding the Annual Meeting at which it is intended
it should be considered, and must, in the case of Societies
desiring to be affiliated, be accompanied by specimens of the
publications of the results of local scientific investigations
recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be an-
nually nominated by the Council and appointed by the
General Committee, for the purpose of keeping themselves
generally informed of the work of the Corresponding Socie-
ties and of superintending the preparation of a list of the
papers published by the Affiliated Societies. This Com-
mittee shall make an Annual Report to the Council, and
shall suggest such additions or changes in the list of Corre-
sponding Societies as they may consider desirable.

(i) Each Corresponding Society shall forward every year
to the Assistant Secretary of the Association, on or
before June 1, such particulars in regard to the
Society as may be required for the information of
the Corresponding Societies Committee.

(ii) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the
Association a list of the papers published by
the Corresponding Societies during the preceding
twelve months which contain the results of local
scientific work conducted by them—those papers
only being included which refer to subjects coming
under the cognisance of one or other of the several
Sections of the Association.

4. The Delegates of Corresponding Societies shall consti-
tute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairman,
and Secretary or Secretaries shall be nominated annually by
the Council and appointed by the General Committee. The
members of the Corresponding Societies Committee shall be
ex officio members of the Conference.

(i) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by

the Secretaries to hold one or more meetings during
a2

Applications,

CORRE-
SPONDING
SOCIETIES
COMMITTEE.

Procedure.

CONFERENCE
OF DELE-
GATES.

Procedureand
Functions.

Alterations.

xx RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

each Annual Meeting of the Association, and shall
be empowered to invite any Member or Associate
to take part in the discussions.

(ii) The Conference of Delegates shall be empowered to
submit Resolutions to the Committee. of Recom-
mendations for their consideration, and for report
to the General Committee.

(iii) The Sectional Committees of the Association shall
be requested to transmit to the Secretaries of the
Conference of Delegates copies of any recommenda-
tions to be made to the General Committee bearing
on matters in which the co-operation of Corre-
sponding Societies is desirable. It shall be com-
petent for the Secretaries of the Conference of
Delegates to invite the authors of such recom-
mendations to attend the meetings of the Conference
in order to give verbal explanations of their objects
and of the precise way in which they desire these
to be carried into effect.

(iv) It shall be the duty of the Delegates to make
themselves familiar with the purport of the several
recommendations brought before the Conference,
in order that they may be able to bring such re-
commendations adequately before their respective
Societies.

(v) The Conference may also discuss propositions
regarding the promotion of more systematic ob-
servation and plans of operation, and of greater
uniformity in the method of publishing results.

Cuaprer XII.
Amendments and New Rules.

Any alterations in the Rules, and any amendments
or new Rules that may be proposed by the Council or
individual Members, shall be notified to the General Com-
mittee on the first day of the Annual Meeting, and referred
forthwith to the Committee of Recommendations ; and, on the
report of that Committee, shall be submitted for approval at
the last meeting of the General Committee.

TRUSTEES, GENERAL OFFICERS, &c., 1831-1914.

TRUSTEES.

1832-70 28 R. I. MurcuHison (Bart.),
B.S.

1832-62 teen TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S
1839-44 F. BAILy, Esq., ERS.
1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.S.

1898-

1872— fSir J. LuBBock, Bart. (after-

1913 {| wards Lord AVEBURY), F.R.S.

1881-83 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., Pres.
RS

1883— Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S.
1883-98 Sir Lyon (afterwards
PLAYFAIR, F.R.S8.
Prof. (Sir) A. W. RUCKER, F.R.S.
Major P. A. MacMAnon, F.R.S.

Lord)

1913-

GENERAL TREASURERS.

1831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.

1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1862-74 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.S.
1874-91 Prof. A. W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.

1891-98 Prof. (Sir) A. W. RUCKER,
E.R.S.
1898-1904 Prof. G. C. Foster, F.R.S.

1904— ~~ Prof. JoHN PERRY, F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

1832-35 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
E.R.S.

1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, |
¥.R.S., and F. Barby, Esq., |
F.R.S.

Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
¥.R.S., and R. I. MurRcHISON,
Esq., F.R.8.

1836-37

1881

|
Secretary. |

1871-72 Dr.T. THOMSON,F.R.S.,and Capt.
DouGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1872-76 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. MICHAEL FostTeErR, F.R.S.
1876-81 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.R.S.
1881-82 Capt. D. Gauron, F.R.5., and
Prof. F, M. BALFouR, F.R.S.
1882-83 Capt. DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.

1837-39 R. I. Murcuison, Esq., F.R.S.,
and Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S. 1883-95 Sir DouGLAs GALTON, F.R.S.,
1839-45 Sir R. I. Murcuison, F-.R.S., and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,
and Major E. SABINE, F.R.S. Esq., F.R.S.

1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E.SABINE,F.R.S. | 1895-97 A. G. VERNON HARCOURT, Hsq.,
1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S., and WAS. wanes Prot, 1. A.
J. F. Roy ye, Esq., F.R.S. ScHAFER, F.R.S.

1852-53 J. F. RoyLe®, Esq., F.R.S. 1897- {or ScHAFER, F.R.S., and Sir
1853-59 General E. SABINE, F.R.S. 1900 W.C.ROBERTS-AUSTEN,F.R.S.
1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.S. 1900-02 Sir W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN,
1861-62 W. HopKIns, Esq., F.R.S. F.R.S., and Dr. D. H. Scort,

1862-63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and F.R.S.
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S. 1902-03 Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., and
1863-65 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and MajorP. A. MAcCMAHON, F.R.S.
F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S8. 1903-13 Major P. A. MACMAHON, F.R.S.,
1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.8. and Prof. W. A. HERDMAN,
~ 1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and F.R.S.
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. 1913— Prof. W. A. HERDMAN, F.R.S.,
1868-71 Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S., and Dr. | and Prof. H.H.TURNER, F.R.S.
; T, THOMSON, F.R.S.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES, &c.: 1831-1904.
1831 JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary. ; 1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, FBS,
1832 Prof. J. D. Forsss, Acting | Secretary.
Secretary. 1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
1832-62 Prof. JoHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S. Secretary.
1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. | 1890 G. GRIFFITH, Hsq., M.A., Acting
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting Secretary.

1890-1902 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.
1902-04 J. G. GARSON, Esq., M.D.

ASSISTANT SECRETARIES.

1878-80 J. E. H. Gorpown, Esq., B.A.
1904-09 A. SILVA WHITE, Esq.

1909- O.J.R. Howarrtn, Esq., M.A.

XXli PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13).

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association,
1901-1913.

(The List of Sectional Officers for 1914 will be found on p. xlvi.)

Secretaries
(Ree, = Recorder)

Date and Place Presidents

SECTION A.'—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

1901. Glasgow ...{ Major P.A. MacMahon, ¥.R.8.|H. S. Carslaw, C. H. Lees (Ree.), W.
| —Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.| Stewart, Prof. L. R. Wilberforce.
| H.H. Turner, F.R.S.
1902. Belfast...... Prof. J. Purser,LL.D.,M.R.1.A.;H. 8. Carslaw, A. R. Hinks, A.
| —Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.| Larmor, C. H. Lees (Rec.), Prof,
| A. Schuster, F.R.S. | W. B. Morton, A. W. Porter.
1903. Southport |C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S8.—Dep.|D. E. Benson, A. R. Hinks, R. W.
of Astronomy and Meteor-| H. T. Hudson, Dr. C. H. Lees
ology,Dr.W.N.Shaw,F.R.S.| (Rec.), J. Loton, A. W. Porter.
1904. Cambridge | Prof. H. Lamb, F.R.S.—Swb-| A. R. Hinks, R. W. H. T. Hudson,
Section of Astronomy and| Dr. C. H. Lees (Rec.), Dr. W. J.8.
Cosmical Physics, Sir J.) Lockyer, A. W. Porter, W. C D.

Eliot, K.C.I.E., F.B.S. | Whetham.

1905. SouthAfrica’ Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,|A. R. Hinks, 8. S. Hough, R. T. A.
| E.RS. Innes, J. H. Jeans, Dr. C. H. Lees
| (Ree.).

1906. York......... Principal E. H.Griffiths, F.R.S8.| Dr. L. N. G. Filon, Dr. J. A. Harker,

A. R. Hinks, Prof. A. W. Porter
(fec.), H. Dennis Taylor.
1907. Leicester..., Prof. A. E. H. Love, M.A.,/E. E. Brooks, Dr. L. N. G. Filon,

| F.B.S. | Dr. J. A. Harker, A. R. Hinks,
| | Prof, A. W. Porter (Ree.).
1908. Dublin ...... Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S. ......,;Dr. W. G. Duffield, Dr. L. N. G.

| Filon, E. Gold, Prof. J. A.
McClelland, Prof. A. W. Porter
| | (ee.), Prof. E. T. Whittaker.
1909. Winnipeg | Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S....| Prof. F. Allen, Prof. J. C. Fields,
E. Gold, F. Horton, Prof. A. W.
Porter (#ec.), Dr. A. A. Rambaut.
1910. Sheffield ...| Prof. E, W. Hobson, F.R.S....|H. Bateman, A. S. Eddington, E.
Gold, Dr. F. Horton, Dr. 8. R.
Milner, Prof. A. W. Porter ( Rec.).
1911, Portsmouth! Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.8. ...!H. Bateman, Prof. P. V. Bevan, A.S.
| Eddington, E. Gold, Prof. A. W.
Porter (Rec.), P. A. Yapp.
1912. Dundee ...| Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S.) Prof. P. V. Bevan, EH. Gold, Dr. H. B.
| Heywood, R. Norrie, Prof. A. W.
Porter (Rec.), W. G. Robson, F.
J. M. Stratton.
1915. Birmingham) Dr. H. ¥. Baker, F.R.S. ......; Prof. P. V. Bevan (#ec.), Prof. A. 8.
| Eddington, E. Gold, Dr. H. B.
| Heywood, Dr. A. O. Rankine, Dr.
G. A. Shakespear.

1 Section A was constituted under this title in 1835, when the sectional division
was introduced. The previous division was into ‘Committees of Sciences.’

Date and Place Presidents

1901.
1902.

1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.

1910.

1911.
1912.

1913.

1901.
1902.

1903.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13). xxiii

Secretaries
- = xe eau

SECTION B.”—CHEMISTRY
Glasgow ...| Prof. Percy F. Frankland, ae C. Anderson, G. G. Henderson,

E.R.S. W. J. Pope, T. K. Rose (Ree.).
Belfast...... Prof, E. Divers, F.R.S... oR. F, Blake, M. O. Forster, Prof.
G. G. Henderson, Prof. W. J. Pope
(Rec.).
Southport | Prof. W. N. Hartley, D.Sc.,| Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
F.R.S. derson, J. Ohm, Prof. W. J. Pope
|_ (Ree.).

Cambridge | Prof. Sydney Young, F.R.S....| Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
derson, Dr. H. O. Jones, Prof.
W. J. Pope (Rec.).

SouthAfrica| George T. Beilby ............... |W. A. Caldecott, Mr. M. O. Forster,
Prof. G. G. Henderson (Rec.), C.F.

Juritz.
VOLK ony tes Prof. Wyndham R. Dunstan,| Dr. E. F.Armstrong, Prof. A.W. Cross-
E.R.S. | ley,S.H. Davies, Prof. W. J. Pope

(Ree.).
Leicester ...| Prof. A. Smithells, F.R.S. ...|Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Prof. A. W.

Crossley (#ec.), J. H. Hawthorn,
Dr. F. M. Perkin.

Dublin...... Prof. F. 8. Kipping, F.R.S....|Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Ree.), Dr. A.
McKenzie, Dr. F., M. Perkin, Dr.
| ,J. H. Pollock.

Winnipeg...| Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.; Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Rec.), Dr. T.
| M. Lowry, Dr. F. M. Perkin, J. W.

Shipley.
Sheffield ...|J. E. Stead, F.R.S. .........006 Dr. KE. F. Armstrong (Ree. br.
M. Lowry, Dr. F. M. Perkin, W.
E. 8. Turner.
Sub-section of Agriculture—|Dr. C. Crowther, J. Golding, Dr.
A. D. Hall, F.R.S. E. J. Russell.

Portsmouth| Prof. J. Walker, F.R.S. ......;Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Ree.), Dr.
C. H. Desch, Dr. T. M. Lowry,
Dr. F. Beddow.

Dundee ...|Prof. A. Senier, M.D. ......... Dr, E. F. Armstrong (ec.), Dr. C.
H. Desch, Dr. A. Holt, Dr. J. K.
Wood.

Birmingham| Prof. W. P. Wynne, F.R.S. ...| Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Rec.), Dr. C. H.

Desch, Dr. A. Holt, Dr. H.
McCombie.

SECTION C.3—GEOLOGY.

Glasgow ... John Horne, F.R.S. ............ H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton
(Rec.).
Belfast...... Lieut.-Gen. C. A. McMahon, H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton
F.R.S. (Ree.), J. St. J. Phillips, H. J.
Seymour.
Southport Prof. W. W. Watts, M.A., H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,
M.Sc. J. Lomas, H. W. Monckton (Rec.).

2 «Chemistry and Mineralogy,’ 1835-1894,
’ ‘Geology and Geography,’ 1835-1850.

XXIV

Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries

PRESIDENTS AND SECKETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13).

(Rec. = Recorder)

1904. Cambridge | Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S. ......|H. L. Bowman (Ree.), Rev. W. L.

1905.

1906.
1907.
1908.

1909.

1910.

1911,

1912.

1913.

1901.
1902.

1903.

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

1908.

1909.

Carter, J. Lomas, H. Woods.

SouthAfrica, Prof. H. A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc.,|H. L. Bowman (Rec.), J. Lomas, Dr.

E.R.S. Molengraaff, Prof. A. Young, Prof.
R. B. Young,

--|G. W. Lamplugh, F.R.S.......]H. L. Bowman (Ree.), Rev. W. L.

Carter, Rev. W. Johnson, J. Lomas.

Leicester... Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S....|Dr. F. W. Bennett, Rev. W. L. Carter,

Dublin..,.

Prof. T. Groom, J. Lomas ( Rec.)

..| Prof. John Joly, F.R.S. ......|Rev. W. L. Carter, J. Lomas (Rec.),

Prof. 8. H. Reynolds, H. J. Sey-
mour.

Winnipeg...|Dr. A. Smith Woodward,!W.L. Carter (Ree.), Dr. A. R. Dwerry-

Sheffield

F.R.S. house, R. IT, Hodgson, Prof. S. H.
Reynolds.

...| Prof. A. P. Coleman, F.R.S...|W.L. Carter (fec.), Dr. A. R. Dwerry-

house, B. Hobson, Prof. 8S. H.
Reynolds.

Portsmouth| A. Harker, F.R.S. .........2..06 Col. C. W. Bevis, W. L. Carter ( Rec.),

Dundee

Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse, Prof. 8.
H. Reynolds.

..|Dr. B. N. Peach, F.R.S. ......|Prof. W. B. Boulton, A. W. RB. Don,

Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse (fec.),
Prof. 8. H. Reynolds.

Birmingham) Prof. E. J. Garwood, M.A....|Prof. W. S. Boulton, Dr. A. R.

Dwerryhouse (Rec.), F. Raw,
Prof. 8. H. Reynolds.

SECTION D.‘—ZOOLOGY.

Glasgow ... Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, F.R.S.'J. G. Kerr (Ree.), J. Rankin, J. Y.
Simpson.
Belfast...... Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S. ...| Prof. J. G. Kerr, R. Patterson, J. Y.
| Simpson (fec.).
Southport Prof. S. J. Hickson, F.R.S....'Dr. J. H. Ashworth, J. Barcroft,
: A. Quayle, Dr. J. Y. Simpson
(Rec.), Dr. H. W. M. Tims.
Cambridge William Bateson, F.R.S.......'Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. J. Y. Simpson (#ec.), Dr. H.
| W. M. Tims.
SouthAfrica G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S. ...... Dr. Pakes, Dr. Purcell, Dr. H. W. M.
| Tims, Prof. J. Y. Simpson (Rec.).
MOTE creces se J. J. Lister, F.R.S. ............| Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster.
Oxley Grabham, Dr. H.W. M. Tims
(Rec.).
Leicester... Dr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A.......e«/Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L, Doncaster,
E. EH. Lowe, Dr. H. W. M. Tims
(Ree.).
Dublin...... Dr. 8S. F. Harmer, F.B.S....... Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. A. Fraser, Dr. H. W. M. Tims
(Rec.).
Winnipeg...! Dr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S. ... C. A. Baragar, C. L. Boulenger, Dr.

J. Pearson, Dr. H. W. M. Tims
(Rec.).

* «Zoology and Botany,’ 1835-1847 ; ‘Zoology and Botany, including Physiology,’
1848-1865 ; ‘ Biology,’ 1866-1894.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13). x

9)
4

Secretaries

Date and Place Presidents (Rec. = Recorder)

1910. Sheffield ...|Prof. G. C. Bourne, F.R.S. ...|Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
T. J. Evans, Dr. H. W. M. Tims

Rec.).
1911. Portsmouth| Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, ie J.H. Ashworth, C. Foran, R. D.
C.B. Laurie, Dr. H. W. M. Tims (#ec.).
1912. Dundee ...|Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell,|Dr. J. H. Ashworth, R. D. Laurie,
F.R.S. Miss D. L. Mackinnon, Dr. H. W.
M. Tims (Ree.).
1913. Birmingham | Dr. H. F. Gadow, F.R.S.......!Dr. J. H. Ashworth, Dr. C. L.

Boulenger, R. D. Laurie, Dr. H.
W. M. Tims (fee.).

SECTION E2—GEOGRAPHY.

1901. Glasgow ...| Dr. H. R. Mill, F.B.G-S. ......|H. N. Dickson (Rec.), E. Heawood,
G. Sandeman, A. C. Turner.

1902. Belfast...... Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.B. ...|G. G. Chisholm (Rec.), E. Heawood,
Dr. A. J. Herbertson, Dr. J. A.
Lindsay.

1903. Southport... |Capt. E. W. Creak, R.N., C.B.,|E. Heawood (fee.), Dr. A. J. Her-

ERS. bertson, EH. A. Reeves, Capt. J. C.

Underwood.

1904. Cambridge | Douglas W. Freshfield......... E. Heawood ( Rec.), Dr. A.J. Herbert-

son, H. Y. Oldham, E. A. Reeves.
1905. SouthAfrica|Adm. Sir W. J. L. Wharton,|A. H. Cornish-Bowden, F. Flowers,

R.N., K.C.B., F.R.S. Dr. A. J. Herbertson (Pec.), H. Y.
Oldham.
W062 York, ....3.. Rt. Hon. Sir George Goldie,|E. Heawood (Rec.), Dr. A. J. Her-
K.C.M.G., F.R.S. bertson, E. A. Reeves, G. Yeld.

1907. Leicester ...|George G. Chisholm, M.A. ...|E. Heawood (Rece.), O. J. R. How-
arth, E. A. Reeves, T. Walker.

1908. Dublin....., Major E. H. Hills, C.M.G.,|W. F. Bailey, W. J. Barton, O. J. R.
R.E. Howarth (Rec.), E. A. Reeves.

1909. Winnipeg... | Col. SirD. Johnston,K.C.M.G.,|G. G. Chisholm (fec.), J. McFar-
C.B., R.E. lane, A. McIntyre.

1910. Sheffield ...|Prof. A. J. Herbertson, M.A.,|Rev. W. J. Barton (ec.), Dr. RB.
Ph.D. Brown, J. McFarlane, KH. A. Reeves.

1911. Portsmouth |Col. C. F. Close, R.E., C.M.G.|J. McFarlane (Rec.), HE, A. Reeves,

W. P. Smith.

1912. Dundee ...,Col. Sir ©. M. Watson,|Rev. W. J. Barton (Rec.), J. McFar-

K.C.M.G. lane, E. A. Reeves, D. Wylie.

1913, Birmingham |Prof. H. N. Dickson, D.Sc. ...|Rev. W. J. Barton (Rec ), P. E. Mar-
tineau, J. McFarlane, E.A. Reeves.

SECTION F..—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

1901. Glasgow ... Sir R. Giffen, K.C.B., F.R.S. W. W. Blackie, A. L. Bowley, E.
| Cannan (itec.), 8. J. Chapman.

1902. Belfast ..,|E, Cannan, M.A., LL.D. ...... \A, L. Bowley (Rec.), Prof. 8. J.
| Chapman, Dr. A. Duffin.

5 Section E was that of ‘Anatomy and Medicine, 1835-1840; of ‘ Physiology ’
(afterwards incorporated in Section D), 1841-1847. It was assigned to ‘ Geography
and Ethnology,’ 1851-1868 ; ‘Geography, 1869.

§ « Statistics,’ 1835-1855.

XXV1

Date and Place |

1903

1904,

1905.

1906.

1907.

1908.

1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.

1913.

1901.

1902.
1903.

1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909,

1910.

1911

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13).

Southport

Cambridge

SouthAfrica

feneeeene

Leicester ...

Dublin

Winnipeg...
Sheffield ...
Portsmouth
Dundee

Birmingham

Glasgow ...

Belfast
Southport

Cambridge

SouthAfrica
Leicester ...
Dublin

Winnipeg...

Sheffield ..

. Portsmouth

a|brot J. Perry, WoRAS. sesdseces

Secretaries

Presidents (Rec. = Recorder)

KW. Brabrook, €.B:,. ..Sic:-.

A. L. Bowley (Rec.), Prof. S. J.
Chapman, Dr. B. W. Ginsburg, G.
Lloyd.

Prof. Wm. Smart, LL.D.......|J. E. Bidwell, A. L. Bowley (Rec.),

Prof. 8. J. Chapman, Dr. B. W.

| Ginsburg.

Rev. W. Cunningham, D.D.,|R.aAbabrelton, A. L. Bowley (Rec.),
D.Se. Prof. H. E. §. Fremantle, H. O.

Meredith.

A. Wu; Bowley; M.A. .......c0s: ‘Prof. 8. J. Chapman (Rec.), D. H.

Macgregor, H. O. Meredith, B.

S. Rowntree.

Prof. W. J. Ashley, M.A....... Prof. 8. J. Chapman (#ec.), D. H.
Macgregor, H. O. Meredith, T.S.
Taylor.

W. M. Acworth, M.A. ......... W.G. 8. Adams, Prof. 8. J. Chap-

man (fee.), Prof. D. H. Macgre-
gor, H. O. Meredith.
Sub-section of Agriculture— A. D. Hall, Prof. J. Percival, J. H.
Rt. Hon. Sir H. Plunkett. Priestley, Prof. J. Wilson.
Prof. S. J. Chapman, M.A. ... Prof. A. B. Clark, Dr. W. A. Mana-
han, Dr. W. R. Scott (Rec.).
Smith, C. R. Fay, H. O. Meredith (Rec.),
Dr. W. R. Scott, R. Wilson.
C. R. Fay, Dr. W. R. Scott (Rec.),
H, A, Stibbs.

Sir H. Llewellyn
K.C.B., M.A.
Hon. W. Pember Reeves

.| Sir H.H. Cunynghame, K.C.B. C. R. Fay, Dr. W. R. Scott (Rec.), E.

Tosh.

Rev. P. H. Wicksteed, M.A. ©. R. Fay, Prof, A. W. Kirkaldy,
Prof. H. O. Meredith, Dr. W. R.
Scott (Rec.).

SECTION G.’—ENGINEERING.

R. E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.E. |H. Bamford, W. E. Dalby, W. A. Price
| (Ree.).
|M. Barr, W. A. Price (ec.), J. Wylie.
..|Prof. W. E. Dalby, W. T. Maccall,
| W.A. Price (Rec.).
Hon. C. A. Parsons, F.R.S. ...|J. B. Peace, W.T. Maccall, W. A. Price
| (Ree.).
Col. Sir C. Scott-Moncrieff, W. 'T. ee B. Marshall (Rec.),
G.C.S.L, K.C.M.G., R.E. | Prof. H. Payne, E. Williams.
J AEWine HW Sc.cceccccseese W. T. Maccall, W. A. Price (Rec.),
| J. Triffit.
Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, |Prof. BE. G. Coker, A. C. Harris,
F.R.S. |_ W.A. Price (Ree.), H. E.Wimperis.
Dugald Clerk, F.R.S. ......... | Prof. E. G. Coker, Dr. W. E. Lilly,
: | W.A. Price (Ree.), H. E. Wimperis.
Sir W. H. White, K.C.B.,|E. E. Brydone-Jack, Prof. E. G.Coker,
E.RB.S. | Prof. E. W. Marchant, W. A. Price
(Rec.).
Prof. W. E. Dalby, M.A., F. Boulden, Prof. E. G. Coker (Ree.),
M.Inst.C.E. | A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.
Prof. J. H. Biles, LL.D., H. Ashley, Prof. E. G. Coker (Ree.),
D.Se. | A, A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.

C. Hawksley, M.Inst.C.H.

* «Mechanical Science,’ 1826-1900.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13). = xxvii

Date and Place | Presidents ( Ree. = Recorder
1912, Dundee ...| Prof, A. EES D. ae. Raessestacvael Prof. E. G. fae ae », A. R. Ful-

ton, H. Richardson, A. A. Rowse,
H. E. Wimperis.
1913. Birmingham | Prof. Gisbert Kapp, D.Eng.... Prof. E. G. Coker (tec.), J. Purser,
| A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.

SECTION H.*A—ANTHROPOLOGY.

1901. Glasgow ...|Prof. D. J. Cunningham, W. Crooke, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. F.
| ERS. Gemmill, J. L. Myres (Rec.).
1902. Belfast ... Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ... R. Campbell, Prof. A. F. Dixon
J. L. Myres (Rec.).
1903. Southport... Prof. J. Symington, F.R.S.... E. N. Fallaize, H. 8S. Kingsford,
E. M. Littler, J. L. Myres (Ree.).
1904. Cambridge A. Balfour, MCA.” .cccsecsdesess W. L. H. Duckworth, E. N. Fallaize,
H.S. Kingsford, J. iit Myres (Rec.).
1905. SouthAfrica Dr. A, C, Haddon, F.B.S. ... A. R. Brown, A. von Dessauer, E. S.
| Hartland (Rec.).
1906. York....:.<:. |E. Sidney Hartland, F.S.A.... Dr. G. A. Auden, E. N. Fallaize
(Rec.), H. 8. Kingsford, Dr. F, C.
Shrubsall.
1907. Leicester .. 'D. G. Hogarth, M.A............. C. J. Billson, E. N. Fallaize (Rec.),
H.S. Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrub-
| sall.
1908, Dublin ..... Prof. W. Ridgeway, M.A. ... E.N. Fallaize (#ec.), H. S. Kings-
| ford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, L. E.
i Steele.
1909. Winnipeg... Prof. J. L. Myres, M.A. ...... H. 8, Kingsford (Ree.), Prof. C. J.
| Patten, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
1910. Sheffield ... W. Crooke, B.A. ...........000. E. N. Fallaize (Rec.), H. 8. Kings-
ford, Prof. C. J. Patten, Dr. F.C.
Shrubsall.
1911. Portsmouth W. H. R. Rivers, M.D., F.R.S. E. N. Fallaize (Rec.), H. S. Kings-
ford, E. W. Martindell, H. Rundle,
Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
1912. Dundee ... Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S. D. D. Craig, E.N. Fallaize (Rec.), E.
W. Martindell, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
1913. Birmingham Sir Richard Temple, Bart. ... E. N. Fallaize (Rec.), E. W. Martin-
dell, Dr, F. C. Shrubsall, T. Yeates.

SECTION I.°—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExpERIMENTAL
PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsYCHOLOGY).
1901. Glasgow ... | Prof.J.G. McKendrick, F.R.S.|W. B. Brodie, W. A. Osborne, Prof.

W. H. Thompson (Rec.).
1902. Belfast ...|Prof. W. D. Halliburton, he Barcroft, Dr. W. A. Osborne

F.R.S. (Rec.), Dr. C. Shaw.
1904. Cambridge | Prof. C. 8. Sherrington, F.R.S.| J. Barcroft (Rec.), Prof. T. G. Brodie,
Dr. L. E. Shore.

1905. SouthAfrica} Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S....|J. Barcroft (Rec.), Dr. Baumann,
Dr. Mackenzie, Dr. G. W. Robert-
son, Dr. Stanwell.

8 Established 1884. § Established 1894.

XXvill PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13).

| Secretaries

| . |
Date and Place 2 Presidents | (Rec. = Recorder)

1906. York......... Prof, F. Gotch, F.R.S. vesseesee J. Barcroft (Rec.), Dr. J. M. Hamill,
| | Prof. J. 8. Maedonald, Dr. D. 8.
| | Long.

1907. Leicester ...|Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ...... Dr. N. H. Alcock, J. Barcroft (Ree.),
| Prof. J. S. Macdonald, Dr. A.
| Warner.

1908. Dublin...... Dr. J. Scott Haldane, F.R.S. Prof. D. J. Coffey, Dr. P. T. Herring,

Prof, J. S. Macdonald, Dr. H. E.
Roaf (Rec.).

1909. Winnipeg... , Prof. E. H. Starling, F.R.S.... Dr. N.H. Alcock (Ree.), Prof. P. T.

| Herring, Dr. W. Webster.

1910. Sheffield ... Prof, A. B. Macallum, F.R.S. Dr. H. G. M. Henry, Keith Lucas,

Dr. H. E. Roaf (#ec.), Dr. J. Tait.

1911. Portsmouth Prof. J. 8S. Macdonald, B.A. Dr. J. T. Leon, Dr, Keith Lucas,

Dr. H. E. Roaf (Ree.), Dr. J. Tait.

1912. Dundee ... lisconand 78 ORD Sl 5 Seescenence Dr. Keith Lucas, W. Moodie, Dr.
H. E. Roaf (Rec.), Dr. J. Tait.

1913. Birmingham Dr. F. Gowland Hopkins, C. L. Burt, Prof. P, T. Herring, Dr.

1901.

1902.
1903.
1904.

1905.
1906.

1907.
1908.

1909.

1910.

1911.

F.R.S. T. G. Maitland, Dr. H. E. Roaf
(itec.), Dr. J. Tait.

SECTION K.'°—BOTANY.

Glasgow ... Prof. I. B. Balfour, F.R.S. ... D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, G. F. Scott-
Elliot, A. C. Seward (Rec.), H
Wager.

Belfast ... Prof. J. R. Green, F.RS....... A. G. Tansley, Rev. C. H. Waddell,
H. Wager (fec.), R. H. Yapp.

Southport |A. C. Seward, F.R.S. ......... H. Ball, A. G. Tansley, H. Wager
(ftec,), R. H. Yapp.

Cambridge Francis Darwin, F.R.S. ...... Dr. F. F. Blackman, A. G. Tansley,

Sub-section of Agriculture— HH. Wager(Rec.), T. B. Wood, R. H.
Dr. W. Somerville. Yapp.

SouthAfrica Harold Wager, F.R.S. ......... R. P. Gregory, Dr. Marloth, Prof.
Pearson, Prof. R. H. Yapp (#ec.).

SViOnEG. coesnee Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S. ... Dr. A. Burtt, R. P. Gregory, Prof.
A. G. Tansley (fec.), Prof. R. H.
Yapp

Leicester... Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S. ... W. Bell, R. P. Gregory, Prof. A. G.
Tansley (fec.), Prof. R. H. Yapp.

Dublinve.-.. Dr. F. F. Blackman, F.R.S.... Prof. H. H. Dixon, R. P. Gregory,
A. G. Tansley (Aec.), Prof. R. H.

Yapp.
Winnipeg... Lieut.-Col. D. Prain, O.1E., Prof. A. H. R. Buller, Prof. D. T.
F.R.S. Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof, R. H.Yapp

Sub-section of Agriculture— (fec.).
Major P. G. Craigie, C.B. W.J. Black, Dr. E. J. Russell, Prof.
J. Wilson.
Sheffield ... Prof. J. W. H. Trail, F.R.S B.H. Bentley, R. P. Gregory, Prof.
D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof.
: R. H. Yapp (£ece.).
Portsmouth Prof. F. H. Weiss, D.Sc. ...... C. G. Delahunt, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan, Dr. C. E. Moss, Prof.
R. H. Yapp (fee.).
Sub-section of Agriculture— J. Golding, H. R. Pink, Dr. E. J.
W. Bateson, M.A., F.R.S. Russell.

‘0 Established 1895.

Date and Place |

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-18).

XX1x

es
Presidents

. Secretaries
(ee; = Recorder)

1912.

1913.

1901.

1902,

1903.

1904.

1905.
1906.
1907.

1908.

1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.

1913.

1912,

1913. Birmingham | Prof. T. B. Wood, M.A.

Dundee . | Prof. F, mechies DISC aseces:
Birmingham Miss Ethel Sargant, F.L.S....

sole eeceen Prof. (5 ate Gane

Vaughan (Rec.), Dr. C. E. Moss,
D. Thoday.

W. B. Grove, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan (fec.), Dr. C. E. Moss,
D. Thoday.

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

...) R. A, Gregory, W. M. Heller, R. Y.

Howie, C. W. Kimmins, Prof,
H. L. Withers (Rece,).

Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller
(Rec.), R. M. Jones, Dr. C. W,
Kimmins, Prof. H. L. Withers.

Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller
(Ree.), Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Dr. H.
L. Snape.

.|J. H. Flather, Prof. R. A. Gregory,

W. M. Heller (Rec.), Dr. C. W.
Kimmins,

A.D. Hall, Prof. Hele-Shaw, Dr. C. W.
Kimmins (fee.), J. R. Whitton.
Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Helier

(Rec.), Hugh Richardson.

W. D. Eggar, Prof. R. A. Gregory
(Ree.), J. S. Laver, Hugh Rich-
ardson.

Prof. E. P. Culverwell, W. D. Eggar,
George Fletcher, Prof. R. A.
Gregory (fec.), Hugh Richardson.

W. D. Eggar, R. Fletcher, J. L.
Holland (fec.), Hugh Richardson.

A. J. Armmold, W. D. Eggar, J. L.
Holland ( Ree.), Hugh Richardson.

W. D. Eggar, O. Freeman, J. L.
Holland (Rec.), Hugh Richardson.

D. Berridge, Dr. J. Davidson, Prof.
J. A. Green (Rec.), Hugh Richard-

son.

E. H. Griffiths,)D. Berridge, Rev. S. Blofeld, Prof.

J. A. Green (Rec.), H. Richard-
son.

Glasgow ...|Sir John E. Gorst, F.R.S.
Belfast .| Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.
Southport ..|Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.
Cambridge | Bishop of Hereford, D.D.
SouthAfrica| Prof. Sir R. C. Jebb, D.C.L.,
M.P.
Work cccevec | Prof, M. E. Sadler, LL.D. ...
Leicester ...|Sir Philip Magnus, M.P. .....
Dublin ...... Prof. L. C. Miall, ¥.R.S: ......
Winnipeg...| Rev. H. B. Gray, D.D.......
Sheffield ...| Principal H. A. Miers, F.R.S.
Portsmouth | Rt. Rev. J. E. C. Welldon,
D.D.
Dundee ...| Prof. J. Adams, M.A. ......
Birmingham Principal
| E.RS.
SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE.
Dundee .,./T. H. Middleton, M.A........

..|Dr. C. Crowther, J. Golding, Dr. A.

Lauder, Dr. E. J. Russell (ec.).
W. E. Collinge, Dr. C. Crowther,
| J. Golding, Dr. E. J. Russell (Rec.).

XXX CHAIRMEN AND SECRETARIES OF CONFERENCES OF DELEGATES.

CHAIRMEN anp SECRETARIES or tae CONFERENCES OF
DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 1901-14.!

Date and Place Chairmen Secretaries
1901. Glasgow ... F. W. Rudler, F.G.S. .......... Dr. J. G. Garson, A. Somerville.
1902 Belfast...... Prof. W. W. Watts, F.G.S. ... E. J. Bles.
1903. Southport.. W. Whitaker, F.R.S. ......... F. W. Rudler.

1904. Cambridge Prof. E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S. EF. W. Rudler.
1905. London ... Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F. W. Rudler.

F.R.S.
1906. York......... Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B.... F. W. Rudler.
1907. Leicester... H. J. Mackinder, M.A.......... F. W. Rudler, 1.8.0.
1908. Dublin ...... Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S....... W. P. D. Stebbing.
1909. London ... Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ... W. P. D. Stebbing.
1910. Sheffield ... Dr. Tempest Anderson......... W. P. D. Stebbing.
191: Portsmouth Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S..... W. P. D. Stebbing.

1912. Dundee ... Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. ..1W. P. D. Stebbing.

1913. Birmingham Dr. P. Chalmers ee P. D. Stebbing.
F.R.S.

1914. Le Havre... Sir H. George Fordham ... Iw. Mark Webb.

EVENING DISCOURSES, 1901-1914.

Date and Place Lecturer | Subject of Discourse
1901. Glasgow ... Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S........ The Inert Constituents of the
| Atmosphere.
Francis Darwin, F.R.S. ...... The Movements of Plants.

1902. Belfast ... Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S..... Becquerel Rays and Radio-activity.
Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S. Inheritance.

1903. Southport... Dr. R. Munro .............0000+ ‘Man as Artist and Sportsman in the
| Palzolithic Period.
Dr. As ROW. .csdevccecccesowacss The Old Chalk Sea, and some of its
Teachings.
1904. Cambridge Prof.G. H. Darwin, F.R.S.... Ripple-Marks and Sand-Dunes.
Prof. H. F. Osborn ............ Paleontological Discoveries in the
1905. South Rocky Mountains.
Africa: |
Cape Town ... Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S.... W. J. Burchell’s Discoveries in South
Africa.
lo. Vernon Boys, F.R.S. ...... Some Surface Actions of Fluids.
Durban ..., Douglas W. Freshfield......... 'The Mountains of the Old World.

| Prof. W. A. Herdman, F¥.R.S. Marine Biology.
Pietermaritz- Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S.... Sleeping Sickness.

burg. jal, UE LS Oe nee Accopptodanancceo The Cruise of the ‘ Discovery.’

Johannesburg Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S.... The Distribution of Power.
Prof. J. O. Arnold............... Steel as an Igneous Rock.

Pretoria ... A. E. Shipley, F.R.S. ......... Fly-borne Diseases: Malaria, Sleep-
| ing Sickness, &c.

Bloemfontein... A. R. Hinks .........csceeeeeeeee The Milky Way and the Clouds of
| Magellan.

Kimberley... Sir Wm. Crookes, F.R.S........ Diamonds.

: [Profisds es POnsen..st>.-scecons 'The Bearing of Engineering on

| Mining.

Bulawayo’ ._...._D. Randall-Maclver............ The Ruins of Rhodesia.

1 Established 1885.

1906,
1907.

1908.
1909.

Date and Place Lecturer

Wii eareaqaen Dr. Tempest Reena asaleccees
Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ....

Leicester ...| W. Duddell, F.R.S. ............
Drs WAS DIXCY cavcseccossacneges

Dublin’ ....:3 Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. ...
Prof We Wis Davis *2.52-c--5c8

Winnipeg...|Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.B.S....
Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.
1 Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.... |
1 Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.

Sheffield ...| Prof. W. Stirling, M.D. ......

1910.
1911.

1912.
1913.

1914.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

XxXxl1

Subject of Discourse

'D. G. Hogarth

Portsmouth Dr. Leonard Hill, F.R.S.......

Dundee

Birmingham

Australia :
Adelaide

Melbourne
Sydney ...

Brisbane

| Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S. ...
.| Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S. ...

Prof. A. Keith, M.D.............
Sir H. H. Cunynghame, K.C.B.

Dr. A. Smith Woodward,
K.-S:

Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S....
Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ..
Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S ...
Dr. F. W. Dyson, F.R.S. ..
Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S.
Sir E. Rutherford, F.R.S.

Prof. H, E. Armstrong, F.R.
Prof. G. W. O. Howe

Pet eee eee

aiesanes

-|The Electrical Signs of Life, and
their Abolition by Chloroform.

The Ark and the Spark in Radio-
telegraphy.

Recent Developments in the Theory
of Mimicry.

Halley’s Comet.

The Lessons of the Colorado Canyon.

The Seven Styles of Crystal Archi-
tecture.

Our Food from the Waters.

The Chemistry of Flame.

The Pressure of Light.

Types of Animal Movement.”

‘New Discoveries about the Hittites.

The Physiology of Submarine Work.

Links with the Past in the Plant
World.

Radiations Old and New.

‘The Antiquity of Man.

Explosions in Mines and the Means
of Preventing them,
Missing Links among

Animals,

Extinct

The Ether of Space.

. Ancient Hunters.

Mimicry.

.|Greenwich Observatory.

Primitive Man.

.|Atoms and Electrons.
S.|The Materials of Life.

Wireless Telegraphy.

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

Subject of Lecture

1901.

1902.
1903.

1904.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1910.
1911.

Glasgow

Belfast
Southport...

Cambridge..
Viork'..<<caes
Dublin
Sheffield ...

Portsmouth | Dr. H. R. Mill

...|H. J. Mackinder, M.A..........

Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ..
Drie Sa WUletihy ccaccestcdeswasns
Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S. .

Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F. RS.
.| Prof. H. A. Miers, F.RB.S...
Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.RS.
C. T. Heycock, F.R.S. ...

stew eee e eee enseee

aK Popular Lectures,’ delivered to the citizens of Winnipeg.

The Movements of Men - Tene
and Sea.

..|Gnats and Mosquitoes.

Martinique and St. Vincent:
Eruptions of 1902.

./ The Forms of Mountains.

The Manufacture of Light.

.|The Growth of a Crystal.

The Crystallisation of Water.

the

.| Metallic Alloys.
| Rain.

2 Repeated, to the public, on Wednesday, September 7.

XXxXll

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

PUBLIC OR CITIZENS’ LECTURES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

Subject of Lecture

1912. Dundee

1913. Birmingham

1914. Australia:
Perth

Adelaide
Melbourne

Sydney ...

Brisbane

.. Prof. B. Moore, D.Sc. .........

Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.

Prof. A. Fowler, F.R.S. ......
Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ...
Dr. Vaughan Cornish .........
Leonard Doncaster, M.A.

| Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S. .
|Frederick Soddy, F.R.S.......

...| Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.

Prof, A. 8. Eddington, F.R.S.
I; Balfour, WvisA 5 cesccecss cose
Prof. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ...

iC. A. Buckmaster, M.A. ......
Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.

Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S. ...
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. ..
Prof, B. Moore, F.R.S..........
Prof. H. H. Turner, P.R.S. ...
Dr, A. ©. Haddon, F.R.S.

Science and National Health.

| Prices and Wages.

'The Sun.

The Decorative Art of Savages.
;The Panama Canal.

..| Recent Work on Heredity and its

Application to Man.

..|Metals under the Microscope.

|Tbe Evolution of Matter,

Why we Investigate the Ocean.

Stars and their Movements.

Primitive Methods of Making Fire.

Electrical Action of the Human
Heart.

Mining Education in England.

Saving and Spending.

Making of a Big Gun.

.| Explosions.

Brown Earth and Bright Sunshine.
Comets.

.| Decorative Art in Papua.

GRAN(S

MONEY.

XXX111

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes, 1901-1913.

1901.
Pianta.
Electrical Standards ......... 45 0
Seismological Observations... 75 0
Wave-length Tables............ 414
Isomorphous Sulphonic De-

rivatives of Benzene ...... 35 (0
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 20 0
Underground Water of North-

west Yorkshire ............... 50 0
Exploration of Irish Caves... 15 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

1100; Naples «..2..20sc.+2cs0e. 100 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0
Index Generum et Specierum

init se 6106 Bo pespeee peep ono: oo 75 0
Migration of Birds ............ 10 0
Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 5 O
Changes of Land-level in the

Phlegrzan Fields............ 50 O
Legislation regulating Wo-

THEM SAD OUT cece: saseassacse 15 0
Smail Screw Gauge............ 45 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles

HOMEPACTIONG wtanscep accueil 75 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 10 0
Ethnological Survey of

AACA fe didesc tolcacdnmaeenetes 30 0
Anthropological Teaching ... 5 0
Exploration in Crete ......... 145 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-

iNDINE eA > jdeeeenacnasacedesusddarecn 30 0
Chemistry of Bone Marrow... 5 151
Suprarenal Capsules in the

PMs reiede ccciowss <cney once DL On, 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 15 0 0
Morphology, Ecology, and

Taxonomy of Podoste-

EAGER erscslachscitevineseinaaesece 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

BMT Eateries aplelarnis elses jee Ia 5 15 0 0

£920 9 11
1902.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Seismological Observations... 35 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

BIOS) Foc cwatassstaleeeceae aces + 75 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

BTETIG:. vcavuee siden demars.cbelicssewe 80 0 0
Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Organic Sub-

UICOS Rl on canara ce css dcaiinne sis 20 0 0

1914.

a=) ooo oo oo o ooo i=) lo) oo o i=) ooo

£83. ds
Wave-length Tables............ Ey Oe)
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 10 0 0
Exploration of Irish Caves... 45 0 0
Table at the Zoological

Station, Naples ............... ACOLO MM COP" C0)
Index Generum et Specierum

AMIMALIMIN sexes saeesess <t os¥ee 100 0 O
Migration of Birds ............ 16 0.0
Structure of Coral Reefs of

Indian Ocean..............+.: 50 0 0
Compound Ascidians of the

Olyde: Areas<.ssiccaactessa senses 25 0.0
Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 15 0 OQ
Legislation regulating Wo-

MEN(SMOADOUI ewe rne oct ese eee BORON O
Small Screw Gauge ............ 20 0 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles

LOMUPACHION.. wenn -ecaesesearehn. 50 0 O
Ethnological Survey of

Canadat tates cctsiscss senses Ide On 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0
Exploration in Crete............ 100 0 0
Anthropometric Investigation

of Native Egyptian Soldiers 15 0 0
Excavations on the Roman

Site at Gelligaer ............ a0) 0
Changes in Hemoglobin ..... Lae (OO)
Work of Mammalian Heart

under Influence of Drugs... 20 0 0

| Investigation of the Cyano-
le gps. COR Paw. ccstantroctere tec LOMO)» .0
Reciprocal Influence of Uni-

versities and Schools ...... Di Oe O
Conditions of Health essen-

tial to carrying on Work in

DEHOOIS igen. Geetncatsnekaces 2 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MAUL ERs sen nteih cateees hiss san. DO OeO

£947 G 0
1903.
Electrical Standards............ 35 9 6
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

ISTHOS Wiecar ance fannewevee ss sues 75 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

MOULIN ai datstestesctatelee echeatehcweore is 40 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

BUANCESIN aweienaa site ecient siege 20 0 0
Erratic Blocks .................. LOMFOMRO
Exploration of Irish Caves... 40 0 0
Underground Watersof North-

west Yorkshire ............... 40 0 6

XXX1V

ese
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 5 0
Geological Photographs ...... 10 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples .............. 100 O
Index Generum et Specierum

AniIMAlMM ye ssnceeseasccnashs 100 O
Tidal Bore, Sea Waves, and

IBGACHES Guest ressanuctipencenes 15 0
Scottish National Antarctic

HxXpeditionycecsecssassesecssse 50 0
Legislation affecting Women’s

Mia OUT ene ieaeectectaneeenit are OM)
Researches in Crete ............ 100 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 3.13
Anthropometric Investigation 5 0
Anthropometry of the Todas

and other Tribes of Southern

MACE vais seems sot soeseiancenee es 50 0
The State of Solution of Pro-

DEIGS ses essacatasssassescvesetensi’s 20 0
Investigation of the Cyano-

DU. COLe wane qasasceascectsesesne 25 0
Respiration of Plants ......... 12 0
Conditions of Health essential

for School {Instruction ...... 5 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

AUWODEC le sie vaste ous eantireensis e's 20 0

£845 13
1904.
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

IKGGOS Rc sities eine costonseedcvencee 50 0 O
Magnetic Observations at

Halmouthigirsncrs ce oeheeeste 60 0 0
Wave-lengthTablesof Spectra 10 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

SUNS! pegsgonddassosoconboccce 25 0 0
Mirrabic BLOCKS eresss se sceceneve 10 0 0
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 35 0 0
Fauna and Flora of the

EBENE! -enedonccosadcaGobGnuera tas 10 0 0
Investigation of Fossiliferous

DIL tS cscesvieencauveenseseeret 50 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

iON; NAPLES yin rmesecseciestestls 100 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum

Amimallimml.spapeestss sees srile 60 0 0
Development in the Frog...... 15 0 0
Researches on the Higher

Crustacea, cicaecseecemeceoe er 15 0 0
British and Foreign Statistics

of International Trade...... 25 0 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles

to Traction... .<....:0s0s0 » eae = 90 0) 10
Researches in Crete ............ 100 0 0
Researches in Glastonbury

25 0 0

Lake Village

SHOSS Ste) Ss ey Ss) joo)

|
|
|
|

|
|
|

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ os. d
Anthropometric Investigation
of Egyptian Troops ......... 810 0
Excavations on Roman Sites
UA BUUGATNG s maeeewne ee aeeeas 25 0-0
The State of Solution of Pro-
MELO? a5, pacmasctcenteuetemeaesties 200 0
Metabolism of Individual
|. SUNSSUCE? scrnccestaccewsonpimecetts AQ. (0
Botanical Photographs......... te Sl
Respiration of Plants... ........ 15 0 0
Experimental Studies in
Heredity,.-+.--:aseescstaessaente 35 0 O
Corresponding Societies Com-
MNIUSCEZascacense emcees eee seseeee 20 0 0
£887 eos!
1905.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0O
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
Ratesitcsstcetsveccussesieasanaee 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-
ILOUWUE apn cievecseuceesre te aanee 50 0 O
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
LUA iehre cieiesisee smcien seston tema eame eee Os 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic
Substances ............ agen 25 0 0
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 20 0 0
Aromatic Nitroamines ......... 25 0 0
Faunaand Flora of the British
WIELAS! @ an salreictioe es ei euesetpeasaas 10 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples ....... Seeneysne! 100 0 O
Index Generum et Specierum
ATAUIN ALIN Mrwtecssetanesitdee cls 75 0 0
Development of the Frog 10 0 0
| Investigations in the Indian
(OSI soriodaasragaondorenercee- 150 0 0
Trade Statistics ...........2:.00++ 4 4 8
Researches in Crete ..........-- fre0.0
Anthropometric Investiga-
tions of Egyptian Troops... 10 0 0
Excavations on Roman Sites
Thal 1S, ieBO ae = Qearp tr oo aoacaOCMIeC LOr0 >'O
AnthropometricInvestigations 10 0 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0
The State of Solution of Pro-
GEUAS Meese avewanaatcceeseeitea skis > 20 0 0
Metabolism of Individual
SUNSENHES) sear cgootgne: Nasnoncepee 30 0 0
Ductless Glands........0...0006 a, 4050-0
Botanical Photographs......... 317 6
Physiology of Heredity......... 35 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants 50 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
PIMULEE a eomdenae sWadesieiiontacte 20 0 0
£928 2 2

GRANTS OF MONEY.

1906.
£ sd.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

CEO) Ti CN Oe ane ee ae 50 0 0
Magnetic Survey of South

PMERIOGHY cs seeterees sts ieadaccaves te 99:12 6
Wave-length Tablesof Spectra 5 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

BANOS. are cadazntes eh ccoren dee: 25 0: 0
Aromatic Nitroamines ......... 10 0 0
Faunaand Flora of the British

BEVIS ceo Soll, PN 7 811
Crystalline Rocksof Anglesey 30 0
Table at the Zoological Sta

tion, Naples 42... 4 .ccivessees 100 0
Index Animalium ............... 75 0
Development of the Frog...... 10 0
aeher Crustacea, .......cc...0+5 To=0
Freshwater Fishes of South

EAT EIICE esas a is a ps 50 0
Rainfall and Lake and River

WISCUBTOS NS .leccnce. eee: 10 0
Excavations in Crete ......... 100 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 40 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

GIGLI Bescc.ccetoneereee ces 30 0
Anthropometric _Investiga-

tions in the British Isles... 30 0
State of Solution of Proteids 20 0
Metabolism of Individual

PRISHUCH Ue casitesen cet s eee. 20 O
Effect of Climate upon Health

PUNGDISCASE,.cscet.ccscacceveek 20 0
Research on South African

SAIGELG Cha senderrneaccoceeeco Bare 14 19
Peat Moss Deposits .,.......... 25 0
Studies suitable for Elemen-

Rear SCHOOIS' “ists. sescesace sree 5 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MLULCOMS cess recere coerce eae 25 O

£882 0
1907.
Electrical Standards ......... 50 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Z

Halmionth 21.1 ee 8 eS 40 0 0
Magnetic Survey of South

PRETO Dresses tee ees eee ae Zor eG
Wave-length Tables of

RIPCCLIAN IEE sents peered 10 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic

Substances .........6.c1cccedeees 30 0
Dynamic Isomerism............ 30 0
Life Zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 10 O
Hrratic Blocks’ .\............. Pee kOL EO
Fauna and Flora of Britis

LEER Aint an aed a 10 0
Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone of

South-West England ...... 15 0 0

Correlation and Age of South
African Strata, &c. .........
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ........,..0608
Index Animalium
Development of the Sexual
Cells? =i acbsscsscedecscaaceaeons
Oscillations of the Land Level
in the Mediterranean Basin
Gold Coinage in Circulation
in the United Kingdom .
Anthropometric _Investiga-
tions in the British Isles...
Metabolism of Individual
TASSUCES Fecssscadedsestsreresteek
The Ductless Glands
Effect of Climate upon Health
and Disease ...... scs.csseese
Physiology of Heredity
Research on South African
Oyeads, 8 ka tees tee oee eee
Botanical Photographs.....,...
Structure of Fossil Plants .
Marsh Vegetation.............08
| Corresponding Societies Com-
( SCMILLEG yas asheateedesenvae acres =

wee eeoeee

1908.

Seismological Observations ...
Further Tabulation of Bessel
Wunchionsyste.ss ee
Investigation of Upper Atmo-
sphere by means of Kites...
Meteorological Observations
On: BenwNeviss cess. tenets eececs

Wave-length Tables of Spectra
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
BUANCES, 220.3. shesek tit cetsecties
Dynamic Isomerism ............
Transformation of Aromatic
| Nitroamines
| Erratic Blocks ...........c..000.
Fauna and Flora of British
ETIAS! RA ee nee ak S|
Faunal Succession in the Car-
boniferous Limestone in the
British Isles

Pree e se eeeesseee

| Exact Significance of Local
EMMIS teeta ceceseet eee ace
|p MEROCKS anes terme bettas Sly om
Table at the Zoological Station
AWINaplesietctacdsesccescddces
Index Animalium ...............
Hereditary Experiments ......
Fauna of Lakes of Central
Tasmanialss sieves etessesccese

| Investigations in the Indian
Ocean

BORO ee tener ween eeeeeseees

XXXV
£ §. @.
10 0 0
100 0 0
75° 0 0

Eas °§
50 0 0

Sulgh y
LOX OO
45 0 0
25 0 0
55 0 0
3070' 0
35° 0 0

bYt0'"-0

BO! 0
15 On <0
16 14 1

bo
S
(=)
oo oo ooo o So °o

ee
on

—
(on)

i
S
o

o l=) ooo o (=) oo

£757 12 10

o ao (—j—) = =) fm] i=) i)

So o ooo So [) oo

XXXV1

GS santls
Exploration in Spitsbergen... 30 0 0
Gold Coinage in Circulation

in the United Kingdom...... Bee ((as]
Electrical Standards ......... 50 0 O
Glastonbury Lake Village ... 30 0 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

MH WGAIM Yoieeny eeeeveetes tes cs 15 0 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 50 0 0
Anthropological Notes and

QUGHICS MES Ast scscescesasssuere 40 0 O
Metabolism of Individual

MASSUES Ve arcnncewi cose sc ancseee on 40 0
The Ductless Glands............ 13 14
Effect of Climate upon Health

and DiSasery. «sce cveoasccossus 35 0 OU
Body Metabolism in Cancer... 30 0 0

_Electrical Phenomena and

Metabolism of Arum Spa-

CRORE scene cse fomaadsctue ose 10 0 O
Marsh Vegetation ............... 1 0 0
Succession of Plant Remains 18 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MULE ER ss voacchen Pett anaetgo a 25 0 0

£1,157 1 8
1909.
Seismological Observations .. 60 0
Investigation of the Upper At-

mosphere bymeansof Kites 10 0
Magnetic Observations at

Halmouthy \ciscscscsssstvercae 50 O
Establishing a Solar Ob-

servatory in Australia..... . 50 0
Wave-length Tablesof Spectra 9 16
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

SUANCESM ins cd «de sos oausae'eetoee 15 0
Dynamic Isomerism............ 35 (0
Transformation of Aromatic

NitroaMInes’ <2 .c.ccccs+..ceces 10 0
Electroanalysis ...........0.0000+ 30 0
Fauna and Flora of British

IETIAB rvs aeskendecdvessbaaeeane 8 0
Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone in the

Britishvlsles ey csseescecscee sci 8 0
Paleozoic Rocks of Wales and

the West of England ...... 50
Igneous and Associated Sedi-

mentary Rocks of Glensaul 11 13
Investigations at Biskra ...... 50 0
Table at the Zoological Station

at Naples: 0. ..5:cc-ssessueetes 100 0
Heredity Experiments......... 10 0
Feeding Habits of British

Binds! yos-.cc-cisesusessneemeneene 5 0
Index Animalium............... 75 (0
Investigations in the Indian

OCCA ie eaccscacsineaesscaaneenree 35 (OO
Gaseous Explosions ............ 75 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

ANGE MEAINY oes. scceyvecace settee 5 0

{=I =} oo oo i=) (=) o

i) oo oo oo ow o So

GENERAL STATEMENT.

mes db
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0
Researches in Crete............ 70 0 0
The Ductless Glands ......... 30 9 0
Electrical Phenomenaand Me-

tabolism of Avwm Syadices 10 0 O

Reflex Muscular Rhythm...... 10.6 0
| Amsesthetics ....ccsscscescccecsee Zo ea0' -'O
Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 27 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 5 0 0
Botanical Photographs......... 10°410..0
Experimental Study of

Heredity:..2ss.-- stsssensceseee 30 0 0
Symbiosis between Tur-

bellarian Worms and Alge 10 0 O
Survey of Clare Island......... 65 0 0
CurriculaofSecondary Schools 5 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MULHEC!.<sa3.c.ceuscorsacheeeeae AL20-.0

£1,014 9 9
1910.
Measurement of Geodetic Arc

If) SOMbM ALTICA, tes sae eye as 100 0 0
Republication of Electrical

Standards Reports ......... 100 0 0
Seismological Observations... 60 0 0
Magnetic Observations at

Halmonth\ccccseespe=ss arses 25 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

AGMOSPhELe) cass eve nee eeee 25 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

RUAN CES iercnccuccvse conc ne ones 25 0 0
Dynamic Isomerism............ 35 0 0
Transformation of Aromatic

Nitroamines ...........-.0.+0. 15 0 0
Electroanalysis .........sse.cs0es 10,720-- 0
Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone in the

British Isles /..0.<,csicsvesete 10 30, 0
South African Strata ......... a0). .0
Fossils of Midland Coalfields 25 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples ............... 100 0 0
Index Animalium............... Tor0? 0
Heredity Experiments ......... LBeA0) <0
Feeding Habits of British

BItOSy wea pge eos oucemanenseenseas« 5 0 0
Amount and Distribution of

TNCOME sjevwcencescateonzeny sons baa 0: 0
Gaseous Explosions ............ 7% 0 0
Lake Villages in the neigh-

bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 0 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

AD BILAN, os sascsses- dees Breen eae ag)
Neolithic Sites in Northern

GRECCE Pere reaneedieceee essen ee d..0 0
The Ductless Glands ... 40 0 0
Body Metabolismin Cancer... 20 0 0
Angesthetics ..........cccscesees 25 0 0
Tissue Metabolism ............ 25 0 0
Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 18 17 0
Electromotive Phenomena in

IRIAN oiccesat sects oe dar sanscaes 10 0 0

GRANIS OF MONEY.

£ s. ad.
Structure of Fossil Plants 10 0 0
Experimental Study of

HEredity. 0.22. .cscceteseedeceee 30.020
Survey of Clare Island......... 30 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

HEMLUCR oc ocddccsretessesses tees 20 0 0

£963 17 O
Le putl-
Seismological Investigations 60 9 0
Magnetic Observations at

VATIMOUGD (cn sicsneswesieaanaced an 25, 110) 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere ...........sseeeee 25 0 0
Grant to International Com-

mission on [Physical and

Chemical Constants ......... 30 0. 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

SiTPMOTSE AcaBee poses cer coseac can 20 0 9
Dynamic Isomerism............ 25 (0, 0
Transformation of Aromatic

INJETOAMINES <2. ...060 bene aee 15 0 0
Electroanalysis .................. 15 0 0
Influence of Carbon, &c., on

Corrosion of Steel............ 15: 10» 0
Crystalline Rocksof Anglesey 2 0 O
Mammalian Fauna in Miocene

Deposits, Bugti Hills, Balu-

ERIS GA DIG Paemn cee nacs ac seecloaseas 12), 0an0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples ............0. 100 0 O
Index Animalium ............... ones 10
Feeding Habits of British

[TINGS ” Saaeepesecc Seer pee rEeReCS BewiOe 0
Belmullet Whaling Station... 30 0 0
Map of Prince Charles Fore-

| FUG Ser aasgerbeg saan adeacdcrengd 30 0 0
Gaseous Explosions .......... 90 0 0
Lake Villages in the neigh-

bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 O O
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0
Artificial Islands in Highland

HOO CUS: csevtacddachesssncessonses 10 0 0
The Ductless Glands............ 40 0 0
Anesthetics ........ Ween ehats PAVE NO} 0;
Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 25 0 0
Electromotive Phenomena in

ANUS) oc-5cdvh seenasceeccscses 10 0 O
Dissociation of Oxy-Hzmo-

PRO OIMN yee vies recs sacinwchabaca veces 25 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15 0 0
Experimental Study of

PRET EOE peewee ctoscacocavesces 45 0 0
Survey of Clare Island......... ZO) 50°10
Registration of Botanical

PHOLOBTADUS wr. csescecetcoeses 10 0 0
Mental and Physical Factors

involved in Education ...... 10 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

PENCCE sna deere Saltoses hia ceweasaces 20 0 0

oy-0

£922

XXXVll

1912.
Lin Sa. Cs
Seismological Investigations 60 0 0
| Magnetic Observations at
eee OLMOUL NE crecccate msn sen nas 25 0 O
Investigation ‘of the Upper
Atmosphere roeniseoa. woeebur 30 0 0
_ Grant to International Com-
mission on Physical and
Chemical Constants......... 30 0 ,0
Further Tabulation of Bessel
OTIC MON Sirecmse snore eesnee To. 0.40
Study of Hydro-aromatic
SUbstanceS.......s2.0.cs000 von 20) 0) 20
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 30 0 0
Transformation of Aromatic
NiltrOamiNeS teers. cece itoctilen 100720
Hlectroanalysis ..........2.se+008 10° 0" 0
Study of Plant Enzymes...... 30 0 0
Erratic Blocks .........000ss+00e 5 0 0
Igneous and Associated Rocks
Of Glensaul, &C...ccccs.0.nerle Tals0% 0
List of Characteristic Fossils 5 01, 0
| Sutton Bone Bed ..............- Tay O50
Bembridge Limestone at
Creechbarrow Hill ......... 20 0 O
Table at the Zoological
Station at Naples ............ 50 0 O
Index Animalium............... 75 0 20
| Belmullet Whaling Station... 20 0 0
| Secondary Sexual Characters
iy ITS \eriswjeedeselesnccote sess 10 0 O
Gaseous Explosions ............ 60 0 0
Lake Villages in the neigh-
bourhood of Glaston-
OLIN conbe sbeSccuHasegr i Soee nae a0) 10
Artificial Islands in High-
Tang WOCHSHe..cnsse=ssenercenes 10 0 O
Physical Character of Ancient
Moy PUAN es sect ssesccee cscs 40 0 0
Excavation in Easter Island 15 0 0
_ The Ductless Glands ......... Doe Ons
Jalorimetric Observations on
WICK Cage ne cnerice aang. SaaaaaceboaS 40 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15 0 0
Experimental Study of
LCREOLGVacseeseccoresnegsied ss sc 35 0 0
Survey of Clare Island......... 20 0 O
Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire 15wsORLO
Overlapping between Second-
ary and ery Educa-
HOM sawaisv see acesinase tine sen cee 1UEL Se 1G
Curricula, Key of Industrial
and Poor Law Schools...... 10 0 0
Influence of School Books
upon Eyesight ...........+6++ 3)
Corresponding Societies Com-
NTC HES Ceaecenee etlecenis sisnice snes 250) 0
Collections illustrating
Natural History of Isle of
Wil Gbitiveecn swan cdteccenslonsidesies 40 0 0
£845 7 6

XXXV1l1

1913.

Seismological Investigations 130

Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere ....... sansecuar re
International Committee on
Physical and Chemical
Constants
Calculation of Mathematical

Disposal of Copies of the
‘Binary Canon ’

Study of Hydro-aromatic
SUpDStances "sl...c.0scenecees :
Dynamic Isomerism......... eee

Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines ............... eee
Study of Plant Enzymes......
Correlation of Crystalline
Form with Molecular Struc-
TPENS) | Sacincasascseaasaosabaeegn5
Study of Solubility Pheno-
mena
List of Characteristic Fossils
Geology of Ramsey Island ...
Fauna and Flora of Trias of
Western Midlands
Critical Sections in Lower
Paleozoic Rocks :
Belmullet Whaling Station...
Nomenclature Animalium
Genera et Sub-genera
Antarctic Whaling Industry
Maps for School and Univer-
BIbY USC spccncrsStteetsescasrest
Gaseous Explosions............
Stress Distributions in Engi-
neering Materials............

eee newer e meer e en eee ene eee

wee eewene

s. d.
0 0
0 0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

oo oo o o (=)

So oo oo oo [o) ooo (=)

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£1,086 16

LP ss
Lake Villages in the Neigh-
bourhood of Glaston-
DUR aes ertveaas dsnamtersaress ene 20 0
| Age of Stone Circles ........ 20 0
Artificial Islands in the High-
lands of Scotland ............ 5 0
| Excavations on Roman Sites
INUATHANI seas cectateccseeceeee 20 O
Anthropometric _Investiga-
tions in Cyprus ............ 50 0
Palzolithic Site in Jersey... 50 0
The Ductless Glands ......... 35 0
Calorimetric Observations on
Man sc ssacctacetosccuterccsctie: 40 0
Structure and Function of the
Mammalian Heart ......... 30 0
Binocular Combination of
| Kinematograph Pictures... 0 17
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15 0
Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire 5 0
Flora of the Peat of the
Kennet Valley -vca.sasccsesr 15 0
Vegetation of Ditcham Park 14 4
Physiology of Heredity ...... 30 0
Breeding Experiments with
(notheras ..... Sia Ce etowtte LOL
Mental and Physical Fac-
tors involved in Educa-
GION Hasse eos oe eee eee 20 0
Influence of School Books on
Hyesight...... Snonseepreoodcso: 2 8
Character, Work, and Main-
tenance of Museums......... 10 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
MNILHCE. . costes ccveteeccomtereee 25 0

N
:

uc See ss eoowee om oc

He 1 O o eo

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XXX1X

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1913-14.

I. The Council have to record their profound sorrow at the death of
Sir David Gill, F.R.S., ex-President, The following resolution was
conveyed to Lady Gill by the President :—

‘The Council deeply regret the death of their late distinguished
President, Sir David Gill, whose personality was so widely
appreciated, and whose work for Astronomy at the Cape
Observatory elevated it to the first rank; and they empower
the Officers to convey to Lady Gill and his family their
profound sympathy. ©

Il. Prorzessor A. Scuuster, F.R.S., has been unanimously nomi-
nated by the Council to fill the office of President of the Association
for 1915-16 (Manchester Meeting),

III. Carrp Funp.—(a) Resolutions referred by the General
Committee to the Council for consideration and, if desirable, for action,
were dealt with as follows :—

(1) ‘ That the Council be asked to appoint a Committee to carry
out the request of Sir J. K. Caird in his letter of
September 10 (viz., that his further gift of £1,000 be ear-
marked for the study of Radio-Activity as a branch of Geo-
Physics).’

It was resolved to appoint the following Committee to carry out the
above request: The President and General Officers, Sir E. Rutherford,
Mr. F. Soddy, and Sir J. J, Thomson. The Committee was empowered
to add to its number and to modify the condition attaching to the above
gift, subject to the approval of Sir J. K. Caird.

(2) ‘ That the request of Section A (Mathematics and Physics)
for a grant from the Caird Fund of £500 for Radio-telegraphic
investigations be sent to the Council for consideration and
action.’

It was resolved that the above request be granted, and that the
General Treasurer be empowered to pay the sum named to the Chairman
of the Committee appointed to conduct the said investigations.

(3) ‘ That a grant of £100 for the coming year be made to the
Committee on the Naples Table from the Caird Fund, and
that the Council! be requested to consider the advisability of
endowing the Committee by a capital sum yielding an annual
income of £100.’

It was resolved that a grant of £100 for the coming year be made
to the Committee on the Naples Table from the Caird Fund, and that
a grant of £100 be made annually in future to the Committee, subject
to the adoption of its annual report.

xl REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

(4) ‘ That a grant of £100 for the coming year be made to the
Committee on Seismological Investigations from the Caird
Fund, and that the Council be asked to consider the
advisability of endowing the Committee by a capital sum
yielding an annual income of £100.’

It was resolved that a grant of £100 for the coming year be made
to the Committee on Seismological Investigations, and that a grant of
£100 be made annually in future to the Committee, subject to the
adoption of its annual report.

(b) An application to the Council from the ‘ Scotia’ Publication
Committee (Scottish Antarctic Expedition) for a grant of £400 from the
Caird Fund towards the expenses of the publication of the ‘ Scientific
Results of the Voyage of the ‘‘ Scotia’’’ was considered, and it was
resolved that the application could not be entertained.

IV. Resouvutions referred to the Council by the General Committee
at Birmingham for consideration, and, if desirable, for action, were
dealt with as follows :—

From Sections A and EL.

“That the terms First Order, Second Order, Third Order, and
Fourth Order of triangulation, as connoting definite degrees
of precision, be used to describe triangulation even though
the terms now in use (e.g., Major, Minor, &c.), which have
only a local significance, are also employed.’

‘That this resolution be communicated through the proper
channels to (a) the Geodetic Association, and (b) the Institute
of Surveyors.’

The Council approved the principle of the above resolution, and
resolved that Professor H. H. Turner and Captain H. G. Lyons be
appointed a Committee to communicate, in the name of the Council,
with the Geodetic Association and the Institute of Surveyors. The
Committee duly carried out this instruction.

From Section I.

‘The Committee of Section I requests the Council of the
Association to forward to the Board of Trade the following
resolution :-——

(i) That Colour Vision Tests are most efficiently conducted
by means of what is known as the “‘ Lantern Test.”’

(ii) That the best form of such lantern has not yet been
finally decided upon, and can be arrived at only after
further expert report.

(iii) That the actual application of sight tests requires the
co-operation of an ophthalmic surgeon with a practical
navigator.’

The Council, after careful consideration and consultation among
members specially interested in this question, resolved to take no action.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xi

From Section I.

‘That in view of the fact that numerous deaths continue to take
place from anesthetics administered by unregistered persons,
the Committee of the Section of Physiology of the British
Association appeals to the Council of the Association to repre-
sent to the Home Office and to the Privy Council the urgent
need of legislation to protect the public against such
unnecessary risks.’

The Council appointed a Committee to consider and report upon
the above resolution, and subsequently adopted the following resolution,
which was transmitted to the Home Office :—

“The Council of the British Association desire to urge upon
His Majesty’s Government the necessity of introducing legis-
lation on the subject of the administration of anesthetics, as
recommended by the Departmental Committee of the Home
Office, dated March 18, 1910, but with the addition to Recom-
mendation (3) of a clause permitting administration by un-
registered persons under the immediate supervision of a person
duly qualified. The Council would point out that the recom-
mendations of the General Medical Council are practically
identical with those of the Departmental Committee, and that
these recommendations have been approved by various
academic and professional bodies, and also by the Council
of this Association in 1910.’

VY. In connection with the Magnetic Re-survey of the British Isles,
referred to in the Report of the Council for 1912-13, the Council
agreed to the proposal of the Royal Society that a joint supervising
committee of the Society and the Association be appointed, and the
following members were appointed to represent the Association: Sir
Oliver Lodge, Prof. J. Perry, Prof. H. H. Turner, Dr. ©. Chree,
Dr. S. Chapman, Dr. F. W. Dyson, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook.

The Council empowered the General Treasurer to pay from the
Caird Fund a sum not exceeding £250 towards the cost of the Survey.

VI. Ausrrauian Mrrtina.—(i) At their meeting in December 1913
the Council were informed as to the limit of the total number of the
oversea party which the Australian authorities had found it necessary
to propose, having regard to the provision of suitable travelling
facilities, &c., in Australia. The Council were also informed that by
counting all doubtful or qualified intimations from members, and all
applications for new membership, the limit above mentioned was
already substantially exceeded. It was resolved (a) that there should
be no more admissions to the oversea party, excepting any member
whose attendance the Australian Committee or the General Officers (in
consultation, if necessary, with representatives of any particular
Section) might decide to be of special importance to the scientific
work of the meeting; (b) that the General Secretaries should be
empowered to desire members whose intimations were qualified by

xlii REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

doubt to express their definite intentions by a certain date; (c) that
the General Officers should be empowered to take, in the name of the
Council, any other measures which might appear necessary to effect
a reduction in the total number of the oversea party.

(ii) Previously to the departure of Dr. A. C. D. Rivett, General
Organising Secretary in Australia, from London in December 1913, it
was resolved that the thanks of the Council be expressed to Dr. Rivett
for the assistance he had rendered in connection with the arrangements
for the meeting during his visit to England; and to the authorities in
Australia under whose direction he had paid this visit.

VII. The Council resolved that the meetings of the Conference of
Delegates of Corresponding Societies be held in Havre in August 1914
on the occasion of the meeting there of L’Association Francaise pour
l’Avancement des Sciences.

In these circumstances the Council made the following appoint-
ments on behalf of the General Committee (in place of nominations,
as usual) :—

Conference of Delegates —Sir H. G. Fordham (Chairman), Sir
EK. Brabrook (Vice-Chairman), Mr. W. Mark Webb (Secretary).

The following nominations are made by the Council :—

Corresponding Societies Committee—Mr. W. Whitaker (Chair-
man), Mr. W. Mark Webb (Secretary), Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward
Brabrook, Sir H. G. Fordham, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E. H.
Griffiths, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson,
Mr, A. L. Lewis, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, and the President and
General Officers of the Association.

VIII. The Council have received an intimation from the Town
Clerk of Cardiff that the Council and other authorities in that city
intend to present an invitation to the Association to hold there its
Meeting in 1918.

IX. The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer
during the past year. In consequence of the early removal of the books,
&c., from London to Australia, it has not been possible to prepare the
usual annual accounts. These will be audited and presented to the
General Committee at the Manchester Meeting (1915).

X. The retiring members of the Council are:—

Sir D. Prain, Prof. C. S. Sherrington, Prof. F. T. Trouton,
Dr. J. E. Marr, Prof. J. B. Farmer.

The Council nominated the following new members :—

Dr. F. W. Dyson,
Miss E. R. Saunders,
Prof. E. H. Starling,

leaving two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without
nomination by the Council.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlii

The full list of nominations of ordinary members is as follows: —

Prof. H. E, Armstrong. ae Ds all:

Sir E. Brabrook, Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
Prof. W. H. Bragg. Sir Everard im Thurn,
Dr. Dugald Clerk. | Alfred Lodge.

Major P. G. Craigie. Capt. H, G. Lyons,
W. Crooke. Prof, R. Meldola.
Prof. A. Dendy. Prof. J. L. Myres.
Dr. F. A. Dixey. Miss E. R. Saunders.
Prof. H. B. Dixon. Prof. E. H. Starling
Dr. F. W. Dyson. J. J. H. Teall.
Principal E. H. Griffiths. Prof. §. P. Thompson.

Dr. A. C. Haddon.

XI. Tue Generau OFricers have been nominated by the Council
as follows :—

General Treasurer: Prof. J. Perry.
. General Secretaries: Prof. W. A. Herdman.
Prom Ee He Liumner:

XII. The following have been admitted as members of the General
Committee :—

Prof. H. S. Carslaw. Prof. T. Lyle.

Prof. W. J. Dakin. Dr. H. McCombie.

Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David. Mr. J. H. Maiden.

Prof. W. G. Duffield. Dr. R. R. Marett.

Mr. A. du Toit. Prof. Orme Masson.

Prof. A. J. Ewart. Dr. N. V. Sidgwick.

Mr. J. T. Ewen. Prof. C. Michie Smith.
Prof. H. J. Fleure. Prof. W. Baldwin Spencer.
Mr. Willoughby Gardner. Prof. B. D. Steele.

Prof. Kerr Grant. Prof. E. C. Stirling.

Mr. C. Hedley. Dr. W. E. Sumpner.

Prof. W. A. Jolly. Major A. J. N. Tremearne,
Dr. C. F. Juritz.

xliv GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

Dr. ' THE GENERAL TREASURER IN ACCOUNT

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
1913-1914. RECEIPTS. s
ways .
Balance brought fonwards-c.scctesna+cseccceewessscscesoupsrennsngtttes 1,875 13 3
Life Compositions (including Transfers) ...........ceseeeeeeeens 549 0 0
Annual SObSeCriptions te. nace cnc sciceaseesncunsaceencan-scceeeatethestrees 782 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ..........2..csseeseeeee seen 356 0 0
Sale of Associates’ Tickets ............cscscscseeees Snaptioon trtipsenccne 1,266 0 0
Sale of Ladies (Ptekets tein cscavss tects savldtewcaine ranen te neeeneeee ae 290 0 0
Sale/of Publications. ti viscsnss-deccees aan neseentarcdcaeaneneetcctens 248 2 0
Sir James Caird’s Gift (Radio-activity Investigation) ......... 1,000 0 0
Interest on Deposits :
Lloyds Bank; Birmingham) “25. socncssn0ceseec-nsesee-s ee demcen 52 010
Bank of Gotland unders.ascv.sccersscceacesaeerestrescerter 2 16 11
Unexpended Balances of Grants returned : NST Bewet iF
Mossi) Plants ie eens taedemuetetecs awe neeceh ess aes 010 3
Corresponding Societies Committee ......... 114 8
Jurassic onan. saaceaseresemtereutsods nec usess ul he wll
Dividends on Investments: —- 519 0
Console! cccrsacoat sacteatscerectascreee jagsoebosnonodnes 134 4 8
India’ 3iper Cent) Stock: sis..¢nessssesemasece- tee 101 14 0
Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘B’ Annuity 29 1 6
Dividends on ‘ Caird Fund’ Investments : - 265.0 2
London and North-Western Railway Consoli-
dated 4 per Cent. Preference Stock ...... 94 3 4
London and South-Western Railway do. do. 94 3 4
Tndial32 per Centr Stock t....sss+.sssesess tenes Soni s
Canada 33 per Cent. Registered Stock......... 82-7, 10
- a aby 0 2
Australian Government Subsidy: 1914 Meeting ...... sSrandon 15,000 0 0

Mem.: Receipts on account of the Australian Meeting
(1914), amounting to £243, are not included in this account,
but are paid to a separate (No. 2) account at the Bank,

Investments.

Nominal Amount. Value 30th J ney 1914,

£ Gs CF & 5.
5,701 10 5 23 per Cent. Consolidated Stock ..... 4,276 2 10
3,600 O O India 3 per Cent. Stock ..............000+ 2,700 0 0

879 14 9 £43 Great Indian Peninsula Railway

“B Annuity (Cost) ss... -cercisssseser es 849 5 0

2,427 010 India 33 per Cent. Stock,‘ Caird Fund’ 2,338 1 4

2,500 0 0 London and North- Western Railway

Consolidated 4 per Cent. Preference

Stock, ‘Caird Fund’ ...........0-s000 2,500 0 O
2,500 0 O London and South-Western Railway

Consolidated 4 per Cent. Preference

Stock,“ CamrdyMund aco ercaeseseneree 2ZATS 0 0
2,500 0 0 Canada3+ per Cent. 1930-1950 Regis-
tered Stock, ‘Caird Fund’ ......... 9°295 0 0

Sir Frederick Bramwell’s Gift :—
OSA %e Self-cumulating Consolidated Stock. ee

[To be awarded in 1931 for a paper £21,549 18 4
dealing with the whole question a
of the Prime Moyers of 1931, and
especially with the then relation
between steam engines and internal
combustion engines. |

JOHN PERRY, General Treasurer.

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. xlv

WITH THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE Cr.
July 1, 1918, to June 30, 1914.
1913-1914. PAYMENTS.
Sirhan ear
Rent and Office Expenses ........ Mee aeneemee Stee Sibodusanaentertsceeass 167 OM
RIAIRINIOS AUC Giecceitor ree ccna tae toe se cvaeace reek cunetes Teme aaleetne se sinensis vice 758 11 9
RUMEN HIN GIN Ci Cedeascsetcresl | Secenfedsrcean veces ele. seaseerretens 1,216 8 10
Expenses of Birmingham Meeting ..... RRC He AANOOnaanaonsncea) Oran 165 11 2
Payments on account of Australian Meeting...........00...c0seeee 44 4 9
Grants to Research Committees :— Fe Gi wSsr ids
Seismological Investigations .............. iatalel ete letet aictutata sists yele 130 0 0
Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere ......-...--+..0005 25 0 0
International Committee on Physical and Chemical Constants 40 0 0
Calculation of Mathematical Tables............c00eceee cece 20, 0. 0
Disposal of Copies of the ‘ Binary Canon’........scseeerecses 4, 9-0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances ..........cececceeeeeree 15 0 0
AVA TSOMMETISION gta. ale) sips vine Sigs « coes'= s'a%e ie ain elevig.vlols we ae howe 2 0 0
Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines ............0- 2+ eee Wb 0 0
Study of Plant Bn7y Mes ire as lic saiceissiesinsie vice secre see aed, Atha)
Oorrelation of Orystalline Form with Molecular Str ueture eee Ary pC S)
Study of Solubility PHenOMenanciecieie ce econ ccc se ewss ce ceria ce 10 0 0
List of Characteristic Fossils...... Sabsiden siete sijeteic’ alsin berOr 0
Geolory of Ramsey Island) sc etic sckden neve cin tlecs ce we LO Oe O
Fauna and Flora of Trias of Western Midlands .......... Bete len ea
Critical Sections iu Lower Paleozoic Rocks ..............+00. 15 0 0
Belmallet Whaling Station ......ccsccccsecccas sccsnecetas 20 0 0
Nomenclature Animalium Genera et Sub-genera .............. 50 0 0
Antarctic Whaling Industry ..... aero aie ain) viata! fulstcist aie ai Waerel chars 75 0 0
Maps for School and University Use .. e cap Deere 40/10 40
Gaseous MX DIOSLONE cx.cnn sis.e sien se enieincieleisiay aaiee.e aoe aathae De. 0.5.0
Stress Distributions in Engineering Materials 50 0 0
Lake Villages in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury .......... 20 0 0
PROGL EHORE ORECLES % pela vis’. as) vines is aieieim-winiciegl ee sinis)a0/e-aie(etan 20 0 0
Artificial Is!ands in the Highlands GrScotlavd, oscs dsc tos ye oegy
Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain ........-. ee. cece eee 20 0 0
Anthropometric Investigatiors in i ee Sfataistietcucslalaieiee Oe) + p OU0uen Ol O
Paleolithic Site in Jersey .....ccsccrcsscccvee res 50 0 0
‘lhe Ductless Glands .........- Aa ae doe acn 35 0 0
Calorimetric Observations on Man miiofalaieta eiecatalel vies Me ekae ee
Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart 30 0 0
Binocular Combination of Kinematograph Pictures ......-... 017 0
MBELMCtuTe|OL MOSS PIANES! (jocgsncwcscelcucl- + acisslieivcire cs acne 15 0 0
IUTASALC HL OTAV OEY OYRSLITE "cin stelevarelala'aiss -\e/alelelele cl elsleialateys/aleleleie 5 0 0
Flora of the Peat uf the Kennet Valley ......... weseeseceeee 15 0 0
Vegeta'ion of Ditcham Park .............. “ap ano 0g ge apron 14 4 3
Ph yeiolopy OL Hered it yi yalee,ctacane syaieic e118) ol<inivld as 1a g eieisiclsisin's. cise 30 0 0
Breeding Experiments with Ginotheras ........-.-+..eeeeeeee 1917 4
Mental and Physical Factois involved in Education.......... 20 0 0
Influence of School Books on Eyesight ........... Saintes csialaieic'e 28 9
Oharacter, Work, and Maintenance of Museums ......... needa Lomo 0
Corresponding Societies Committee ..... ereeaisiale svayeetctatate=tale opats 25 0 0
ee OS) 1b) a
Grants made from ‘Caird Fund ’........... .eeccecceeeee stemiesa tao O SO
Amounts paid to Grantees from A ustralian Government
Subsidy: UO Meetin pyr. cccciscscenteccsescsccese Catania: La. 900: 0-0
Balance at Lloyds Bank, Birmingham (including £ i, a:
accrued Interest) .. .....06. sseeeeseees Mirteines C6762 Ss
Balance at Bank of England,
Western Branch: On General
AMO Hage Gacancanoncede An Pee care £933 1 10
Less Overspent on ‘Caird Fund’... 226 6 6
Sciceeieiaieanieeniael 70615 4
Petty Cash in hand .......... nuenennodsscri baadace: Gov 317 4
———— 2,387 411

£21,549 18_4

An Account of £864 6s. 6d. is outstanding due to Messrs. Spottiswoode 5 Co,

I have examined the above Account with the Rooks and Vouchers of the Association, and certify the
same to be correct. I have also verified the Balance at the Bankers, and have aseertained that the Invest-
ments are registered in the names cf the Trustees, W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant.

Approved— December 2, 1914.
EDWARD BRABROOK. on
HERBERT McLEOD, I Auditors.

xlvi GENERAL MEETINGS.

GENERAL MEETINGS, 1914.

The General Meetings held in Australia will be found mentioned in
the course of the Narrative on pp. 679, segg. A Narrative of the Visit of
Members to the Meeting of L’ Association Francaise at Le Havre, with an
account of the meetings held there, is given on p. 720.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS AT THE AUSTRALIAN
MEETING, 1914.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

President.—Prof. F. T. Trouton, F.R.S. (in absentid). Vice-Presidents.—
Prof. E. W. Brown, F.R.S.; Prof. H. 8. Carslaw, F.R.S.; Sir Oliver J. Lodge,
F.R.S.; Prof. A. W. Porter, F.RS.; Sir E. Rutherford, F.R.S. Secretaries.—
Prof, A, 8, Eddington, F.R.S. (Recorder); E. Gold, M.A.; Prof. 8S. B, McLaren,
M.A.; A. O. Rankine D.Sc.; Prof. T. R. Lyle, F.R.S. (Local Sec., Melbourne) ;
Prof. J. A. Pollock, D.Sc. (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.

President.—Prof. W. J. Pope, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. F. Clowes,
D.Se.; Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.; Prof. Orme Masson, F.R.S.; Prof. E. H.
Rennie, D.Sc.; Prof. B. D. Steele, D.Sc. Secretaries —A. Holt, D.Sc. (Recorder) ;
N. V. Sidgwick, D.Sc.; D. Avery, M.Sc. (Local Sec., Melbourne); Prof. C.
Fawsitt, D.Sc. (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

President.—Prof. Sir T. H. Holland, K.C.LE., F.R.S. Vice-Prestdents—
Prof. W. S. Boulton, D.Sc.; Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, C.M.G.; H.
Herman ; Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.; Prof. Woolnough, D.Sc. Secretaries.—
A. R. Dwerryhouse, D.Sc. (Recorder); Prof. S. H. Reynolds, M.A.; Prof. E. W.
Skeats, D.Sc. (Local Sec., Melbourne); E. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M. (Local Sec.,
Sydney).

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.

President.—Prof. A. Dendy, D.Sc., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. C. B.
Davenport; Prof. W. A. Haswell, F.R.S.; Prof. H. Jungersen; Dr. O, Maas;
Prof. E. A. Minchin, F.R.8.; Prof. Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S. Seere-
tartes—Prof. H. W. Marett Tims, M.A., M.D. (Recorder); J. H. Ashworth,
D.Sce.; R. Douglas Laurie, M.A.; T. 8. Hall, D.Sc. (Local Sec., Melbourne) ;
Prof. W. A. Haswell, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Local Sec., Sydney).

la = SECTION E.— GEOGRAPHY.

President.—Sir Charles P. Lucas, K.C.B., K.C.M.G. Vice-Presidents.—Prof.
Guido Cora; Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, C.M.G.; Capt. J. K. Davis; Prof.
- W.M. Davis; Sir John Forrest; Prof.A.Penck. Seeretaries—H. Yule Oldham,
M.A. (Recorder); J. McFarlane, M.A.; J. A. Leach, M.Sc. (Local Sec., Mel-
bourne); F. Poate (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

President.—Prof. E.C. K. Gonner, M.A. Vice-Prestdents.—S, Ball; T. R.
Bavin; Denison Miller; H. Y. Braddon; Harrison Moore. WSecretaries.—Prof.
A. W. Kirkaldy, M.A., M.Com., (Recorder) ; Prof. H. O. Meredith, M.A., M.Com.;
G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G. (Local Sec., Melbourne); Prof, R. F. Irvine, M.A, (Local
Sec., Sydney).

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1914. xlvii

SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.

President.—Prof. E, G. Coker, D.Se. Viee-Presidents—W. Davidson; H.
Deane, M.A.; Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S.; Col. J. Monash; Prof. J. E. Petavel,
F.R.S. Secretaries.—Prof. G. W. O. Howe, M.Se. (Recorder); Prof. W. M.
Thornton, D.Se.; Prof. H. Payne (Local Sec., Melbourne) ; Prof. W. H. Warren
(Locai Sec., Sydney).

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY,

President.—Sir Everard im Thurn, C.B., K.C.M.G. Vice-Presidents,—
H. Balfour, M.A.; Dr. Etheridge; Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.; Prof. F. von
Luschan ; Prof. Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S.; Prof. E. C. Stirling, F.R.S.
Secretaries—R. R. Marett, M.A., D.Sc. (Recorder); B. Malinowski, Ph.D.;
Prof. R. J. A. Berry, M.D. (Local Sec., Melbourne); Prof. J. T. Wilson, M.B.,

‘F.R.S. (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION I.— PHYSIOLOGY.

President.—Prof. Benjamin Moore, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Prot. W. D-
Halliburton, F.R.S.; Prof. Sir E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.; Prof. E. C. Stirling,
F.R.S. Seeretaries.—Prot. P. T. Herring, M.D. (Recorder) ; Prof. T. H. Milroy,
M.D.; Prof. W. A. Osborne, D.Se. (Local fec., Melbourne); Prof. Sir T, P.
Anderson Stuart, M.D., LL.D. (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION K.—BOTANY.

President.—Prof. F. ©. Bower, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—J. H. Maiden,
F.L.S. ; Miss E. R. Saunders, F.L.S.; Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S. Seeretaries.—
Prof. T. Johnson, 1).Se. (Recorder) ; Miss E. N. Thomas, D.Se.; Prof. A. J.
Ewart, D.Sc. (Local Sec., Melbourne); Prof. A. Anstruther Lawson, Ph.D , D.Se.
(Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

President.—Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Prof. H. KE, Armstrong,
F.R.S.; C. A. Buckmaster, M.A.; G.T. Moody, D.Sc. Secretarves.—Prof. J. A.
Green, M.A. (Recorder); OC. A. Buckmaster, M.A.; J. Smyth, M.A. (Local
Sec., Melbourne); P. Board, M.A. (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE.

President.—A. D. Hall, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—H. 8. Beaven, F.C.S.;
Prof. T. B. Wood, M.A. Seeretaries.—J. Golding, F.I.C. (Recorder) ; A. Lauder,
D.Se.; Prof. T. Cherry, M.Sc. (Local Sec., Melbourne); Prof. R. D. Watt, M.A.
(Loeal Sec., Sydney). )

CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING
SOCIETIES (HAVRE, 1914).
Chatyman._Sir H. G. Fordham. Vice-Chaityman.—Sir E. Brabrook.
Secretary. W. Mark Webb.

xlvui

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

Table showing the Attendances and Receipts

1831, Paap:

1841, July

1862, Oct.
1863, Aug.

1864, Sept.
1865, Sept.
1866, Aug.
1867, Sept.
1868, Aug.
1869, Aug.
1870, Sept.
1871, Aug.
1872, Aug.
1873, Sept.
1874, Aug.
1875, Aug.
1876, Seps.
1877, Aug.
1878, Aug.
1879, Aug.
1880, Aug.
1881, Aug.
1882, Aug.
1883, Sept.
1884, Aug.
1885, Sept.
1886, Sept.
1887, Aug.
1888, Sept. 5
1889, Sept.
1890, Sept.
1891, Aug.
1892, Aug.
1893, Sept.
1894, Aug.
1895, Sept.
1896, Sept.
1897, Aug.
1898, Sept.
1899, Sept.
1900, Sept.

1832, June 19
1833, June 25......
1834, Sept. 8 ...
1835, Aug.
1836, Aug.
1837, Sept.
1838, Aug.
1839, Aug.
1840, Sept.

1842, June 23
1843, Aug.
1844, Sept.
1845, Junel9...
1846, Sept. =
1847, June 23......
1848, Aug. 9
1849, Sept.
1850, July 21

1851, July 2...
1852, Sept.
1853, Sept.
1854, Sept.
1855, Sept.
1856, Aug.
1857, Aug.
1858, Sept.
1859, Sept.
1860, June 27......,
1861, Sept.

7
26

1
3
20
12
6
26
22
14

26.

13
6
22
4

19,

Date of Meeting

0B ick..

14,
BD
14,

Wh Sse

19.

25 ......)

Ds Scone
Ub are
14.
20.
25.
31.
PLR
WO esaces

19.

1305s

ll
16
18
if

13...

eek

— : Old Life | New Life

Where held | Presidents | Members | Members
| Work oe ee dered E Viscount Milton, D.O.L., F.R.S. ...... _ —
Oxford ......| The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S. / _— | —
Cambridge ...| The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ite = =
| Edinburgh ...| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F.R.S. . = =
| Dublin .... .... The Rey. Provost Lloyd,LL.D., F.R. s _ _
| Bristol .. ....| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.RS... — _—
Liverpool) é 2.2. ieee: The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.......... _ _
Neweastle-on-Tyne...,| The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S.) _ ~
. Birmingham ... The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. — _—
Glasgow....... ..| The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.S — —
Plymouth .... ... The Rey. W. Whewell, F.R.S. ... 169 65
Manchester | The Lord Francis Egerton, F.G. Se 303 169
rk eee .| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. .... 109 28
York . _ The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D., F. ‘RS | 226 150
Cambridge | Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. »ER.S.| 313 36
Southampton seeeeees.| Sit Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. FR. s. 241 | 10
Oxford!) te . Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., FRS. ase 314 18
| Swansea,......... .... TheMarquis ofNorthampton, Pres.R.S., 149 Ry}
Birmingham | The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D., E.RS,| Pee be on
.... Edinburgh | Sir David Brewster, K. H., FRS....... 235 9
.! Ipswich....... "| G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S. 172° 4 8
| Belfast .. .| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ... ‘ 164 | 10
eae tr h oe ee William Hopkins, F. RS.. 141 13
' Liverpool The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. . 238 23
Glasgow..... ...| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. 194 33
| Cheltenham . ...| Prof.C0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.B.S.... 182 14
Dublin ..... .| The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F.R.S. 236 15
Leeds . ..| Richard Owen, M.D., D. O.L. , E.R. Si 222 42
Aberdeen .| H.R.H. The Prince Consort ........... 184 27
Oxford ..... ..| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. . 286 21
Manchester .. .| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S....... 321 113
Cambridge .. ... The Rey. Professor Willis,M.A.,F.R.S. 239 15
Newcastle-on-Tyne...| SirWilliam G. Armstrong. C.B., F.R.S.| 203 36
[SRB mate ene, eee] Sir Oharles Lyell, Bart. MA.F.RS| 287 | 40
| Birmingham, “| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. FRS.| 292 | 44
Nottingham... ..| William R. Grove, Q. 0., F.RB.S. . Me 207 31
Dundee ........ ... The Duke of Buccleuch, K.O.B.. a R. s. 167 25
Norwich “| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, FBS... 196 18
..| Exeter ..... ..| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L., F. Ripaee 204 21
| Liverpool .. Perot. ok. H Huxley, LL.D. hy ERS. 314 | 39
| Edinburgh | Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., F.RS. 246 | 28
Brighton .. Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. . ay 245 36
Bradford .. ..| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.. 212 oT

"| Sir W. Crookes, FBS. . foe em pie |
Dover ...| Sir Michael Foster, K. C. B., Sec.R.S... 296 20

Bradford Sir William Turner, D.O.L., F.B.S. . SRG calls eae |

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843. + Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

[Continwed on p. 1.

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

Old New
Annual | Annual pres) Ladies
Members | Members
_- — _— 1100*
46 317 — 60*
75 376 33F 331*
71 185 _— 160
45 190 oF 260
94 22 407 172
65 39 270 196
197 40 495 203
54 25 376 197
93 33 447 237
128 42 510 273
61 47 244 141
63 60 510 292
56 57 367 236
121 121 765 524
142 101 1094 543
104 48 412 346
156 120 900 569
111 91 710 509
125 179 1206 821
177 59 636 463
184 125 1589 791
150 57 433 242
154 209 1704 1004
182 103 1119 1058
215 149 766 508
218 105 960 771
193 118 1163 771
226 117 720 682
229 107 678 600
303 195 1103 910
311 127 976 754
280 80 937 912
237 99 796 601
232 85 817 630
307 93 884 672
331 185 1265 712
238 59 446 283
290 93 1285 674
239 74 529 349
171 41 389 147
313 176 1230 514
253 79 516 189
330 323 952 841
317 219 826 74
332 122 1053 447
428 179 1067 429
510 244 1985 493
399 100 639 509
412 113 1024 579
368 92 680 334
341 152 672 107
413 141 733 439
328 57 773 268
435 69 941 451
290 31 493 261
383 139 1384 873
286 125 682 100
327 96 1051 639
324 68 548 120
297 45 801 482

Sums paid
J oount on account
Foreigners} Total Gaon tb f of Grants Year
g for Scientific
Meeting Purposes

— 353 — — 1831
— — — — 1832
—_— 900 —_ = 1833
_ 1298 _ £20 0 0 1834
— —_— —_— 167 0 0 1835
— 1350 — 435 0 0 1836
— 1840 —_— 922 12 6 1837
— 2400 —_— 932 2 2 1838
34 1438 —_— 1595 11 0 1839
40 1353 —_ 1546 16 4 1840
_— 891 — 1235 10 11 1841
28 1315 — 1449 17 8 1842
— — — 1565 10 2 1843
_ — — 98112 8 1844
35 1079 — 831.9. 9 1845
36 857 — 685 16 0 1846
53 1320 — 208 5 4 1847
15 819 £707 0 0 275 1 8 1848
22 1071 S637 0.0 159 19 6 1843
44 1241 1685 0 0] 34518 0 1850
37 710 6205 070) 23919) 17) 1851
9 1108 1085 0 0 304 6 7 1852
6 876 903 0 0 205 0 0 1853
10 1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7 1854
26 2133 2311 0 0 480 16 4 1855
9 1115 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856
26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857
13 1698 1931 0 0 61818 2 1858
22 2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1 1859
47 1689 1604 0 0 766 19 6 1860
15 3138 3944 0 0} 1111 5 10 1861
25 1161 1089 0 0} 129316 6 1862
25 3335 3640 0 0} 1608 3 10 1863
13 2802 2965 0 0} 128915 8 1864
23 1997 2227 0 0O/|] 1591 7 10 186d
11 2303 «| 2469 0 0} 175013 4 1866
7 2444 | 2613 0 0/1739 4 0 1867
45f 2004 2042 0 0|] 1940 0 0 1868
17 1856 19381 0 0} 1622 0 0 1869
14 2878 3096 0 0} 1572 0 0 1870
21 2463 «=| 2575 0 0] 1472 2 6 1871
43 2533 2649 0 0/1285 0 0 1872
11 1983 2120 0 0} 1685 0 0 1873
12 1951 1979 0 0O/ 115116 0 1874
17 2248 2397 0 0 960 0 0 1875
25 2774 3023 0 0/1092 4 2 1876
11 1229 12768 0 0) 1128 9 7 L877
17 2578 2615 0 0 725 16 6 1878
13 1404 1425 0 0O,| 1080 11 11 1879
12 915 899 0 0 ely ee f 1880
24 2557 2689 0 0} 476 8 1 1881
21 1253 1286 0 0| 1126 111 1882
5 2714 3369 0 0); 1083 3 3 1883
26 & 60 H.§ 1777 1855 0°00} 1173 4 0 1884
6 2203 2256 0 0O| 1385 0 0 1885
11 2453 2532 0 0 995 0 6 1886
92 3838 4336 0 0} 118618 0 1887
12 1984 | 2107 0 0) 15ll O 5 1888
21 2437 | 2441 0 0/ 1417 O11 1889
12 1775 1776 0 0} 78916 8 1890
35 1497 | 1664 0 0); 102910 0 1891
50 2070 2007 0 0} 86410 0 1892
17 1661 1653 0 0 907 15 6 1893
77 2321 2175 0 0 583 15 6 1894
22 1324 1236 0 0 977 15 5 1895
41 3181 | 3228 0 0) 1104 6 1 1896
41 1362 | 1398 0 0/ 105910 8 1897
33 2446 2399 0 0/1212 0 0 1898
27 1403 1328 0 0 | 143014 2 1899
9 1915 1801 0 0/| 107210 0 1900

{Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meetin g.

1914,

[Continued on p. li.

Date of Meeting

‘ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

Where held

Table showing the Attendances and Receipts

1906, Aug. 1
1907, July 31 ..,
1908, Sept. 2 ...

1911, Aug. 30
1912, Sept. 4
1913, Sept. 10
1914, July-Sept....|

1909, Aug. 25...... | | Winnipeg
1910, Aug. 31 ...... | Sheffield...
ike Portsmouth.

1901, Sept. 11...... Gises Rese WE
1902, Sept. 10....., | Belfast ...

1903, Sept. 9 ...... | Southport .,

1904, Aug. 17...... | Cambridge........

1905, Aug. 15....., | South Africa .,

3 : Old Life | New Life
Presidents Members | Members
|
anal) SerOr. rs W. Riicker, D. Ses See, eRe 310 . 37
.| Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. ......... | 243 | 21
.| Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S.} 250 21
.| Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S. 419 32
.| Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D., F.R.S. ... 115 40
.| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S.) 322 10
.| Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S. ..... 276 19
. Dr. Francis Darwin, F. Tnshe enagca 294 24
.| Prof. Sir J, J. Thomson i BE eee 117 13
.| Rey. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.RS. ... 293 26
.| Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B, F.R.S, 284 21
Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.. 288 14
.| Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S.. 376 40
..... Prof. W. Bateson, F.R.S. 172 13

G Including 848 Members of the South African Association.
tt Grants from the Caird Fund are not included in this and subsequent sums.

1833 and 1860
1841 and 1907

1836 and 1911

between 1831 and 1913

Average attendance at—

5 ”
9 ”

ANALYSIS OF ATTENDANCES AT

[The total attendances for the years 1832,

Average attendance at 79 Meetings : 1858.
Average
Attendance
Average attendance at 5 Meetings beginning during June, between
. ; 1260
Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during July Ys between
: 1122
Average attendance at 32 Meetings beginning during ‘Aug gust, between
° 1927
Average attendance at 37 Meetings beginning during ‘September,
. ° ° 1977
Attendance at 1 Meeting held in October, Cambridge, 1862 : 1161
SES Ste ies
Mectings beginning during August.
4 Meetings beginning during the lst week in Awgust( Ist- 7th) . 1905
” ” ” 2nd ” ” a ( 8th-14th) . 2130
“ Steen Cie Teint ANY a 3 SE) ae TT
” ” ” 4th ” ” ” (22nd-31st) ” 1935

14 ”

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS. li

at Annual Meetings of the Association—(continued).

| | | Sums paid
Old New nee saa ail on account
_ Annual | Annual iat 4 Ladies |Foreigners| Total auxinorthie of Grants Year
Members| Members °!*"€S Me ah for Scientific
| gs Purposes
_ 374 131 794 246 20 1912 £2046 0 0 £920 9 11 1901
_ 84 86 647 305 6 1620 1644 0 0 | 947 0 0 1902
| 319 90 688 | 365 21 1754 1762 0 0| 845 13 2 1903
; 449 113.) «(1388 S| 317 121 2789 | 2650 0 0 | 887 18 11 1904
9377 411 | 430 181 16 2130 2422 0 0| 928 2 2 1905
| 356 93 CO 817 352 22 1972 | 1811 0 0} 882 0 9 1906
| 339 61 | 659 251 42 1647 | 1561 0 0 | 757 12 10 1907
465 1 ct R66 222 14 2297 2317 O 0 115718 8 1908
| 290%* 162 789 90 7 1468 1623 0 0/1014 9 9 1909
379 57 563 123 8 1449 14389 0 0} 96317 0 1910
/ 349 61 414 81 31 1241 1176 0 0; 922 0 O 1911
; 368 95 1292 359 88 2504 2349 0 0| 845 7 6 1912
480 149 1287 291 20 2643 2756 0 0| 97817 1ff 1913
139 4160]| 539] | — 21 5044l] | 4873 0 0/1086 16 4 1914

** Including 137 Members of the American Association.
{| Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see
p. 686. The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to att2nd the Meeting of L’ Association
Francaise at Le Havre.

THE ANNUAL MEETINGS, 1831-1913.
1835, 1843, and 1844 are wnknown. |

Meetings beginning during September.

Average attendance at—

Average
Attendance
13 Meetings beginning during the Ist week in September( 1st— 7th). 2131
17 i fp " TT feu Caen Pes » ( 8th-14th). 1906
i 3, is tl fe BEDS » (15th-21st). 2206
a, - Sess Ate | » (22nd-30th), 1025
Meetings beginning during June, July, and October.
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1845, June 19) beginning during the 3rd
week in June (15th-21st) . ; 1079
Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during the 4th week in
June (22nd-30th) : 1306
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1851, ‘July 2) beginning. during the 1st
week in July (1Ist-7th) . 710
Average attendance at 2 Meetings beginning during the 3rd week in
July (15th-21st) : 1066
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1907, July 31) beginning during the 5th
week in July (29th-31st) . 1647
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1862, October ree beginning ‘during the Ist
week in October (1st-7th) . : - ala

1914. : c2

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

LIST OF GRANTS: Ausrrazia, 1914.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC., APPOINTED ON BEHALF OF THE GENERAL
CoMMITTEE AT THE AusTRALIAN MEETING: AvGust, 1914.

1. Receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose |

Members of Committee

Grants

Section AA—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Seismological Observations.

Investigation of the Upper Atmo-
sphere.

Annual Tables of Constants and
Numerical Data, chemical, phy-
sical, and technological.

Calculation of Mathematical

Tables.

Secretary.—Professor J. Perry.

Chairman.—ProfessorH.H.Turneyr.

Mr. Horace Darwin, Mr. C. Davi-
son, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Mr.
M. H. Gray, Professors J. W.
Judd and C. G. Knott, Sir J.
Larmor, Professor R. Meldola,
Mr. W. E. Plummer, Dr. R. A.
Sampson, Professor A. Schuster,
Mr. J. J. Shaw, and Mr. G. W.
Walker,

Chairman.— Dr. W. N. Shaw.

Secretary.— Mr. E. Gold,

Mr. C. J. P. Cave, Mr. W. H. Dines,
Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Sir J.
Larmor, Professor J. E. Petavel,
Professor A. Schuster, and Dr.
W. Watson.

Chairman.—-Sir W. Ramsay.
Secretary.—Dr. W.C. McC. Lewis.

Chairman.—Professor M. J. M.
Hill.

Secretary.—Professor J. W. Nichol- |
son.

Mr. J. R. Airey, Mr. T. W. Chaundy,
Professor Alfred Lodge, Pro-
fessor L. N. G. Filon, Sir G.

Greenhill, and Professors E. W. |
| Hobson, A. E. H. Love, H. M.
' Macdonald, and A. G. Webster.

25 00

40 00

% In addition, the Council was authorised to expend a sum not exceeding £70 for the printing of
circulars, &c., in connection with the Committee on Seismological Observations,

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

liii

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

Grants

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

The Study of Hydro-Aromatic Sub-
stances.

Dynamic Isomerism.

The Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines and allied sub-
stances, and its relation to
Substitution in Benzene De-
rivatives.

The Study of Plant Enzymes,
particularly with relation to
Oxidation.

Correlation of Crystalline Form
with Molecular Structure.

Study of Solubility Phenomena.

Chemical Investigation of Natural
Plant Products of Victoria.

The Influence of Weather Con-
ditions upon the Amounts of
Nitrogen Acids in the Rainfall
and the Atmosphere.

Research on Non-Aromatic Diazo-
nium Salts

Chairman.—ProfessorW.H.Perkin.

Secretary.—Professor A. W.Cross-
ley.

Dr. M. O. Forster, Dr. Le Sueur,
and Dr. A. McKenzie.

Chairman.—Professor H, E. Arm-
strong,

Secretary.—Dr. T. M. Lowry.

Professor Sydney Young, Dr. Desch,
Dr. J. J. Dobbie, and Dr. M. O.
Forster.

Chairman.—Professor F, 8. Kip-
ping.

Secretary.—ProfessorK.J.P.Orton.

Dr. 8. Ruhemann and Dr. J. T.
Hewitt.

Chairman.—Mr. A. D. Hall.

Secretary.—Dr. E. F. Armstrong.

Professor H. E. Armstrong, Pro-
fessor F, Keeble, and Dr. E. J.
Russell.

Chairman.—Professor W. J. Pope.

Secretary.—Professor H. E, Arm-
strong.

Mr. W. Barlow and Professor
W. P. Wynne.

Chairman.—Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.

Secretary.—Dr. J. V. Hyre.

Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Professor A.
Findlay, Dr. T. M. Lowry, and
Professor W. J. Pope.

Chairman.—Professor Orme Mas-
son.

Secretary.— Dr. Heber Green.

Mr. J. Cronin, and Mr. P. R. H.
St. John.

Chairman.—Professor Orme Mas-
son.

Secretary.—Mr. V. G. Anderson.

Mr. D. Avery and Mr. H. A. Hunt.

Chairman,—Dr. ¥’. D. Chattaway.

Secretary.—Professor G.T.Morgan.

Mr. P. G. W. Bayly and Dr, N, V.
Sidgwick.

liv RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Recewing Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

To investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles, and to take
measures for their preservation.

To consider the preparation of a
List of Characteristic Fossils.

The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of
Kiltorcan, Ireland.

Fauna and Flora of the Trias of
the Western Midlands.

To excavate Critical Sections in
the Lower Palzozoic Rocks of
England and Wales.

SECTION

To investigate the Biological
Problems incidental to the Bel-
mullet Whaling Station.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

Chairman.—Mr. R. H. Tiddeman.

Secretary.—Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse.

Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. F. W.
Harmer, Rev. 8. N. Harrison,

Dr. J. Horne, Mr. W. Lower |
Carter, Professor W. J. Sollas, |

and Messrs. W. Hill, J. W.
Stather, and J. H. Milton.

Chairman,—Professor P. ¥, Ken-
dall.

Secretary.—Mr. W. Lower Carter.

Mr. H. A. Allen, Professor W. S.

Boulton, Professor G. Cole, Dr. |

A. R. Dwerryhouse, Professors
J. W. Gregory, Sir T. H. Hol-
land, G. A. Lebour, and 8. H.
Reynolds, Dr. Marie C. Stopes,
Mr. Cosmo Johns, Dr. J. E.
Marr, Dr. A. Vaughan, Professor
W. W. Watts, Mr. H. Woods,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor Grenville
Cole.

Secretary.—Professor T. Johnson.

Dr. J. W. Evans, Dr. R. Kidston,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Chairman.—Mr. G. Barrow.

Seeretary.—My. L. J. Wills.

Dr. J. Humphreys, Mr. W. Camp-
bell Smith, Mr. D. M.S. Watson,
and Professor W. W. Watts.

Chairman. — Professor W. W.
Watts.

Secretary. — Professor W. G.

Fearnsides.

| Professor W. S. Boulton, Mr. E. 8S.

Cobbold, Mr. V. C. Illing, Dr.
Lapworth, and Dr. J. E. Marr.

D.—ZOOLOGY.

Chairman.—- Dr. A. E, Shipley.

Secretary.—Professor J. Stanley
Gardiner.

Professor W. A. Herdman, Rev. W.
Spotswood Green, Mr.H.S. Good-
rich, Professor H. W. Marett
Tims, and Mr. R. M. Barrington.

Grants
La. a.
5 00
10 OO
10 00
10 00)
lb 00
|
45 00)

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

ly”

Members of Committee

Nomenclator Animalium Genera
et Sub-genera.

An investigation of the Biology of
the Abrolhos Islands aad the
North-west Coast of Australia
(@morth of Shark’s Bay to
Broome), with particular refer-
ence to the Marine Fauna.

To obtain, as nearly as possible, a
representative Collection of
Marsupials for work upon (@)
the Reproductive Apparatus and
Development, (6) the Brain.

Chairman.—Dr. Chalmers Mit-
chell.

Secretary.—Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing.

Dr. M. Laurie, Prof. Marett Tims,

and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herd-
man.

Secretary.— Professor W. J. Dakin.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth and Professor
F, O. Bower.

Chairman.—Professor A. Dendy.

Secretaries.—Professors T. Flynn
and G. EK. Nicholls.

Professor E B. Poulton and Pro-
fessor H. W. Marett Tims.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

To investigate the Conditions |

determining the Selection of
Sites and Names for Towns,
with special reference to Aus-
tralia.

The Hydrographical Survey of |

Stor Fjord, Spitsbergen, by Dr.
W.S. Bruce.

To aid in the preparation of a
Bathymetrical Chart of the
Southern Ocean between Aus-
tralia and Antarctica.

Chairman.—Sir C. P, Lucas.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Yule Oldham.

Mr. G. G. Chisholm, Professor A. J.
Herbertson, and Professor J. L.
Myres.

Chairman.—Mr. G. G. Chisholm.

Secretary.—Mr. J. McFarlane.

Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown, Capt.
J. K. Davis, and Mr. H. Yule
Oldham.

Chairman.—Professor T.W. Edge-
worth David.

Seeretary.—Capt. J. K. Davis.

Professor J. W. Gregory, Sir C. P.
Lucas, and Professor Orme
Masson.

40 00

100 00

20 00

100 00

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

The question of Fatigue from the
Economie Standpoint, if pos-
sible in co-operation with Sec-
tion I, Sub-section of Psycho-
logy.

Chairman.—Professor Muirhead.

Secretary.— Miss B. L. Hutchins.

Miss A. M. Anderson, Professor
¥, A. Bainbridge, Mr. E. Cad-
bury, Professor 8S. J. Chapman,
Mr. P. Sargant Florence, Pro-
fessor Stanley Kent, Miss M. C.
Matheson, Mrs. Meredith, Dr.
C. S. Myers, Mr. J. W. Rams-
bottom and Dr. Jenkins Robb.

30 00

lvi RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiwwing Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | Members of Committee Grants

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

The Investigation of Gaseous Ex- | Chairman.—Dr. Dugald Clerk. 5
plosions, with special reference | Secretary.— Professor W. E. Dalby.
to Temperature. | Professors W. A. Bone, F. W. Bur- |

stall, H. L. Callendar, E. G.

Coker, and H. B. Dixon, Drs.

R. T. Glazebrook and J. A.

Harker, Colonel H.C. L. Holden,

Professors B. Hopkinson and

J. E. Petavel, Captain H. Riall |

Sankey, Professor A. Smithells,

Professor W. Watson, Mr. D. L.

Chapman, and Mr, H. E. |

| Wimperis.

To report on certain of the more | Chairman.—Professor J. Perry. | 50 00
complex Stress Distributions in | Secretaries. — Professors E. G. |
Engineering Materials. Coker and J. EH. Petavel.

; Professor A. Barr, Dr. Chas. Chree,
Mr. Gilbert Cook, Professor
W. E. Dalby, Sir J. A. Ewing, |
Professor L. N. G. Filon, Messrs.

| <A, R,. Fulton and J. J. Guest, |

Professors J. B. Henderson and

A. EK. H. Love, Mr. W. Mason,

Sir Andrew Noble, Messrs. F.

Rogers and W. A. Scoble, Dr.

T. E. Stanton, and Mr. J. 8.

Wilson.

Szotion H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

To investigate the Lake Villages ; Chairman.—Professor Boyd Daw- | 20 0 0
in the neighbourhood of Glas- kins.
tonbury in connection with a | Secretary.—Mr. Willoughby Gard-

Committee of the Somerset ner.
Archeological and Natural | Professor W. Ridgeway, Sir Arthur
History Society. J. Evans, Sir C. H. Read, Mr. |
H. Balfour, and Dr. A. Bulleid.
To conduct Explorations with the | Chairman.—Sir C. H. Read. | 20. 1070
object of ascertaining the Age | Secretary.—Mr. H. Balfour.
of Stone Circles. Dr. G. A. Auden, Professor W. |

Ridgeway, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir

A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Pro-
me Boyd Dawkins and J. L.
Myres, Mr. A. L. Lewis, and
Mr. H. Peake.

To investigate the Physical | Chairman.—Professor G. Elliot 34 16 6 |
Characters of the Ancient Smith.
Egyptians. Secretary.—Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Dr. F. Wood-Jones, Dr. A. Keith,
' and Dr. C. G. Seligman.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

To conduct Anthropometric In-
vestigations in the Island of
Cyprus.

To excavate a Palzolithic Site in
Jersey,

To conduct Archzological Inves-
tigations in Malta.

To prepare und publish Miss
Byrne’s Gazetteer and Map of
the Native Tribes of Australia.

The Ductless Glands.

To acquire further knowledge,
Clinical and Experimental, con-
cerning Anzsthetics—general
and local—with special refer-
ence to Deaths by or during
Anesthesia, and their possible
diminution.

Electromotive Phenomena in

Plants.

To investigate the Physiological
and Psychological Factors in
the production of
Nystagmus.

Miners’

1. Receiving Grants of Money— continued.

Members of Committee Grants

St isiid.

Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.| 50 0 0

Secretary.—Dr. F. C, Shrubsall.

Dr. A. C. Haddon.

Chairman.—Dr. R. R. Marett. 50 00

Secretary.—Colonel Warton.

Dr. C. W. Andrews, Mr, H. Bal-

four, Dr. Dunlop, Mr. G. de

Gruchy, and Professor A.

Keith,

Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.| 10 00 |
Seeretary.—Dr. T. Ashby.
Mr. H. Balfour, Dr. A.C, Haddon,

and Dr. R. R. Marett.
Chairman.—Professor Baldwin] 20 00

Spencer.

Seeretary.— Dr. R. R. Marett.
Mr. H, Balfour.
Section J.—PHYSIOLOGY.
Chairman.—Sir E. A. Schifer. 35 00
Secretary.—Professor Swale Vin-
cent.
Professor A. B. Macallum, Dr. L. E.

Shore, and Mrs.W. H. Thompson.
Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller. 20 00
Secretary.—Sir F. W. Hewitt.

Dr. Blumfeld, Mr. J. A. Gardner,

and Dr. G. A. Buckmaster.

Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller. 20 00
Secretary.—Mrs. Waller.
Professors J. B. Farmer, T. John-

son, and Veley, and Dr, F. O’B.

Ellison.

Chairman.—Professor J. H. Muir-| 20 00
head.

Secretary.—Dr. T. G. Maitland.

Dr. J. Jameson Evans and Dr.

C. 8. Myers.

Chairman.—Professor W.D. Halli-| 20 00

The Significance of the Electro-
motive Phenomena of the Heart,

burton.

Seeretary—Dr. Florence Buch-
anan.

Professor A. D. Waller.

lviii

Members of Committee Grants
|
et jae.
Metabolism of Phosphates. | Chairman.—Professor W. A. Os- 20 0 0
borne.
Secretary.—Miss Kincaid. |
Dr. Rothera, }
Section K.—BOTANY.
The Structure of Fossil Plants. | Chairman.—ProfessorF.W.Oliver.| 15 0 0
| Secretary.—Professor F. E. Weiss.
, Mr. E. Newell Arber, Professor A.C.
|. Seward, and Dr. D. H. Scott.
|

Experimental Studies in the | Chairman.—ProfessorF.F.Black- | 45 0 0

Physiology of Heredity. | man.
| Secretary.—Mr. R. P. Gregory
| Professors Bateson and Keeble |
and Miss E. R. Saunders.

The Renting of Cinchona Botanic . Chairman.—Professor F. O. Bower.) 25 0 0
Station in Jamaica. _ Seeretary.— Professor R. H. Yapp. |

| Professors R. Buller, F. W. Oliver,
and F, E. Weiss.

To carry out a Research on the | Chairman.—Professor ¥. O. Bower. 50 0 0
Influence of varying percent- Secretary.— Professor A. J. Ewart.
ages of Oxygen and of various | Professor F. F. Blackman.

Atmospheric Pressures upon
Geotropic and Heliotropic Ir-
ritability and Curvature.

Sec1ion L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
To inquire into and report upon Chairman.—Dr. C. 8S. Myers. 30 00 |

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose |

the methods and results of
research into the Mental and
Physical Factors involved in
Education.

Secretary.—Professor J. A. Green.

Professor J. Adams, Dr. G. A.
Auden, Sir E. Brabrook, Dr. W.
Brown, Mr. ©. Burt, Professor
E. P. Culverwell, Mr. G. F.
Daniell, Miss B. Foxley, Pro-
fessor R. A. Gregory, Dr.
C. W. Kimmins, Professor W.
McDougall, Dr. T. P. Nunn,
Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Dr. F. C.
Shrubsall, Mr.H. Bompas Smith,
Dr. CU. Spearman, and Mr. A. E.
Twentyman.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

The Influence of School Books |
| Seeretary.—Mr. G. F. Daniell.

upon Eyesight.

To inquire into and report on the |

number, distribution and re-
spective values of Scholarships,
Exhibitions, and Bursaries held
by University Students during
their undergraduate course, and
on funds private and open avail-
able for their augmentation.

_ To examine, inquire into, and re-

port on the Character, Work,
and Maintenance of Museums,
with a view to their Organisa-

tion and Development as In- |
stitutions for Education and —

Research; and especially to
inquire into the Requirements
of Schools.

Members of Committee

Chairman.—Dr. G. A. Auden.
Mr. C. H. Bothamley, Mr. W. D.

Kggar, Professor R. A. Gregory, |

Mr. J. L. Holland, Dr. W. E.

Sumpner, and Mr. Trevor Walsh. |

Chairman.—Sir Henry Miers.

Secretary. —Professor Marcus Har-
tog.

Miss Lilian J. Clarke, Miss B.
Foxley, Professor H. Bompas
Smith, and Principal Griffiths.

Chairman.—Professor J. A. Green.

Secretaries.— Mr. H. Bolton and
Dr. J. A. Clubb.

Dr. F. A. Bather, Mr. C. A. Buck-
master, Mr. Ernest Gray, Mr.
M. D. Hill, Dr. W. E. Hoyle,
Professors E. J. Garwood and
P. Newberry, Sir Richard
Temple, Mr. H. Hamshaw
Thomas, Professor F. E. Weiss,
Mrs. J. White, Rev. H. Browne,
Drs. A. C. Haddon and H. §S.
Harrison, Mr. Herbert R. Rath-
bone, and Dr. W. M. Tattersall.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Corresponding Societies Com-

Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker.

mittee for the preparation of | Secretary.—Mr.W. Mark Webb.

their Report.

Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward
Brabrook, Sir H. G. Fordham,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E, H.
Griffiths, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr.
T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson,
Mr. A. L. Lewis, Rev. T. R. R.
Stebbing, and the President
and General Officers of the
Association.

lix

Grants

20 00)

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.*

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Subject for [nvestigation, or Purpose |
|

Members of Committee

Sxectioy A.A—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Radiotelegraphic Investigations.

To aid the work of Establishing a Solar
Observatory in Australia.

*Determination of Gravity at Sea.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Research on the Utilization of Brown
Coal Bye-Products.

Toreport on the Botanical and Chemical
Characters of the Eucalypts and their
Correlation.

Secrion C.—GEOLOGY.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest.

To consider the Preparation of a List
of Stratigraphical Names, used in the
British Isles, in connection with the
Lexicon of Stratigraphical Names in
course of preparation by the Inter-
national Geological Congress.

| Chairman.—Sir Oliver Lodge.
Secretary.— Dr. W. H. Eccles.
Mr. 8. G. Brown, Dr. C. Chree, Professor

A. 8. Eddington, Dr. Erskine-Murray,
Professors J. A. Fleming, G. W. O.
Howe, H. M. Macdonald, and J. W.
Nicholson, Sir H. Norman, Captain
H. R. Sankey, Dr. A. Schuster, Dr.
W.N.Shaw, Professor 8. P. Thompson,
and Professor H. H. Turner.

Chairman.—

Secretary.—Dr. W. G. Duffield.

Rev. A. L. Cortie, Dr. W. J. 8. Lockyer,
Mr. F. McClean, and Professors A.
Schuster and H. H. Turner,

Chairman.—Professor A, E. Love.

Secretary.—Professor W. G. Duftield.

Mr. T. W. Chaundy and Professors A. 8.
Eddington and H. H. Turner.

Chairman.—Professor Orme Masson.
Secretary.—My. P. G. W. Bayly.
Mr. D. Avery.

Chairman.—Professor H, E. Armstrong.

Secretary.— Mr. H. G. Smith.

Dr. Andrews, Mr. R. T. Baker, Professor
F. O. Bower, Mr. R. H. Cambage,
Professor A. J. Ewart, Professor C. B.
Fawsitt, Dr. Heber Green, Dr. Cuth-
bert Hall, Professors Orme Masson,
Rennie, and Robinson, and Mr, St. |
Jobn.

Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.

Secretaries.—Professors W. W. Watts and |
8. H. Reynolds. i

Mr. G. Bingley, Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. |
V. Crook, Professor E. J. Garwood,
and Messrs. R. Kidston, A. 8. Reid, |
J. J. H. Teall, R. Welch, and W.
Whitaker.

Chairman.—Dr, J. E. Marr.

Secretary.—Dr. F'. A. Bather. |

Professor Grenville Cole, Mr. Bernard |
Hobson, Professor Lebour, Dr. J.
Horne, Dr. A. Strahan, and Professor |
W. W. Watts.

* Excepting the case of Committees receiving grants from the Caird Fund (p. lxviii),

RESEARCH COMMITTEES,

lxi

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

To consider the Nomenclature of the /

Carboniferous, Permo-Carboniferous,
and Permian Rocks of the Southern
Hemisphere.

Members of Committee

Chairman.—Professor T, W. Edgeworth
David.
Secretary.— Professor BE. W. Skeats.

| Mr. W.8. Dun, Sir T. H. Holland, Pro-

fessor Howchin, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh,
and Professor W. G. Woolnough.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

*To aid competent Investigators se-
lected by the Committee to carry on
definite pieces of work at the Zoolo-
gical Station at Naples.

To investigate the Feeding Habits of
British Birds by a study of the
contents of the crops and gizzards
of both adults and nestlings, and by
collation of observational evidence,
with the object of obtaining precise
knowledge as to the economic status
of many of our commoner birds
affecting rural science.

Todefray expensesconnected with work
on the Inheritance and Development
of Secondary Sexual Characters in
Birds.

To summon meetings in London or else-
where for the consideration of mat-
ters affecting the interests of Zoology
or Zoologists, and to obtain by corre-
spondence the opinion of Zoologists
on matters of a similar kind, with
power to raise by subscription from
each Zoologist a sum of money for
defraying current expenses of the
Organisation.

To nominate competent Naturalists to
perform definite pieces of work at
the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.

To formulate a Definite System on
which Collectors should record their
captures,

Chairman.—Mr. E. 8. Goodrich.

Secretary.— Dr. J. H. Ashworth.

Mr. G. P. Bidder, Professor F. O. Bower,
Drs. W. B. Hardy and 8, IF. Harmer,
Professor 8. J. Hickson, Sir HE. Ray
Lankester, Professor W. C. McIntosh,
and Dy, A. D. Waller.

| Chairman.—Dr. A. B. Shipley.

Secretary.—Mr. H. 8. Leigh.

Mr. J. N. Halbert, Professor Robert
Newstead, Messrs. Clement Reid,
A. G. L. Rogers, and F. V. Theobald,
Professor F. BE. Weiss, Dr. C. Gordon
Hewitt, and Professors S. J. Hickson,
F. W. Gamble, G. H. Carpenter, and
J. Arthur Thomson.

Chairvman.—Professor G, C. Bourne.

Secretary.—Myr, Geoflrey Smith.

Mr. E. 8. Goodrich, Dr. W. T. Calman,
and Dr. Marett Tims.

Chairman.—Sir BE. Ray Lankester.

Secretary.—Professor 8. J. Hickson.

Professors G. C. Bourne, J. Cossar Ewart,
M. Hartog, and W. A, Herdman, Mr.
M. D. Hill, Professors J. Graham Kerr
and Minchin, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell,
Professors E. B. Poulton and Stanley
Gardiner, and Dr, A. E, Shipley.

Chairman and Secretary.—Professor A.
Dendy.

Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor J. P.
Hill, and Mr. E. 8. Goodrich.

Chairxman.—Professor J. W. H. Trail.

Secretary.—Mr. F. Balfour Browne.

Drs. Scharff and E. J. Bles, Professors
G. H. Carpenter and E. B. Poulton,
and Messrs. A. G, Tansley and R, Lloyd
Praeger.

* See note on preceding page.

lxii

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

A Natural History Survey of the Isle
of Man.

Chairman.—Professor W, A. Herdman.

Secretary.—Mr. P. M. C. Kermode.

Dr. W. T. Calman, Rev. J. Davidson,
Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Professor E. W.
MacBride, and Lord Raglan.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

To inquire into the choice and style of | Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Atlas, Textual, and Wall Maps for
School and University Use.

|
|
|

Secretary.—Rev. W. J. Barton.

Professors R. L. Archer and R. N. R.

Brown, Mr. G. G. Chisholm, Professor
H. N. Dickson, Mr. A. R. Hinks, Mr.
O. J. R. Howarth, Sir Duncan John-
ston, and Mr. EK. A. Reeves.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

To consider and report on the Stan-
dardization of Impact Tests,

The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of Photo-
graphs of Anthropological Interest.

To conduct Archeological and Ethno-
logical Researches in Crete.

To report on the present state of know-
ledge of the Prehistoric Civilisation
of the Western Mediterranean with
a view to future research.

Toconduct Excavationsin Haster Island.

To report on Paleolithic Sites in the
West of England.

Chairman.—Professor W. H. Warren.

Secretary.—Mr. J. Vicars.

Mr. Julius, Professor Gibson, Mr. Hough-
ton, and Professor Payne.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Chairman.—Sir C. H. Read.
Secretary.—

Dr. G. A. Auden, Mr. E. Heawood, and |

Professor J. L. Myres.

Chairman.—My. D. G. Hogarth.
Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H. |

Duckworth, Sir A. J. Evans, Professor
W. Ridgeway, and Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.
Secretary.—Dr, T. Ashby.

| Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Mr. D. G.

Hogarth, Sir A. J. Evans, Professor
J. L. Myres, and Mr, A. J. B. Wace.

Chairman.—Dr. A. C. Haddon.
Secretary.—Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.

| Mr. R. R. Marett and Dr.C. G. Seligman.

Chairman.—Professor Boyd Dawkins.
Secretary.—Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth.
Professor A. Keith.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

lxili

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

The Teaching of Anthropology.

To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia.

To report on the Distribution of Bronze
Age Implements.

To investigate and ascertain the Distri-
bution of Artificial Islands in the
| lochs of the Highlands of Scotland.

To co-operate with Local Committees
in Excavations on Roman Sites in
Britain.

Chairman.—Sir Richard Temple.
Secretary.—Dr. A. C. Haddon.

| Sir E. F. im Thurn, Mr. W. Crooke, Dr.
C. G. Seligman, Professor G. Elliot
Smith, Dr. R. R. Marett, Professor
P. E. Newberry, Dr. G. A. Auden, Pro-
fessors T. H. Bryce, P. Thompson,
R. W. Reid, H. J. Fleure, and J. L.
Myres, Sir B. C. A. Windle, and Pro-
fessors R. J. A. Berry, Baldwin Spencer,
Sir T. Anderson Stuart, and E. C.
Stirling.

| Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.

_ Secretary.—Mr. A. J. B. Wace.

| Professors R. C. Bosanquet and J. L.
| Myres.

Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Secretary.— Mr, H. Peake.

Professor W. Ridgeway, Mr. H. Balfour,
Sir C. H. Read, Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins, and Dr. R. R. Marett.

Chairman.—Professor Boyd Dawkins.

Secretary.—Prof. J. L. Myres.

Professors T. H. Bryce and W. Ridgeway,
Dr. A. Low, and Mr. A. J. B. Wace.

| Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.

Secretary.—Professor R. C. Bosanquet.

Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. Willoughby Gardner,
and Professor J. L. Myres.

Secrion I.— PHYSIOLOGY.

The Dissociation of Oxy-Hemoglobin
at High Altitudes,

Colour Vision and Colour Blindness.

Calorimetric Observations on Man in
Health and in Febrile Conditions.

Further Researches on the Structure
and Function of the Mammalian
Heart.

The Binocular Combination of Kine-
matograph Pictures of different
Meaning, and its relation to the

Binocular Combinaticn of simpler |

Perceptions.

Chairman.—Professor E. H. Starling.
Secretary.—Dr. J. Barcroft.
Dr. W. B. Hardy.

Chairman.—Professor E. H. Starling.

Secretary.—Dr. Edridge-Green.

Professor Leonard Hill, Professor A. W.
Porter, Dr. A. D. Waller, Professor C. S.
Sherrington, and Dr. F. W. Mott.

Chatrman.—Professor J. 8. Macdonald.
Secretary.—Dr. Francis A. Duffield.
| Dr. Keith Lucas.

Chairman.— Professor C. 8. Sherrington.
Secretary.—Professor Stanley Kent.
Dr. Florence Buchanan.

| Chairman.—Dr. C. S. Myers.
Secretary.—T. H. Pear.

lxiv

RESOLUTIONS, ETC.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money —continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

Section K.—BOTANY.

To consider and report on the ad-
visability and the best means of
securing definite Areas for the
Preservation of Types of British
Vegetation.

The Investigation of the Vegetation of
Ditcham Park, Hampshire.

Chairman.—Professor F. E. Weiss.

Secretary. —Mr. A. G. Tansley.

Professor J. W. H. Trail, Mr. R. Lloyd
Praeger, Professor F. W. Oliver, Pro-
fessor R. W. Phillips, Dr. C. E. Moss,
and Messrs. G. C. Druce and H. W. T.
Wager.

Chairman.—Mr. A. G. Tansley.
Secretary.—My. R. 8. Adamson.
Dr. C. E. Moss and Professor R. H. Yapp.

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

To take notice of, and report upon |
changes in, Regulations—whether
Legislative, Administrative, or made
by Local Authorities — affecting
Secondary and Higher Education.

The Aims and Limits of Examinations.

Chairman.—Professor H. E, Armstrong.

Secretary.—Major E, Gray.

Miss Coignan, Principal Griffiths, Dr.
C. W. Kimmins, Sir Horace Plunkett,
Mr. H. Ramage, Professor M. EH. Sadler,
and Rt. Rev. J. HE. C. Welldon.

Chairman.—Professor M. E. Sadler.

Secretary.—Mr. P. J. Hartog.

Mr. D. P. Berridge, Professor G. H.
Bryan, Mr. W. D. Eggar, Professor
R. A. Gregory, Principal E. H.
Griffiths, Miss C. L. Laurie, Dr. W.
McDougall, Mr: David Mair, Dr. T. P.
Nunn, Sir W. Ramsay, Rt. Rev. J. E. C.
Welldon, Dr. Jessie White, and Mr.
G. U. Yule.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso.
Section A.—Joint Discussion with Section B on the Structure of Atoms and

Molecules.

Section A.—Dr. E. Goldstein: Salts coloured by Cathode Rays.
Section C.—Discussion on Physiography of Arid Lands.

Section D.—Discussion on Antarctica.

Section I.—Dr. J. W. Barrett: The Problem of the Visual Requirements of the

Sailor and the Railway Employee.

Section M.—Dr. Lyman J. Briggs: Dry-farming Investigations in the United States.

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable,
for action.

(a) From Sections A and C.

‘That in view of the fact that meteorites, which convey information of world-
wide importance, are sometimes disposed of privately, in such a way as to deprive
the public of this information, the Council be requested to take such steps as may
initiate international legislation on the matter.’

(b) From Section A.

‘That the British Association respectfully urge the need for the establishment
in Australia of a Bureau of Weights and Measures, with the view of legalising the

RESEARCH COMMITTHES. lxv

metric system as an alternative standard (as in Great Britain). They would also
cordially welcome the inclusion of Australia as a member of the International
Convention.’

‘That the British Association learns with great satisfaction that the State
Government of Victoria has put a definite annual grant at the disposal of the
Director of the Melbourne Observatory for printing the work already done at the
Observatory. It is very desirable that every effort should be made to publish as soon
as possible the arrears accumulated during the past thirty years.’

(d) Hrom Sections C and L.

‘The Committees of the Geographical and Geological Sections of the British
Association wish to draw attention to the high scientific value and practical
importance of systematic glacial observation in New Zealand, and venture to urge
upon the favourable consideration of the Government of the Dominion the great
importance of continuing and extending the work which is now being done in this
direction by officers of the Government, as far as possible in conformity with the
methods adopted by the Commission Internationale des Glaciers.’

(e) From Sections Cand EL.

‘The Geographical and Geological Sections of the British Association respect-
fully request the Secretary of State for the Colonies to establish on certain islands
in the Coral Seas—in extension of a plan that has lately been presented to His
Excellency the Governor of Fiji, and by him submitted for the favourable con-
sideration of the Legislative Council of that Colony—a number of bench-marks,
with respect to which the mean level of the sea surface shall be accurately deter-
mined once every ten years, in order to discover, after a century or longer, whether
any change takes place in the altitude of land with respect to the sea.

‘It is suggested that a uniform plan for this work be prepared by the appropriate
Government department, and that an abstract of the results obtained for each decade
be forwarded to the British Association for publication.’

(f) From Section C.

‘ That the Committee of Section C submits for favourable consideration to the
committee of Recommendations of the British Association the question of urging
the Federal and State Governments-in Australia to co-operate in undertaking, as
soon as possible, a gravity survey of the Earth’s crust within the area of the
Commonwealth. The Committee suggests that the work be commenced in the
region of the Great Rift Valley of Australia, extending from near Adelaide north-
wards to Lake Eyre.’

(g) From Section E.

‘The Committee of Section E most warmly favours the project of a uniform
Map of the World on a scale of 1:1,000,000, and expresses the hope that the sheets
of Australia may be undertaken as soon as possible, on the same plan as has lately
been adopted by the War Office in London for a map of Africa, and by the
Geological Survey in Washington for the U.S.A. To this end they regard it as
desirable that in the extensive surveys which the several States of the Common-
wealth are carrying on, as much stress should be laid upon the geographical features
of the land, the watercourses and the mountains, as upon property boundaries, and
that in particular the determination of altitudes should be carried on, in order
eventually to provide the basis for contoured maps.’

(h) From Sections D and K.

‘It is with much pleasure that we ascertain that a Bill has been prepared by the
present Government of South Australia for the establishment of a reserve of 300
square miles situated on the western end of Kangaroo Island for the preservation of
the fauna and flora, which are fast being exterminated on the mainland. and that
this reserve will be placed under the control of a Board nominated by the University
of Adelaide and the Government. We trust that this Bill will become law at an
early date.’

Ixvi RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

(i) From the Committee uf Recommendations.

‘That in view of the successful issue of the Australian Meeting of the Associa-
tion, the Council be asked to consider the best means of bringing into closer
relationship the British Association and scientific representatives from the
Dominions overseas.’

Synopsis of Grants of Money (exclusive of Grants from the Caird

Fund) appropriated for Scientific Purposes on behalf of the General
Committee at the Australian Meeting, September 1914. The
Names of Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer for the
Grants are prefixed to the respective Research Committees.

Section A.—Mathematical and Physical Science.

6, a.
*Turner, Professor H. H.—Seismological Observations ......... 760 O O
*Shaw, Dr. W. N.—Upper Atmosphere ...................0.000 008 235) 10 Ag)
*Ramsay, Sir W.—Annual Table of Constants and Numerical

A ata Sale Pees Sake aoe ci aise sO ape a aes See eae 40 0 0
*Hill, Professor M. J. M.—Calculation of Mathematical

Thies 2s et ee ee SI 2 GOP Ra gene Cele a) —)

Section B.—Chemistry.
*Perkin, Dr. W. H.—-Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances 15 0 0
*Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Dynamic Isomerism ............ 40 0 0
*Kipping, Professor F. §.—Transformation of Aromatic Nitro-

AMINES... see ees eee ne Sas fe Jase cates tare era Ee OO
*Hall, A. D.—Study of Plant Enzymes. Sets 30 0 0
*Pope, Professor W. J.—Correlation of Crystalline Form with

WiGlecilar Struehures sc tsesenc: hac kente senna Rar sreeeete, ere 25 0 0
*Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Solubility Phenomena ......... 10-0 0

Masson, Professor Orme.—Chemical Investigation of Natural
Plant ‘Products soz. See ee es ie ee ce 13) 0 Yes! Oo
Masson, Professor Orme.—Influence of Weather Conditions
on Nitrogen Acids in Rainfall . ee Pk
Chattaway, Dr. F. D.—Non- aromatic Diazonium Salts ...... 10 0 0
Section C.—Geology.
*Tiddeman, R. H.—Erratic Blocks .......... Mee gOo 0
*Kendall, Professor P. F.—List of Ghanterer eee ees ak 10 0 O
*Cole, Professor Grenville.—Old Red Sandstone Rocks of

Kiltorcan ....... ls : i 1070-0
*Barrow, G. —Trias of ‘Western Midlahden tases ava, ao 10 0 0
*Watts, Professor W. W.—Sections in Lower Paleozoic

Rocks «2030s 050d 55 oe Eee eee eaetoceae cer Lo» 40) -O

Carried forward ..> 24 SEU ess nennorinesbon-nreve ase aee, Oe O

~ Reappointed

+ In addition, the Council are authorised to expend a sum not exceeding £70 on
the printing of circulars, &c., in connection with the Committee on Seismological
Observations.

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.

£
EPGUBIG LOE WALD waxisccce cc. MMMs tay padace'sca vee denssg (44D
Section D. ~ rodlegy,
*Shipley, Dr. A. E—Belmullet Whaling Station ............... 45
*Mitchell, Dr. Chalmers.—Nomenclator ” Animalium.. Br 25
Herdman, Professor W. A. —Biology of Abrolhos Islands... 40
Dendy, Professor A.—Collection of Marsupials ............... - 100
Section E.—Geography.

Lucas, Sir C. P.—Conditions determining Selection of Sites
APD IEE TG Sig 0) ol Nas 2 a a 20
Chisholm, G. G.—Survey of Stor Fjord, Spitsbergen ... ..... 50

David, Professor T. W. E.—Antarctic Bathymetrical Chart 100

Section F.—Economic Science and Statistics.
*Muirhead, Professor J. F.—Fatigue from Economic Stand-

eMart oe es seas cS earner «sy ooi acwneasdceue jagehause. COU
Section G.—Engineering.

*Clerk, Dr. Dugald.—Gaseous Explosions .................... ... 50

*Perry, Professor J.—Stress Distributions ........................ 50

Section H.—Anthropology.
*Dawkins, Professor Boyd.—Lake Villages in the neighbour-

eral bwais x LSTORMOUET YO nia v fee ae cede oe hinck Bete sab doedna 20
*Read, sir C. H.—Age of Stone Circles ...... 26.0.5... .secsccse ees 20
*Smith, Professor G. Elliot.—Physical Characters of the

Ancient Egyptians .. 34
*Myres, Professor J. L. ~ Anthropometric ‘Investigations in

EE BU i CO ed kee OR PEE TE A REE er nO Ee OCB RRS LIE 50
*Marett, Dr. R. R.— Paleolithic Site in Jersey .................. 50

Myres, Professor J. L.—Excavations in Malta.. eek 10
Spencer, Professor Baldwin.— Gazetteer and Map of Native
Tribes of Australia .. Ga Makersivess watiocattectteudrivesticeey OU

Section I.— Physiology

*Schafer, Sir E. A.—The Ductless Glands ..,..............ccceaee 35
*Waller, Dr. A. D.—Anesthetics ....... samme,
*Waller, Dr. A. D.—Electromotive Phenomena i in 1 Plants... Epes 20
*Muir head, Professor J. F.—Miners’ Nystagmus ................ 20
Osborne, Professor W. A.—Metabolism of Phosphates | Caer 20
Halliburton, Professor W. D.—Electromotive Phenomena of
Pie ERE Uae ate Ayah eben We SBR eis cu ails <es cadnks'nmasirasls aad tedoas 20
Section K.— Botany.
*Oliver, Professor F. W.—Structure of Fossil Plants ......... 15
*Blackman, Professor F. F.—Physiology of Heredity ......... 45

*Bower, Professor F. O.—Renting of Cinchona Botanic Sta-
LO Mae yes) eA NAN LC ae saraiieiciestr eas sicis'e vstiscisiseereie urd aalaekisle ees opens soic.es +

REE MMOWHEO! 204228 ccc rox cas sicnepemnaer deus caitees << £1,079

* Reappointed.

oO OS

Sorc

oococo

Src

i=) oocooco So coo

(7 Sie = Fae ae = Woe)

STISH BI

Py * .
Upar ret Oo

bxvili SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.

Leeds
IBIOU LIE LOL WANG.) asides es crcl satee geaaeisns sie otoare 1,379.16 <6
Bower, Professor F. O.—Influence of Percentages of Oxygen,
&ec., on Geotropic and Heliotropic Irritation and Curva-
ERIE Pc toNe ed, Namen eee san ate eyrurclanteltsoe patpins heufe.e couen'eir tie Sean 50= 00
Lawson, Professor A. A.— Australian Cycadacer ............ 2 0 0
Lang, Professor W. H.—Sections of Australian Fossil Plants 25 0 0

Section L.—LEducation.
*Myers, Dr. C. S.—Mental and Physical Factors involved in

PCALIOM sip u dpa ledeisiaa aelaee canes tes Ades een sie MRLs oomee ove gat 30 0.0

* Auden, Dr. G. A.—Influence of School Books on Eyesight... 5 0 O

* Miers, Sir H.—Scholarships, &c., held by University Students 5 0 0
*Green, Professor J. A.—Character, Work, and Maintenance

OP Mase WAS Hie, ners basen s nate Parsoterahog ss ssa5 sp «aden Meena ieee 20 0 0

Corresponding Societies Committee.
* Whitaker, W.—For Preparation of Report ..........:..s.s0008 25 0 0
OGRE a0 scus «soot £1,634 16 6

* Reappointed.
+ Including £70 as specified in footnote on p. Ixvi.

Carrp Funp.

An unconditional gift of 10,000/. was made to the Association at the
Dundee Meeting, 1912, by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. K. Caird, LL.D., of
Dundee.

The Council in its Report to the General Committee at the Bir-
mingham Meeting made certain recommendations as to the administra-
tion of this Fund. These recommendations were adopted, with the
Report, by the General Committee at its meeting on September 10, 1913.

The following allocations have been made from the Fund by the
Council to December 1914 :—

Naples Zoological Station Committee (p. 1xi).—50/. (1912-13) ; 1007.
(1913-14) ; 1007. annually in future, subject to the adoption of the Com-
mittee’s report.

Seismology Committee (p. lii).—100/. (1913-14); 1002. annually in
future, subject to the adoption of the Committee’s report.

Radiotelegraphic Committee (p. 1x). — 5007. (1913-14).

Magnetic Re-survey of the British Isles (in collaboration with the
Royal Society).—250/.

Committee on Determination of Gravity at Sea (p. 1|x).—1001.
(1914-15). .

Mr. F. Sargent, Bristol University, in connection with his Astro-
nomical Work.—10I. (1914).

ir J. K. Caird, on September 10, 1913, made a further gift of 1,000/.
¥be Association, to be devoted to the study of Radio-activity.
9%

i -

-PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

ADDRESS
BY

Proressor WILLIAM BATESON, M.A., F.RB.S.,
PRESIDENT.

Part I—MELBOURNE:!

Tue outstanding feature of this Meeting must be the fact that we are
here—in Australia. It is the function of a President to tell the
Association of advances in science, to speak of the universal rather than
of the particular or the temporary. There will be other opportunities
of expressing the thoughts which this event must excite in the dullest
heart, but it is right that my first words should take account of those
achievements of organisation and those acts of national generosity by
which it has come to pass that we are assembled in this country. Let
us, too, on this occasion, remember that all the effort, and all the
- goodwill, that binds Australia to Britain would have been powerless to
bring about such a result had it not been for those advances in science
which have given man a control of the forces of Nature. For we are
here by virtue of the feats of genius of individual men of science,
giant-variations from the common level of our species; and since I am
going soon to speak of the significance of individual variation, I cannot
introduce that subject better than by calling to remembrance the line
of pioneers in chemistry, in physics, and in engineering, by the work-
ing of whose rare—or, if you will, abnormal—intellects a meeting of
the British Association on this side of the globe has been made physically
possible.

I have next to refer to the loss within the year of Sir David Gill,
a former President of this Association, himself one of the outstanding
great. His greatness lay in the power of making big foundations. Ha
built up the Cape Observatory; he organised international geodesy ; he
conceived and carried through the plans for the photography of the
whole sky, a work in which Australia is bearing a conspicuous part.

> Delivered in Melbourne on Friday, August 14, 1914.
B2

4 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Astronomical observation ig now organised on an international scale,
and of this great scheme Gill was the heart and soul. His labours have
ensured a base from which others will proceed to discovery otherwise
impossible. His name will be long remembered with veneration and

gratitude.

As the subject of the Addresses which I am to deliver here and
in Sydney I take Heredity. I shall attempt to give the essence
of the discoveries made by Mendelian or analytical methods of
study, and I shall ask you to contemplate the deductions which these
physiological facts suggest in application both to evolutionary theory at
large and to the special case of the natural history of human society.

Recognition of the significance of heredity is modern. The term
itself in its scientific sense is no older than Herbert Spencer. Animals
and plants are formed as pieces of living material split from the body
of the parent organisms. Their powers and faculties are fixed in their
physiological origin. They are the consequence of a genetic process,
and yet it is only lately that this genetic process has become the subject
of systematic research and experiment. The curiosity of naturalists
has of course always been attracted to such problems; but that accurate
knowledge of genetics is of paramount importance in any attempt to
understand the nature of living things has only been realised quite
lately even by naturalists, and with casual exceptions the laity still
know nothing of the matter. Historians debate the past of the human
species, and statesmen order its present or profess to guide its future
as if the animal Man, the unit of their calculations, with his vast
diversity of powers, were a homogeneous material, which can be
multiplied like shot.

The reason for this neglect lies in ignorance and misunderstanding
of the nature of Variation; for not until the fact of congenital diversity
is grasped, with all that it imports, does knowledge of the system of
hereditary transmission stand out as a primary necessity in the con-
struction of any theory of Evolution, or any scheme of human polity.

The first full perception of the significance of variation we owe to
Darwin. The present generation of evolutionists realises perhaps more
. fully than did the scientific world in the last century that the theory of
Evolution had occupied the thoughts of many and found acceptance
with not a few before ever the ‘ Origin’ appeared. We have come also
to the conviction that the principle of Natural Selection cannot have
been the chief factor in delimiting the species of animals and plants,
such as we now with fuller knowledge see them actually to be. We
are even more sceptical as to the validity of that appeal to changes in
the conditions of life as direct causes of modification, upon which
latterly at all events Darwin laid much emphasis. But that he was the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 5

first to provide a body of fact demonstrating the variability of living
things, whatever be its causation, can never be questioned.

There are some older collections of evidence, chiefly the work of
the French school, especially of Godron?—and I would mention also
the almost forgotten essay of Wollaston *—these however are only
fragments in comparison. Darwin regarded variability as a property
inherent in living things, and eventually we must consider whether this
conception is well founded ; but postponing that inquiry for the present,
we may declare that with him began a general recognition of variation
as a phenomenon widely occurring in Nature.

If a population consists of members which are not alike but differen-
tiated, how will their characteristics be distributed among their off-
spring? This is the problem which the modern student of heredity
sets out to investigate. Formerly it was hoped that by’ the simple
inspection of embryological processes the modes of heredity might be
ascertained, the actual mechanism by which the offspring is formed
from the body of the parent. In that endeavour a noble pile of
evidence has been accumulated. All that can be made visible by
existing methods has been seen, but we come little if at all nearer to
the central mystery. We see nothing that we can analyse further—
nothing that can be translated into terms less inscrutable than the
physiological events themselves. Not only does embryology give no
direct aid, but the failure of cytology is, so far as I can judge, equally
complete. The chromosomes of nearly related creatures may be
utterly different both in number, size, and form. Only one piece of
evidence encourages the old hope that a connection might be traceable
between the visible characteristics of the body and those of the chromo-
somes. I refer of course to the accessory chromosome, which in many
animals distinguishes the spermatozoon about to form a female in
fertilisation. Even it however cannot be claimed as the cause of
sexual differentiation, for it may be paired in forms closely allied to
those in which it is unpaired or accessory. The distinction may be
present or wanting, like any other secondary sexual character. Indeed,
so long as no one can show consistent distinctions between the
cytological characters of somatic tissues in the same individual we
can scarcely expect to perceive such distinctions between the chromo-
somes of the various types.

For these methods of attack we now substitute another, less
ambitious, perhaps, because less comprehensive, but not less direct.
If we cannot see how a fowl by its egg and its sperm gives rise to

? De VEspéce et des Races dans les Btres Organisés, 1859.
* On the Variation of Species, 1856.

6 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

a chicken or how a Sweet Pea from its ovule and its pollen grain
produces another Sweet Pea, we at least can watch the system
by which the differences between the various kinds of fowls or
between the various kinds of Sweet Peas are distributed among the
offspring. By thus breaking the main problem up into its parts
we give ourselves fresh chances. This analytical study we call
Mendelian because Mendel was the first to apply it. To be sure, he
did not approach the problem by any such line of reasoning as I
have sketched. His object was to determine the genetic definite-
ness of species; but though in his writings he makes no mention of
inheritance it-is clear that he had the extension in view. By cross-
breeding he combined the characters of varieties in mongrel individuals
and set himself to see how these characters would be distributed among
the individuals of subsequent generations. Until he began this analysis
nothing but the vaguest answers to such a question had been attempted.
The existence of any orderly system of descent was never even sus-
pected. In their manifold complexity human characteristics seemed
to follow no obvious system, and the fact was taken as a fair sample
of the working of heredity.

Misconception was especially brought in by describing descent in
terms of ‘blood.’ The common speech uses expressions such as
consanguinity, pure-blooded, half-blood, and the like, which call up a
misleading picture to the mind. Blood is in some respects a fluid,
and thus it is supposed that this fluid can be both quantitatively and
qualitatively diluted with other bloods, just as treacle can be diluted
with water. Blood in primitive physiology being the peculiar vehicle
of life, at once its essence and its corporeal abode, these ideas of
dilution and compounding of characters in the commingling of bloods
inevitably suggest that the ingredients of the mixture once combined are
inseparable, that they can be brought together in any relative amounts,
and in short that in heredity we are concerned mainly with a quantita-
tive problem. ‘Truer notions of genetic physiology are given by the
Hebrew expression ‘ seed.’ If we speak of a man as ‘ of the blood-
royal ’ we think at once of plebeian dilution, and we wonder how much
of the royal fluid is likely to be ‘in his veins’; but if we say he is
‘ of the seed of Abraham’ we feel something of the permanence and
indestructibility of that germ which can be divided and scattered among
all nations, but remains recognisable in type and characteristics after
4,000 years.

I knew a breeder who had a chest containing bottles of coloured
liquids by which he used to illustrate the relationships of his dogs,
pouring from one to another and titrating them quantitatively to illus-
trate their pedigrees. Galton was beset by the same kind of mistake
when he promulgated his ‘ Law of Ancestral Heredity.’ With modern

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 7

research all this has been cleared away. The allotment of character-
istics among offspring is not accomplished by the exudation of drops
of a tincture representing the sum of the characteristics of the parent
organism, but by a process of cell-division, in which numbers of these
characters, or rather the elements upon which they depend, are sorted
out among the resulting germ-cells in an orderly fashion. What these
elements, or factors as we call them, are we do not know. That they
are in some way directly transmitted by the material of the ovum and
of the spermatozoon is obvious, but it seems to me unlikely that they
are in any simple or literal sense material particles. I suspect rather
that their properties depend on some phenomenon of arrangement.
However that may be, analytical breeding proves that it is according
to the distribution of these genetic factors, to use a non-committal term,
that the characters of the offspring are decided. The first business of
experimental genetics is to determine their number and interactions,
and then to make an analysis of the various types of life.

Now the ordinary genealogical trees, such as those which the stud-
books provide in the case of the domestic animals, or the Heralds’
College provides in the case of man, tell nothing of all this. Such
methods of depicting descent cannot even show the one thing they are
devised to show—purity of ‘ blood.’ For at last we know the physio- —
logical meaning of that expression. An organism is pure-bred when it .
has been formed by the union in fertilisation of two germ-cells which
are alike in the factors they bear; and since the factors for the several
characteristics are independent of each other, this question of purity
must be separately considered for each of them. A man, for example,
may be pure-bred in respect of his musical ability and cross-bred in
respect of the colour of his eyes or the shape of his mouth. Though
we know nothing of the essential nature of these factors, we know
a good deal of their powers. They may confer height, colour, shape,
instincts, powers both of mind and body—indeed, so many of the
attributes which animals and plants possess, that we feel justified in
the expectation that with continued analysis they will be proved to be
responsible for most if not all of the differences by which the varying
individuals of any species are distinguished from each other. I will
not assert that the greater differences which characterise distinct Species
are due generally to such independent factors, but that is the conclusion
to which the available evidence points. All this is now so well under-
stood, and has been so often demonstrated and expounded, that details
of evidence are now superfluous.

But for the benefit of those who are unfamiliar with such work let me
briefly epitomise its main features and consequences. Since genetic
factors are definite things, either present in or absent from any germ-
cell, the individual may be either ‘ pure-bred ’ for any particular factor,

8 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

or its absence, if he is constituted by the union of two germ-cells both
possessing or both destitute of that factor. If the individual is thus
pure, all his germ-cells will in that respect be identical, for they are
simply bits of the similar germ-cells which united in fertilisation to
produce the parent organism. We thus reach the essential principle,
that an organism cannot pass on to offspring a factor which it did not
itself receive in fertilisation. Parents, therefore, which are both
destitute of a given factor can only produce offspring equally destitute
of it; and, on the contrary, parents both pure-bred for the presence
of a factor produce offspring equally pure-bred for its presence.
Whereas the germ-cells of the pure-bred are all alike, those of the
cross-bred, which results from the union of dissimilar germ-cells, are
mixed in character. Hach positive factor segregates from its negative
opposite, so that some germ-cells carry the factor and some do not.
Once the factors have been identified by their effects, the average com-
position of the several kinds of families formed from the various
matings can be predicted.

Only those who have themselves witnessed the fixed operations of
these simple rules can feel their full significance. We come to look
behind the simulacrum of the individual body, and we endeavour to
disintegrate its features into the genetic elements by whose union the
body was formed. Set out in cold general phrases such discoveries
may seem remote from ordinary life. Become familiar with them and
you will find your outlook on the world has changed. Watch the effects
of segregation among the living things with which you have to do—
plants, fowls, dogs, horses, that mixed concourse of humanity we call
the English race, your friends’ children, your own children, yourself—
and however firmly imagination be restrained to the bounds of the
known and the proved, you will feel something of that range of insight
into Nature which Mendelism has begun to give. The question is
often asked whether there are not also in operation systems of descent
quite other than those contemplated by the Mendelian rules. I myself
have expected such discoveries, but hitherto none have been plainly
demonstrated. It is true we are often puzzled by the failure of a
parental type to reappear in its completeness after a cross—the merino
sheep or the fantail pigeon, for example. These exceptions may still
be plausibly ascribed to the interference of a multitude of factors, a
suggestion not easy to disprove; though it seems to me equally likely
that segregation has been in reality imperfect. Of the descent of quan-
titative characters we still know practically nothing. . These and hosts
of difficult cases remain almost untouched. In particular the discovery
of KH. Baur, and the evidence of Winkler in regard to his ‘ graft hybrids,’
both showing that the sub-epidermal layer of a plant—the layer from
which the germ-cells are derived—may bear exclusively the characters

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 9

of a part only of the soma, give hints of curious complications, and
suggest that in plants at least the interrelations between soma and
gamete may be far less simple than we have supposed. Nevertheless,
speaking generally, we see nothing to indicate that qualitative characters
descend, whether in plants or animals, according to systems which
are incapable of factorial representation.

The body of evidence accumulated by this method of analysis is
now very large, and is still growing fast by the labours of many workers.
Progress is also beginning along many novel and curious lines. The
details are too technical for inclusion here. Suffice it to say that not
only have we proof that segregation affects a vast range of characteris-
tics, but in the course of our analysis phenomena of most unexpected
kinds have been encountered. Some of these things twenty years ago
must have seemed inconceivable. For example, the two sets of sex
organs, male and female, of the same plant may not be carrying the
same characteristics ; in some animals characteristics, quite independent
of sex, may be distributed solely or predominantly to one sex; in
certain species the male may be breeding true to its own type, while
the female is permanently mongrel, throwing off eggs of a distinct
variety in addition to those of its own type; characteristics, essentially
independent, may be associated in special combinations which are
largely retained in the next generation, so that among the grand-
children there is numerical preponderance of those combinations which
existed in the grandparents—a discovery which introduces us to a new
phenomenon of polarity in the onganism.

We are accustomed to the fact that the fertilised egg has a polarity,
a front and hind end for example; but we have now to recognise that it,
or the primitive germinal cells formed from it, may have another
polarity shown in the groupings of the parental elements. Iam entirely
sceptical as to the occurrence of segregation solely in the maturation of
the germ-cells,* preferring at present to regard it as a special case of
that patchwork condition we see in so many plants. These mosaics
may break up, emitting bud-sports at various cell-divisions, and I
suspect that the great regularity seen in the F, ratios of the cereals, for
example, is a consequence of very late segregation, whereas the exces-
sive irregularity found in other cases may be taken to indicate that
segregation can happen at earlier stages of differentiation.

The paradoxical descent of colour-blindness and other sex-limited
conditions—formerly regarded as an inscrutable caprice of nature—has
been represented with approximate correctness, and we already know
something as to the way, or, perhaps, I should say ways, in which the

“The fact that in certain plants the male and female organs respectively
carry distinct factors may be quoted as almost decisively negativing the sug-
gestion that segregation is confined to the reduction division,

10 © PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

determination of sex is accomplished in some of the forms of life—
though, I hasten to add, we have no inkling as to any method by which
that determination may be influenced or directed. It is obvious that
such discoveries have bearings on most of the problems, whether
theoretical or practical, in which animals and plants are concerned.
Permanence or change of type, perfection of type, purity or mixture
of race, ‘ racial development,’ the succession of forms, from being vague
phrases expressing matters of degree, are now seen to be capable of
acquiring physiological meanings, already to some extent assigned with
precision. For the naturalist—and it is to him that I am especially
addressing myself to-day—these things are chiefly significant as relating
to the history of organic beings—the theory of Evolution, to use our
modern name. They have, as I shall endeavour to show in my second
address to be given in Sydney, an immediate reference to the conduct
of human society.

I suppose that everyone is familiar in outline with the theory of
the Origin of Species which Darwin promulgated. Through the last
fifty years this theme of the Natural Selection of favoured races has been
developed and expounded in writings innumerable. Favoured races
certainly can replace others. The argument is sound, but we are doubt-
ful of its value. For us that debate stands adjourned. We go to
Darwin for his incomparable collection of facts. We would fain
emulate his scholarship, his width and his power of exposition, but
to us he speaks no more with philosophical authority. We read his
scheme of Evolution as we would that of Lucretius or of Lamarck,
delighting in their simplicity and their courage. The practical and
experimental study of Variation and Heredity has not merely opened
a new field; it has given a new point of view and new standards of
criticism. Naturalists may still be found expounding teleological
systems’ which would have delighted Dr. Pangloss himself, but at
the present time few are misled. The student of genetics knows that

° TI take the following from the Abstract of a recent Croonian Lecture
‘On the Origin of Mammals’ delivered to the Royal Society :—‘In
Upper Triassic times the larger Cynodonts preyed upon the large
Anomodont, Kannemeyeria, and carried on their existence so long as these
Anomodonts survived, but died out with them about the end of the Trias or
in Rhetic times. The small Cynodonts, having neither small Anomodonts nor
small Cotylosaurs to feed on, were forced to hunt the very active long-limbed
Thecodonts. The greatly increased activity brought about that series of
changes which formed the mammals—the flexible skin with hair, the four-
chambered heart and warm blood, the loose jaw with teeth for mastication,
an increased development of tactile sensation and a great increase of cerebrum.
Not improbably the attacks of the newly evolved Cynodont or mammalian type
brought about a corresponding evolution in the Pseudosuchian Thecodonts, which
ultimately resulted in the formation of Dinosaurs and Birds.’ Broom, R.,
Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 87, p. 88.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 11

the time for the development of theory is not yet. He would rather
stick to the seed-pan and the incubator.

In face of what we now know of the distribution of variability in
nature the scope claimed for Natural Selection in determining the fixity
of Species must be greatly reduced. The doctrine of the survival of the
fittest is undeniable so long as it is applied to the organism as a whole,
but to attempt by this principle to find value in all definiteness of parts
and functions, and in the name of Science to see fitness everywhere
is mere eighteenth-century optimism. Yet it was in application to the
parts, to the details of specific difference, to the spots on the peacock’s
tail, to the colouring of an Orchid flower, and hosts of such examples,
that the potency of Natural Selection was urged with the strongest
emphasis. Shorn of these pretensions the doctrine of the survival of
favoured races is a truism, helping scarcely at all to account for the
diversity of species. Tolerance plays almost as considerable a part.
By these admissions almost the last shred of that teleological fustian
with which Victorian philosophy loved to clothe the theory of Evolu-
tion is destroyed. Those who would proclaim that whatever is is right
will be wise henceforth to base this faith frankly on the impregnable
rock of superstition, and to abstain from direct appeals to natural fact.

My predecessor said last year that in physics the age is one of rapid
progress and profound scepticism. In at least as high a degree this is
true of Biology, and as a chief characteristic of modern evolutionary .
thought we must confess also to a deep but irksome humility in
presence of great vital problems. Every theory of Hvolution must be
such as to accord with the facts of physics and chemistry, a primary
necessity to which our predecessors paid small heed. For them the
unknown was a rich mine of possibilities on which they could freely
draw. For us it is rather an impenetrable mountain out of which the
truth can be chipped in rare and isolated fragments. Of the physics and
chemistry of life we know next to nothing. Somehow the characters
of living things are bound up in properties of colloids, and are largely
determined by the chemical powers of enzymes, but the study of these
classes of matter has only fust begun. Living things are found by a
simple experiment to have powers undreamt of, and who knows what
may be behind?

Naturally we turn aside from generalities. It is no time to discuss
the origin of the Mollusca or of Dicotyledons, while we are not even
gure how it came to pass that Primula obconica has in twenty-five years
produced its abundant new forms almost under our eyes. Knowledge
of heredity has so reacted on our conceptions of variation that very
competent men are even denying that variation in the old sense is a
genuine occurrence at all. Variation is postulated as the basis of all
evolutionary change. Do we then as a matter of fact find in the world

12 PRESIDENT’S. ADDRESS.

about us variations occurring of such a kind as to warrant faith in a
contemporary progressive Evolution? ‘Till lately most of us would
have said ‘ yes’ without misgiving. We should have pointed, as
Darwin did, to the immense range of diversity seen in many wild
species, so commonly that the difficulty is to define the types them-
selves. Still more conclusive seemed the profusion of forms in the
various domesticated animals and plants, most of them incapable of
existing even for a generation in the wild state, and therefore fixed
unquestionably by human selection. These, at least, for certain, are
new forms, often distinct enough to pass for species, which has arisen
by variation. But when analysis is applied to this mass of variation
the matter wears a different aspect. Closely examined, what is the
“variability ’ of wild species? What is the natural fact which is
denoted by the statement that a given species exhibits much variation ?
Generally one of two things: either that the individuals collected in one
locality differ among themselves; or perhaps more often that samples
from separate localities differ from each other. As direct evidence of
variation it is clearly to the first of these phenomena that we must
have recourse—the heterogeneity of a population breeding together in
one area. This heterogeneity may be in any degree, ranging from
slight differences that systematists would disregard, to a complex
variability such as we find in some moths, where there is an abund-
ance of varieties so distinct that many would be classified as specific
forms but for the fact that all are freely breeding together. Naturalists
formerly supposed that any of these varieties might be bred from any
of the others. Just as the reader of novels is prepared to find that
any kind of parents may have any kind of children in the course of the
story, so was the evolutionist ready to believe that any pair of moths
might produce any of the varieties included in the species. Genetic
analysis has disposed of all these mistakes. We have no longer the
smallest doubt that in all these examples the varieties stand in a regular
descending order, and that they are simply terms in a series of com-
binations of factors separately transmitted, of which each may be
present or absent. t
The appearance of contemporary variability proves to be an illusion.
Variation from step to step in the series must occur either by the
addition or by the loss of a factor. Now, of the origin of new forms
‘ by loss there seems to me to be fairly clear evidence, but of the con-
temporary acquisition of any new factor I see no satisfactory proof,
though I admit there are rare examples which may be so interpreted.
We are left with a picture of variation utterly different from that
which we saw at first. Variation now stands out as a definite physio-
logical event. We have done with the notion that Darwin came latterly
to favour, that large differences can arise by accumulation of small

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 13

differences. Such small differences are often mere ephemeral effects
of conditions of life, and as such are not transmissible; but even small
differences, when truly genetic, are factorial like the larger ones, and
there is not the slightest reason for supposing that they are capable
of summation. As to the origin or source of these positive separable
factors, we are without any indication or surmise. By their effects
we know them to be definite, as definite, say, as the organisms which
produce diseases; but how they arise and how they come to take part
in the composition of the living creature so that when present they are
treated in cell-division as constituents of the germs, we cannot con-
jecture.

It was a commonplace of evolutionary theory that at least the
domestic animals have been developed from a few wild types. Their
origin was supposed to present no difficulty. The various races of
fowl, for instance, all came from Gallus bankiva, the Indian jungle-
fowl. So we are taught; but try to reconstruct the steps in their
evolution and you realise your hopeless ignorance. To be sure there
are breeds, such as Black-red Game and Brown Leghorns, which have
the colours of the jungle-fowl, though they differ in shape and other
respects. As we know so little as yet of the genetics of shape, let us
assume that those transitions could be got over. Suppose, further, as
is probable, that the absence of the maternal instinct in the Leghorn
is due to loss of one factor which the jungle-fowl possesses. So far
we are on fairly safe ground. But how about White Leghorns? Their
origin may seem easy to imagine, since white varieties have often
arisen in well-authenticated cases. But the white of White Leghorns
is not, as white in nature often is, due to the loss of the colour-elements,
but to the action of something which inhibits their expression. Whence
did that something come? The same question may be asked respecting
the heavy breeds, such as Malays or Indian Game. Each of these is a
separate introduction from the East. To suppose that these, with their
peculiar combs and close feathering, could have been developed from
pre-existing European breeds is very difficult. On the other hand,
there is no wild species now living any more like them. We may, of
course, postulate that there was once such a species, now lost. That
is quite conceivable, though the suggestion is purely speculative. I
might thus go through the list of domesticated animals and plants of
ancient origin and again and again we should be driven to this
suggestion, that many of their distinctive characters must have been
derived from some wild original now lost. Indeed, to this unsatisfying
conclusion almost every careful writer on such subjects is now reduced.
If we turn to modern evidence the case looks even worse. The new
breeds of domestic animals made in recent times are the carefully
selected products of recombination of pre-existing breeds. Most of the

14 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS,

new varieties of cultivated plants are the outcome of deliberate crossing.
There is generally no doubt in the matter. We have pretty full
histories of these crosses in Gladiolus, Orchids, Cineraria, Begonia,
Calceolaria, Pelargonium, &. A very few certainly arise from a single
origin. The Sweet Pea is the clearest case, and there are others which
I should name with hesitation. The Cyclamen is one of them, but
we know that efforts to cross Cyclamens were made early in the cul-
tural history of the plant, and they may very well have been success-
ful. Several plants for which single origins are alleged, such as the
Chinese Primrose, the Dahlia, and Tobacco, came to us in an already
domesticated state, and their origins remain altogether mysterious.
Formerly single origins were generally presumed, but at the present
time numbers of the chief products of domestication, dogs, horses,
cattle, sheep, poultry, wheat, oats, rice, plums, cherries, have in turn
been accepted as ‘ polyphyletic,’ or, in other words, derived from several
distinct forms. The reason that has led to these judgments is that the
distinctions between the chief varieties can be traced as far back as the
evidence reaches, and that these distinctions are so great, so far tran-
scending anything that we actually know variation capable of effecting,
that it seems pleasanter to postpone the difficulty, relegating the critical
differentiation to some misty antiquity into which we shall not be asked
to penetrate. For it need scarcely be said that this is mere procrastina-
tion. If the origin of a form under domestication is hard to imagine, it
becomes no easier to conceive of such enormous deviations from type
coming to pass in the wild state. Examine any two thoroughly distinct
species which meet each other in their distribution, as, for instance,
Lychnis diurna and vespertina do. In areas of overlap are many inter-
mediate forms. ‘These used to be taken to be transitional steps, and
the specific distinctness of vespertina and diurna was on that account
questioned. Once it is known that these supposed intergrades are
merely mongrels between the two species the transition from one to the
other is practically beyond our powers of imagination to conceive. If
both these can survive, why has their common parent perished? Why
when they cross do they not reconstruct it instead of producing partially
sterile hybrids? I take this example to show how entirely the facts
were formerly misinterpreted.

When once the idea of a true-breeding—or, as we say, homozygous
—type is grasped, the problem of variation becomes an insistent oppres-
sion. What can make such a type vary? We know, of course, one
way by which novelty can be introduced—by crossing. Cross two
well-marked varieties—for instance, of Chinese Primula—each breeding
true, and in the second generation by mere recombination of the various
factors which the two parental types severally introduced, there will
be a profusion of forms, utterly unlike each other, distinct also from

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 15

the original parents. Many of these can be bred true, and if found
wild would certainly be described as good species. Confronted by the
difficulty I have put before you, and contemplating such amazing poly-
morphism in the second generation from a cross in Antirrhinuwm, Lotsy
has lately with great courage suggested to us that all variation may be
due to such crossing. I do not disguise my sympathy with this effort.
After the blind complacency of conventional evolutionists it is refresh-
ing to meet so frank an acknowledgment of the hardness of the problem.
Lotsy’s utterance will at least do something to expose the artificiality of
systematic zoology and botany. Whatever might or might not be
revealed by experimental breeding, it is certain that without such tests
we are merely guessing when we profess to distinguish specific limits
and to declare that this is a species and that a variety. The only defin-
able unit in classification is the homozygous form which breeds true.
When we presume to say that such and such differences are trivial and
such others valid, we are commonly embarking on a course for which
there. is no physiological warrant. Who could have foreseen that the
Apple and the Pear—so like each other that their botanical differences
are evasive—could not be crossed together, though species of Antir-
rhinum so totally unlike each other as majus and molle can be
hybridized, as Baur has shown, without a sign of impaired fertility?
Jordan was perfectly right. The true-breeding forms which he dis-
tinguished in such multitudes are real entities, though the great
systematists, dispensing with such laborious analysis, have pooled them
into arbitrary Linnean species, for the convenience of collectors and for
the simplification of catalogues. Such pragmatical considerations may
mean much in the museum, but with them the student of the physio-
logy of variation has nothing to do. These ‘little species,’ finely cut,
true-breeding, and innumerable mongrels between them, are what he
finds when he examines any so-called variable type. On analysis the
semblance of variability disappears, and the illusion is shown to be due
to segregation and recombination of series of factors on pre-determined
lines. As soon as the ‘ little species ’ are separated out they are found
to be fixed. In face of such a result we may well ask with Lotsy,
is there such a thing as spontaneous variation anywhere? His answer
is that there is not.

Abandoning the attempt to show that positive factors can be added
to the original stock, we have further to confess that we cannot
often actually prove variation by loss of factor to be a real pheno-
menon. Lotsy doubts whether even this phenomenon occurs. The
sole source of variation, in his view, is crossing. But here I
think he is on unsafe ground. When a well-established variety like
‘Crimson King’ Primula, bred by Messrs. Sutton in thousands of
individuals, gives off, as it did a few years since, a salmon-coloured

16 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

variety, ‘Coral King,’ we might claim this as a genuine example of
variation by loss. The new variety is a simple recessive. It differs
from ‘ Crimson King’ only in one respect, the loss of a single colour-
factor, and, of course, bred true from its origin. To account for the
appearance of such a new form by any process of crossing is exceedingly
difficult. From the nature of the case there can have been no cross
since ‘ Crimson King’ was established, and hence the salmon must
have been concealed as a recessive from the first origin of that variety,
even when it was represented by very few individuals, probably only by
a single one. Surely, if any of these had been heterozygous for salmon
this recessive could hardly have failed to appear during the process of
self-fertilisation by which the stock would be multiplied, even though
that selfing may not have been strictly carried out. Examples like this
seem to me practically conclusive.* They can be challenged, but not,
I think, successfully. Then again in regard to those variations in
number and division of parts which we call meristic, the reference of
these to original cross-breeding is surely barred by the circumstances in
which they often occur. There remain also the rare examples men-
tioned already in which a single wild origin may with much confidence
be assumed. In spite of repeated trials, no one has yet succeeded in
crossing the Sweet Pea with any other leguminous species. We know
that early in its cultivated history it produced at least two marked
varieties which I can only conceive of as spontaneously arising, though,
no doubt, the profusion of forms we now have was made by the crossing
of those original varieties. I mention the Sweet Pea thus prominently
for another reason, that it introduces us to another though subsidiary
form of variation, which may be described as a fractionation of factors.
Some of my Mendelian colleagues have spoken of genetic factors as
permanent and indestructible. Relative permanence in a sense they
have, for they commonly come out unchanged after segregation. But
I am satisfied that they may occasionally undergo a quantitative dis:
integration, with the consequence that varieties are produced inter-
mediate between the integral varieties from which they were derived.
These disintegrated conditions I have spoken of as subtraction—or
reduction—stages. For example, the Picotee Sweet Pea, with its
purple edges, can surely be nothing but a condition produced by the
factor which ordinarily makes the fully purple flower, quantitatively
diminished. The pied animal, suchas the Dutch rabbit, must similarly
be regarded as the result of partial defect of the chromogen from which
the pigment is formed, or conceivably of the factor which effects its
oxidation. On such lines I think we may with great confidence

* The numerous and most interesting ‘mutations’ recorded by Professor
T. H. Morgan and his colleagues in the fly, Drosophila, may also be cited as
unexceptionable cases.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 17

interpret all those intergrading forms which breed true and are not
produced by factorial interference.

It is to be inferred that these fractional degradations are the con-
sequence of irregularities in segregation. We constantly see irregulari-
ties in the ordinary meristic processes, and in the distribution of somatic
differentiation. We are familiar with half segments, with imperfect
twinning, with leaves partially petaloid, with petals partially sepaloid.
All these are evidences of departures from the normal regularity in the
rhythms of repetition, or in those waves of differentiation by which the
qualities are sorted out among the parts of the body. Similarly, when
in segregation the qualities are sorted out among the germ-cells in
certain critical cell-divisions, we cannot expect these differentiating
divisions to be exempt from the imperfections and irregularities which
are found in all the grosser divisions that we can observe. If I am
right, we shall find evidence of these irregularities in the association
of unconformable numbers with the appearance of the novelties which
I have called fractional. In passing let us note how the history of the
Sweet Pea belies those ideas of a continuous evolution with which we
had formerly to contend. ‘The big varieties came first. The little ones
have arisen later, as I suggest by fractionation. Presented with a
collection of modern Sweet Peas how prettily would the devotees of
Continuity have arranged them in a graduated series, showing how
every intergrade could be found, passing from the full colour of the
wild Sicilian species in one direction to white, in the other to the
deep purple of ‘ Black Prince,’ though happily we know these two to be
among the earliest to have appeared.

Having in view these and other considerations which might be
developed, I feel no reasonable doubt that though we may have to
forgo a claim to variations by addition of factors, yet variation both by
loss of factors and by fractionation of factors is a genuine phenomenon
of contemporary nature. If then we have to dispense, as seems likely,
with any addition from without we must begin seriously to consider
whether the course of Evolution can at all reasonably be represented as
an unpacking of an original complex which contained within itself the
whole range of diversity which living things present. I do not suggest
that we should come to a judgment as to what is or is not probable in
these respects. As I have said already, this is no time for devising
theories of Evolution, and I propound none. But as we have got to
recognise that there has been an Evolution, that somehow or other the
forms of life have arisen from fewer forms, we may as well see whether
we are limited to the old view that evolutionary progress is from the
simple to the complex, and whether after all it is conceivable that the
process was the other way about. When the facts of genetic discovery
become familiarly known to biologists, and cease to be the preoccupa-

1914, Cc

18 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

tion of a few, as they still are, many and long discussions must
inevitably arise on the question, and I offer these remarks to pre-
pare the ground. I ask you simply to open your minds to this
possibility. It involves a certain effort. | We have to reverse our
habitual modes of thought. At first it may seem rank absurdity to
suppose that the primordial form or forms of protoplasm could have
contained complexity enough to produce the divers types of life. But
is it easier to imagine that these powers could have been conveyed by
extrinsic additions ? Of what nature could these additions be? Additions
of material cannot surely be in question. We are told that salts of
iron in the soil may turn a pink hydrangea blue. The iron cannot be
passed on to the next generation. How can the iron multiply itself?
The power to assimilate the iron is all that can be transmitted. A
disease-producing organism like the pebrine of silkworms can in a very
few cases be passed on through the germ-cells. Such an organism can
multiply and can produce its characteristic effects in the next genera-
tion. But it does not become part of the invaded host, and we cannot
conceive it taking part in the geometrically ordered processes of segre-
gation. These illustrations may seem too gross; but what refinement
will meet the requirements of the problem, that the thing introduced
must be, as the living organism itself is, capable of multiplication and
of subordinating itself in a definite system of segregation? That which
is conferred in variation must rather itself be a change, not of material,
but of arrangement, or of motion. The invocation of additions extrinsic
to the organism does not seriously help us to imagine how the power to
change can be conferred, and if it prove that hope in that direction
must be abandoned, I think we lose very little. By the re-arrangement
of a very moderate number of things we soon reach a number of possi-
bilities practically infinite.

That primordial life may have been of small dimensions need not
disturb us. Quantity is of no account in these considerations.
Shakespeare once existed as a speck of protoplasm not so big as a
small pin’s head. To this nothing was added that would not equally
well have served to build up a baboon or a rat. Let us consider how far
we can get by the process of removal of what we call ‘epistatic ’ factors,
in other words those that control, mask, or suppress underlying powers
and faculties. I have spoken of the vast range of colours exhibited by
modern Sweet Peas. There is no question that these have been derived
from the one wild bi-colour form by a process of successife removals.
When the vast range of form, size, and flavour to be found among the
cultivated apples is considered it seems difficult to suppose that all this
variety is hidden in the wild crab-apple. I cannot positively assert that
this is so, but I think all familiar with Mendelian analysis would agree
with me that it is probable, and that the wild crab contains presumably

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 19

inhibiting elements which the cultivated kinds have lost. The legend
that the seedlings of cultivated apples become crabs is often repeated.
After many inquiries among the raisers of apple seedlings I have never
found an authentic case—once only even an alleged case, and this
on inquiry proved to be unfounded. I have confidence that the artistic
gifts of mankind will prove to be due not to something added to the
make-up of an-ordinary man, but to the absence of factors which in the
normal person inhibit the development of these gifts. They are almost
beyond doubt to be looked upon as releases of powers normally sup-
pressed. The instrument is there, but it is ‘stopped down.’ The
scents of flowers or fruits, the finely repeated divisions that give its
quality to the wool of the Merino, or in an analogous case the multi-
plicity of quills to the tail of the fantail pigeon, are in all probability
other examples of such releases. You may ask what guides us in the
discrimination of the positive factors and how we can satisfy ourselves
that the appearance of a quality is due to loss. It must be conceded
that in these determinations we have as yet recourse only to the effects
of dominance. When the tall pea is crossed with the dwarf, since the
offspring is tall we say that the tall parent passed a factor into the
cross-bred which makes it tall. The pure tall parent had two doses of
this factor ; the dwarf had none; and since the cross-bred is tall we say
that one dose of the dominant tallness is enough to give the full height.
The reasoning seems unanswerable. But the commoner result of cross-
ing is the production of a form intermediate between the two pure
parental types. In such examples we see clearly enough that the full
parental characteristics can only appear when they are homozygous—
formed from similar germ-cells, and that one dose is insufficient to
produce either effect fully. When this is so we can never be sure
which side is positive and which negative. Since, then, when dominance
is incomplete we find ourselves in this difficulty, we perceive that the
amount of the effect is our only criterion in distinguishing the positive
from the negative, and when we return even to the example of the
tall and dwarf peas the matter is not so certain as it seemed. Professor
Cockerell lately found among thousands of yellow sunflowers one
which was partly rel. By breeding he raised from this a form wholly
red. Hvidently the yellow and the wholly red are the pure forms, and
the partially red is che heterozygote. We may then say that the yellow
is YY with two doses of a positive factor which inhibits the development
of pigment; the red is yy, with no dose of the inhibitor; and the
partially red are Yy, with only one dose of it. But we might be tempted
to think the red was a positive characteristic, and invert the expressions,
representing the red as RR, the partly red as Rr, and the yellow as
rr. According as we adopt the one or the other system of expression
we shall interpret the evolutionary change as one of loss or as one of

c 2

20 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

addition. May we not interpret the other apparent new dominants in
the same way? The white dominant in the fowl or in the Chinese
Primula can inhibit colour. But may it not be that the original coloured
fowl or Primula had two doses of a factor which inhibited this inhibitor ?
The Pepper Moth, Amphidasys betularia, produced in England about
1840 a black variety, then a novelty, now common in certain areas,
which behaves as a full dominant. The pure blacks are no blacker
than the cross-bred. Though at first sight it seems that the black
must have been something added, we can without absurdity suggest
that the normal is the term in which two doses of inhibitor are present,
and that in the absence of one of them the black appears.

In spite of seeming perversity, therefore, we have to admit that
there is no evolutionary change which in the present state of our know-
ledge we can positively declare to be not due to loss. When this has
been conceded it is natural to ask whether the removal of inhibiting
factors may not be invoked in alleviation of the necessity which has
driven students of the domestic breeds to refer their diversities to
multiple origins. | Something, no doubt, is to be hoped for in that
direction, but not until much better and more extensive knowledge of
what variation by loss may effect in the living body can we have any real
assurance that this difficulty has been obviated. We should be greatly
helped by some indication as to whether the origin of life has been single
or multiple. Modern opinion is, perhaps, inclining to the multiple
theory, but we have no real evidence. Indeed, the problem still stands
outside the range of scientific investigation, and when we hear the
spontaneous formation of formaldehyde mentioned as a possible first
step in the origin of life, we think of Harry Lauder in the character of
a Glasgow schoolboy pulling out his treasures from his pocket—‘ That’s
a wassher—for makkin’ motor cars *!

As the evidence stands at present all that can be safely added in
amplification of the evolutionary creed may be summed up in the
statement that variation occurs as a definite event often producing a
sensibly discontinuous result; that the succession of varieties comes
to pass by the elevation and establishment of sporadic groups of
individuals owing their origin to such isolated events; and that
the change which we see as a nascent variation is often, perhaps
always, one of loss. Modern research lends not the smallest encourage-
ment or sanction to the view that gradual evolution occurs by the trans-
formation of masses of individuals, though that fancy has fixed itself on
popular imagination. The isolated events to which variation is due are
evidently changes in the germinal tissues, probably in the manner in
which they divide. It is likely that the occurrence of these variations
is wholly irregular, and as to their causation we are absolutely without
surmise or even plausible speculation. Distinct types once arisen, no

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. PAI

doubt a profusion of the forms called species have been derived from
them by simple crossing and subsequent recombination. New species
may be now in course of creation by this means, but the limits of the
process are obviously narrow. On the other hand, we see no changes in
progress around us in the contemporary world which we can imagine
likely to culminate in the evolution of forms distinct in the larger sense.
By intercrossing dogs, jackals, and wolves new forms of these types
can be made, some of which may be species, but I see no reason to
think that from such material a fox could be bred in indefinite time, or
that dogs could be bred from foxes.

Whether Science will hereafter discover that certain groups can by
peculiarities in their genetic physiology be declared to have a preroga-
tive quality justifying their recognition as species in the old sense, and
that the differences of others are of such a subordinate degree that they
may in contrast be termed varieties, further genetic research alone can
show. I myself anticipate that such a discovery will be made, but I
cannot defend the opinion with positive conviction.

Somewhat reluctantly, and rather from a sense of duty, I have
devoted most of this Address to the evolutionary aspects of genetic
research. We cannot keep these things out of our heads, though some-
times we wish we could. The outcome, as you will have seen, is
negative, destroying much that till lately passed for gospel. Destruc-
tion may be useful, but it is a low kind of work. We are just about
where Boyle was in the seventeenth century. We can dispose of
Alchemy, but we cannot make more than a quasi-chemistry. We are
awaiting our Priestley and our Mendeléeff. In truth it is not these
wider aspects of genetics that are at present our chief concern. They
will come in their time. The great advances of science are made like
those of evolution, not by imperceptible mass-improvement, but by the
sporadic birth of penetrative genius. The journeymen follow after him,
widening and clearing up, as we are doing along the track that Mendel
found.

Parr II.—SYDNEY.’

Av Melbourne I spoke of the new knowledge of the properties of
living things which Mendelian analysis has brought us. I indicated
how these discoveries are affecting our outlook on that old problem
of natural history, the origin and nature of Species, and the chief
conclusion I drew was the negative one, that, though we must hold
to our faith in the Evolution of Species, there is little evidence as to
how it has come about, and no clear proof that the process is con-
tinuing in any considerable degree at the present time. The thought

* Delivered in Sydney on Thursday, August 20, 1914.

22, PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

uppermost in our minds is that knowledge of the nature of life is
altogether too slender to warrant speculation on these fundamental
subjects. Did we presume to offer such speculations they would
have no more value than those which alchemists might have made as
to the nature of the elements. But though in regard to these
theoretical aspects we must confess to such deep ignorance, enough has
been learnt of the general course of heredity within a single species to
justify many practical conclusions which cannot in the main be shaken.
I propose now to develop some of these conclusions in regard to our
own species, Man.

In my former Address I mentioned the condition of certain animals
and plants which are what we call ‘ polymorphic.’ Their populations
consist of individuals of many types, though they breed freely together
with perfect fertility. In cases of this kind which have been suffi-
ciently investigated it has been found that these distinctions—some-
times very great and affecting most diverse features of organisatioun—
are due to the presence or absence of elements, or factors as we call
them, which are treated in heredity as separate entities. | These
factors and their combinations produce the characteristics which we
perceive. No individual can acquire a particular characteristic unless
the requisite factors entered into the composition of that individual
at fertilisation, being received either from the father or from the
mother or from both, and consequently no individual can pass on to
his offspring positive characters which he does not himself possess.
Rules of this kind have already been traced in operation in the human
species; and though I admit that an assumption of some magnitude
is involved when we extend the application of the same system to
human characteristics in general, yet the assumption is one which
I believe we are fully justified in making. With little hesitation we
can now declare that the potentialities and aptitudes, physical as well
as mental, sex, colours, powers of work or invention, liability to
diseases, possible duration of life, and the other features by which the
members of a mixed population differ from each other, are determined
from the moment of fertilisation; and by all that we know of heredity
in the forms of life with which we can experiment we are compelled
to believe that these qualities are in the main distributed on a factorial
system. By changes in the outward conditions of life the expression
of some of these powers and features may be excited or restrained.
For the development of some an external opportunity is needed, and
if that be withheld the character is never seen, any more than if the
body be starved can the full height be attained; but such influences
are superficial and do not alter the genetic constitution.

The factors which the individual receives from his parents and no
others are those which he can transmit to his offspring; and if a factor

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 23

was received from one parent only, not more than half the offspring, ©
on an average, will inherit it. What is it that has so long prevented
mankind from discovering such simple facts? Primarily the circum-
stance that as man must have two parents it is not possible quite
easily to detect the contributions of each. The individual body is a
double structure, whereas the germ-cells are single. Two germ-cells
unite to produce each individual body, and the ingredients they respec-
tively contribute interact in ways that leave the ultimate product a
medley in which it is difficult to identify the several ingredients. When,
however, their effects are conspicuous the task is by no means impos-
sible. In part also even physiologists have been blinded by the survival
of ancient and obscurantist conceptions of the nature of man by which
they were discouraged from the application of any rigorous analysis.
Medical literature still abounds with traces of these archaisms, and,
indeed, it is only quite recently that prominent horse-breeders have
come to see that the dam matters as much as the sire. For them,
though vast pecuniary considerations were involved, the old ‘ homun-
culus’ theory was good enough. We were amazed at the notions
of genetic physiology which Professor Baldwin Spencer encountered
in his wonderful researches among the natives of Central Australia;
but in truth, if we reflect that these problems have engaged the atten-
tion of civilised man for ages, the fact that he, with all his powers
of recording and deduction, failed to discover any part of the Mendelian
system is almost as amazing. The popular notion that any parents
can have any kind of children within the racial limits is contrary to
all experience, yet we have gravely entertained such ideas. As I have
said elsewhere, the truth might have been found out at any period
in the world’s history if only pedigrees had been drawn the right
way up. If, instead of exhibiting the successive pairs of progenitors
who have contributed to the making of an ultimate individual, some
one had had the idea of setting out the posterity of a single ancestor
who possessed a marked feature such as the Habsburg lip, and showing
the transmission of this feature along some of the descending branches
and the permanent loss of the feature in collaterals, the essential
truth that heredity can be expressed in terms of presence and absence
must have at once become apparent. For the descendant is not, as he
appears in the conventional pedigree, a sort of pool into which each
tributary ancestral stream has poured something, but rather a con-
glomerate of ingredient-characters taken from his progenitors in such
a way that some ingredients are represented and others are omitted.

_ Let me not, however, give the impression that the unravelling of
such descents is easy. Even with fairly full details, which in the case
of man are very rarely to be had, many complications occur, often
preventing us from obtaining more than a rough general indication of

24 % PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

the system of descent. The nature of these complications we partly
understand from our experience of animals and plants which are
amenable to breeding under careful restrictions, and we know that
they are mostly referable to various effects of interaction between
factors by which the presence of some is masked.

Necessarily the clearest evidence of regularity in the inheritance
of human characteristics has been obtained in regard to the descent
of marked abnormalities of structure and congenital diseases. Of the
descent of ordinary distinctions such as are met with in the normal
healthy population we know little for certain. Hurst's evidence, that
two parents both with light-coloured eyes—in the strict sense, meaning
that no pigment is present on the front of the iris—do not have dark-
eyed children, still stands almost alone in this respect. With regard
to the inheritance of other colour-characteristics some advance has been
made, but everything points to the inference that the genetics of colour
and many other features in man will prove exceptionally complex.
There are, however, plenty of indications of system comparable with
those which we trace in various animals and plants, and we are assured
that to extend and clarify such evidence is only a matter of careful
analysis. For the present, in asserting almost any general rules for
human descent, we do right to make large reservations for possible
exceptions. It is tantalising to have to wait, but of the ultimate result
there can be no doubt.

I spoke of complications. Two of these are worth illustrating here,
for probably both of them play a great part in human genetics. It
was discovered by Nilsson-Ehle, in the course of experiments with
certain wheats, that several factors having the same power may co-exist
in the same individual. These cumulative factors do not necessarily
produce a cumulative effect, for any one of them may suffice to give
the full result. Just as the pure-bred tall pea with its two factors for
tallness is no taller than the cross-bred with a single factor, so these
wheats with three pairs of factors for red colour are no redder than the
ordinary reds of the same family. Similar observations have been
made by East and others. In some cases, as in the Primulas studied
by Gregory, the effect is cumulative. These results have been used
with plausibility by Davenport and the American workers to elucidate
the curious case of the mulatto. If the descent of colour in the cross
between the negro and the white man followed the simplest rule, the
offspring of two first-cross mulattos would be, on an average, one
black: two mulattos: one white, but this is notoriously not so.
Evidence of some segregation is fairly clear, and the deficiency of real
whites may perhaps be accounted for on the hypothesis of cumulative
factors, though by the nature of the case strict proof is not to be had.
But at present I own to a preference for regarding such examples as

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 2D

instances of imperfect segregation. The series of germ-cells produced
by the cross-bred consists of some with no black, some with full black,
and others with intermediate quantities of black. No statistical tests
of the condition of the gametes in such cases exist, and it is likely that
by choosing suitable crosses all sorts of conditions may be found,
ranging from the simplest case of total segregation, in which there are
only two forms of gametes, up to those in which there are all inter-
mediates in various proportions. This at least is what general experi-
ence of hybrid products leads me to anticipate. Segregation is
somehow effected by the rhythms of cell-division, if such an expression
may be permitted. In some cases the whole factor is so easily separated
that it is swept out at once; in others it is so intermixed that gametes of
all degrees of purity may result. That is admittedly a crude metaphor,
but as yet we cannot substitute a better. Be all this as it may, there are
many signs that in human heredity phenomena of this kind are common,
whether they indicate a multiplicity of cumulative factors or imper-
fections in segregation. Such phenomena, however, in no way detract
from the essential truths that segregation occurs, and that the organism
cannot pass on a factor which it has not itself received.

In human heredity we have found some examples, and I believe
that we shall find many more, in which the descent of factors is limited
by sex. The classical instances are those of colour-blindness and
hemophilia. Both these conditions occur with much greater frequency
in males than in females. Of colour-blindness at least we know that
the sons of the colour-blind man do not inherit it (unless the mother
is a transmitter) and do not transmit it to their children of either
sex. Some, probably all, of the daughters of the colour-blind father
inherit the character, and though not themselves colour-blind, they
transmit it to some (probably, on an average, half) of their offspring
of both sexes. For since these normal-sighted women have only
received the colour-blindness from one side of their parentage, only
half their offspring, on an average, can inherit it. The sons who
inherit the colour-blindness will be colour-blind, and the inheriting
daughters become themselves again transmitters. Males with
normal colour-vision, whatever their own parentage, do not have colour-
blind descendants, unless they marry transmitting women. There
are points still doubtful in the interpretation, but the critical fact is
clear, that the germ-cells of the colour-blind man are of two kinds:
(i) those which do not carry on the affection and are destined to take
part in the formation of sons; and (ii) those which do carry on the
colour-blindness and are destined to form daughters. There is evidence
that the ova also are similarly predestined to form one or other of the
sexes, but to discuss the whole question of sex-determination is beyond
my present scope. The descent of these sex-limited affections never-

26 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

theless calls for mention here, because it is an admirable illustration of
factorial predestination. It moreover exemplifies that parental polarity
of the zygote to which I alluded in my first Address, a phenomenon
which we suspect to be at the bottom of various anomalies of heredity,
and suggests that there may be truth in the popular notion that in
some respects sons resemble their mothers and daughters their fathers.

As to the descent of hereditary diseases and malformations, however,
we have abundant data for deciding that many are transmitted as
dominants and a few as recessives. The most remarkable collection
of these data is to be found in family histories of diseases of the eye.
Neurology and dermatology have also contributed many very instructive
pedigrees. In great measure the ophthalmological material was
collected by Edward Nettleship, for whose death we so lately grieved.
After retiring from practice as an oculist he devoted several years to
this most laborious task. He was not content with hearsay evidence,
but travelled incessantly, personally examining all accessible members
of the families concerned, working in such a way that his pedigrees
are models of orderly observation and recording. His zeal stimulated
many younger men to take part in the work, and it will now go on,
with the result that the systems of descent of all the common hereditary
diseases of the eye will soon be known with approximate accuracy.

Give a little imagination to considering the chief deduction from
this work. Technical details apart, and granting that we cannot
wholly interpret the numerical results, sometimes noticeably more and
sometimes fewer descendants of these patients being affected than
Mendelian formule would indicate, the expectation is that in the case
of many diseases of the eye a large proportion of the children, grand-
children, and remoter descendants of the patients will be affected with
the disease. Sometimes it is only defective sight that is transmitted ;
in other cases it is blindness, either from birth or coming on at some
later age. The most striking example perhaps is that of a form of
night-blindness still prevalent in a district near Montpellier, which
has affected at least 130 persons, all descending from a single affected
individual * who came into the country in the seventeenth century.
The transmission is in every case through an affected parent, and no
normal has been known to pass on the condition. Such an example
well serves to illustrate the fixity of the rules of descent. Similar
instances might be recited relating to a great variety of other conditions,
some trivial, others grave.

* The first human descent proved to follow Mendelian rules was that of a
serious malformation of the hand studied by Farabee in America. Drinkwater
subsequently worked out pedigrees for the same malformation in England. After
many attempts, he now tells me that he has succeeded in proving that the
American family and one of his own had an abnormal ancestor in common, five
generations ago.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 27

At various times it has been declared that men are born equal, and
that the inequality is brought abent by unequal opportunities.
Acquaintance with the pedigrees of disease soon shows the fatuity of
such fancies. The same conclusion, we may be sure, would result
from the true representation of the descent of any human faculty.
Neyer since Galton’s publications can the matter have been in any
doubt. At the time he began to study family histories even the broad
significance of heredity was frequently denied, and resemblances to
parents or ancestors were looked on as interesting curiosities.
Inveighing against hereditary political institutions, Tom Paine remarks
that the idea is as absurd as that of an ‘ hereditary wise man,’ or an
‘ hereditary mathematician,’ and to this day I suppose many people are
not aware that he is saying anything more than commonly foolish.
We, on the contrary, would feel it something of a puzzle if two parents,
both mathematically gifted, had any children not mathematicians.
Galton first demonstrated the overwhelming importance of these con-
siderations, and had he not been misled, partly by the theory of
pangenesis, but more by his mathematical instincts and training, which
prompted him to apply statistical treatment rather than qualitative
analysis, he might, not improbably, have discovered the essential facts
of Mendelism.

It happens rarely that science has anything to offer to the common
stock of ideas at once so comprehensive and so simple that the courses
of our thoughts are changed. Contributions to the material progress
of mankind are comparatively frequent. They result at once in
application. ‘Transit is quickened ; communication is made easier; the
food-supply is increased and population multiplied. By direct applica-
tion to the breeding of animals and plants such results must even
flow from Mendel’s work. But I imagine the greatest practical change
likely to ensue from modern genetic discovery will be a quickening of
interest in the true nature of man and in the biology of races. I have
spoken cautiously as to the evidence for the operation of any simple
Mendelian system in the descent of human faculty; yet the certainty
that systems which differ from the simpler schemes only in degree of
complexity are at work in the distribution of characters among the
human population cannot fail to influence our conceptions of life and
of ethics, leading perhaps ultimately to modification of social usage.
That change cannot but be in the main one of simplification. The
eighteenth century made great pretence of a return to nature, but it
did not occur to those philosophers first to inquire what nature is;
and perhaps not even the patristic writings contain fantasies much
further from physiological truth than those which the rationalists of
the ‘ Encyclopedia ’ adopted as the basis of their social schemes. For
men are so far from being born equal or similar that to the naturalist

28 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

they stand as the very type of a polymorphic species. Even most of
our local races consist of many distinct strains and individual types.
From the population of any ordinary English town as many distinct
human breeds could in a few generations be isolated as there are now
breeds of dogs, and indeed such a population in its present state is
much what the dogs of Kurope would be in ten years’ time but for the
interference of the fanciers. ven as at present constituted, owing
to the isolating effects of instinct, fashion, occupation, and social class,
many incipient strains already exist.

In one respect civilised man differs from all other species of animal
or plant in that, having prodigious and ever-increasing power over
nature, he invokes these powers for the preservation and maintenance
of many of the inferior and all the defective members of his species.
The inferior freely multiply, and the defective, if their defects be not
so grave as to lead to their detention in prisons or asylums, multiply
also without restraint. Heredity being strict in its action, the conse-
quences are in civilised countries much what they would be in the
kennels of the dog-breeder who continued to preserve all his puppies,
good and bad: the proportion of defectives increases. The increase is
so considerable that outside every great city there is a smaller town
inhabited by defectives and those who wait on them. Round London
we have a ring of such towns with some 30,000 inhabitants, of whom
about 28,000 are defective, largely, though of course by no means
entirely, bred from previous generations of defectives. Now, it is not
for us to consider practical measures. As men of science we observe
natural events and deduce conclusions from them. I may perhaps be
allowed to say that the remedies proposed in America, in so far as they
aim at the eugenic regulation of marriage on a comprehensive scale,
strike me as devised without regard to the needs either of individuals
or of a modern State. Undoubtedly if they decide to breed their
population of one uniform puritan grey, they can do it in a few
generations; but I doubt if timid respectability will make a nation
happy, and I am sure that qualities of a different sort are needed if it
is to compete with more vigorous and more varied communities.
Everyone must have a preliminary sympathy with the aims of eugenists
both abroad and at home. Their efforts at the least are doing some-
thing to discover and spread truth as to the physiological structure of
society. The spirit of such organisations, however, almost of
necessity suffers from a bias towards the accepted and the ordinary,
and if they had power it would go hard with many ingredients of
Society that could be ill-spared. I notice an ominous passage in which
even Galton, the founder of eugenics, feeling perhaps some twinge of
his Quaker ancestry, remarks that ‘ as the Bohemianism in the nature
of our race is destined to perish, the sooner it goes, the happier for

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 29

mankind.’ It is notthe eugenists who will give us what Plato has called
divine releases from the common ways. If some fancier with the
eatholicity of Shakespeare would take us in hand, well and good; but
I would not trust even Shakespeares meeting as a committee. Let us
remember that Beethoven’s father was an habitual drunkard and that
his mother died of consumption. From the genealogy of the patriarchs
also we learn—what may very well be the truth—that the fathers of
such as dwell in tents, and of all such as handle the harp or organ,
and the instructor of every artificer in brass and iron—the founders,
that is to say, of the arts and the sciences—came in direct descent
from Cain, and not in the posterity of the irreproachable Seth, who
is to us, as he probably was also in the narrow circle of his own
contemporaries, what naturalists call a nomen nudum.

Genetic research will make it possible for a nation to elect by what
sort of beings it will be represented not very many generations hence,
much as a farmer can decide whether his byres shall be full of short-
horns or Herefords. It will be very surprising indeed if some nation
does not make trial of this new power. They may make awful mis-
takes, but I think they will try.

Whether we like it or not, extraordinary and far-reaching changes in
public opinion are coming to pass. Man is just beginning to know
himself for what he is—a rather long-lived animal, with great powers
of enjoyment if he does not deliberately forgo them. Hitherto
superstition and mythical ideas of sin have predominantly controlled
these powers. Mysticism will not die out: for those strange fancies
knowledge is no cure; but their forms may change, and mysticism as
a force for the suppression of joy is happily losing its hold on the
modern world. As in the decay of earlier religions Ushabti dolls
were substituted for human victims, so telepathy, necromancy, and
other harmless toys take the place of eschatology and the inculcation
of a ferocious moral code. Among the civilised races of Kurope we
are witnessing an emancipation from traditional control in thought, in
art, and in conduct which is likely to have prolonged and wonderful
influences. Returning to freer or, if you will, simpler conceptions of
life and death, the coming generations are determined to get more out
of this world than their forefathers did. Is it then to be supposed
that when science puts into their hand means for the alleviation of
suffering immeasurable, and for making this world a happier place,
that they will demur to using those powers? The intenser struggle
between communities is only now beginning, and with the approach-
ing exhaustion of that capital of energy stored in the earth before man
began it must soon become still more fierce. In England some of our
great-grandchildren will see the end of the easily accessible coal, and,
failing some miraculous discovery of available energy, a wholesale

30 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

reduction in population. There are races who have shown themselves
able at a word to throw off all tradition and take into their service
every power that science has yet offered them. Can we expect that
they, when they see how to rid themselves of the ever-increasing
weight of a defective population, will hesitate? The time cannot be
far distant when both individuals and communities will begin to
think in terms of biological fact, and it behoves those who lead
scientific thought carefully to consider whither action should lead.
At present I ask you merely to observe the facts. The powers of
science to preserve the defective are now enormous. Every year
these powers increase. This course of action must reach a limit.
To the deliberate intervention of civilisation for the preservation of in-
ferior strains there must sooner or later come an end, and before long
nations will realise the responsibility they have assumed in multiplying
these ‘ cankers of a calm world and a long peace.’

The definitely feeble-minded we may with propriety restrain, as
we are beginning to do even in England, and we may safely prevent
unions in which both parties are defective, for the evidence shows
that as a rule such marriages, though often prolific, commonly produce
no normal children at all. The union of such social vermin we should
no more permit than we would allow parasites to breed on our own
bodies. Further than that in restraint of marriage we ought not to
go, at least not yet. Something too may be done by a reform of
medical ethics. Medical students are taught that it is their duty to
prolong life at whatever cost in suffering. This may have been right
when diagnosis was uncertain and interference usually of small effect;
but deliberately to interfere now for the preservation of an infant so
gravely diseased that it can never be happy or come to any good is
very like wanton cruelty. In private few men defend such inter-
ference. Most who haye seen these cases lingering on agree that
the system is deplorable, but ask where can any line be drawn. The
biologist would reply that in all ages such decisions have been made by
civilised communities with fair success both in regard to crime and
in the closely analogous case of lunacy. The real reason why these
things are done is because the world collectively cherishes occult
views of the nature of life, because the facts are realised by few, and
because between the legal mind—to which society has become accus-
tomed to defer—and the seeing eye, there is such physiological
antithesis that hardly can they be combined in the same body. So
soon as scientific knowledge becomes common property, views more
reasonable and, I may add, more humane, are likely to prevail.

To all these great biological problems that modern society must
sooner or later face there are many aspects besides the obvious ones.
Infant mortality we are asked to lament without the slightest thought

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 31

of what the world would be like if the majority of these infants
were to survive. The decline in the birth-rate in countries already
over-populated is often deplored, and we are told that a nation in
which population is not rapidly increasing must be in a decline. The
slightest acquaintance with biology, or even school-boy natural history,
shows that this inference may be entirely wrong, and that before such
a question can be decided in one way or the other, hosts of considera-
tions must be taken into account. In normal stable conditions
population is stationary. The laity never appreciates, what is so clear
to a biologist, that the last century and a quarter, corresponding with
the great rise in population, has been an altogether exceptional period:
To our species this period has been what its early years in Australia
were to the rabbit. The exploitation of energy-capital of the earth in
coal, development of the new countries, and the consequent pouring
of food into Europe, the application of antiseptics, these are the things
that have enabled the human population to increase. I do not doubt
that if population were more evenly spread over the earth it might
increase very much more; but the essential fact is that under any
stable conditions a limit must be reached. A pair of wrens will bring
off a dozen young every year, but each year you will find the same
number of pears in your garden. In England the limit beyond which
under present conditions of distribution increase of population is a
source of suffering rather than of happiness has been reached already.
Younger communities living in territories largely vacant are very
probably right in desiring and encouraging more population. Increase
may, for some temporary reason, be essential to their prosperity. But
those who live, as I do, among thousands of creatures in a state of
semi-starvation will realise that too few is better than too many, and
will acknowledge the wisdom of Ecclesiasticus who said ‘ Desire not a
multitude of unprofitable children.’

But at least it is often urged that the decline in the birth-rate of
the intelligent and successful sections of the population—I am speaking
of the older communities—is to be regretted. Even this cannot be
granted without qualification. As the biologist knows, differentiation
is indispensable to progress. If population were homogeneous civilisa-
tion would stop. In every army the officers must be comparatively
few. Consequently, if the upper strata of the community produce
more children than will recruit their numbers some must fall into the
lower strata and increase the pressure there. Statisticians tell us that
an average of four children under present conditions is sufficient to
keep the number constant, and as the expectation of life is steadily
improving we may perhaps contemplate some diminution of that number
without alarm.

32 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

In the study of history biological treatment is only beginning to be
applied. For us the causes of the success and failure of races are
physiological events, and the progress of man has depended upon a
chain of these events, like those which have resulted in the ‘ improve-
ment’ of the domesticated animals and plants. It is obvious, for
example, that had the cereals never been domesticated cities could
scarcely have existed. But we may go further, and say that in tem-
perate countries of the Old World (having neither rice nor maize)
populations concentrated in large cities have been made possible by
the appearance of a ‘ thrashable’ wheat. The ears of the wild wheats
break easily to pieces, and the grain remains in the thick husk. Such
wheat can be used for food, but not readily. Ages before written
history began, in some unknown place, plants, or more likely a plant,
of wheat lost the dominant factor to which this brittleness is due, and
the recessive, thrashable wheat resulted. Some man noticed this
wonderful novelty, and it has been disseminated over the earth. The ori-
ginal variation may well have occurred once only, in a single germ-cell.

So must it have been with Man. Translated into terms of factors,
how has that progress in control of nature which we call civilisation
been achieved? By the sporadic appearance of variations, mostly, per-
haps all, consisting in a loss of elements, which inhibit the free
working of the mind. The members of civilised communities, when
they think about such things at all, imagine the process a gradual one,
and that they themselves are active agents in it. Few, however, contri-
bute anything but their labour; and except in so far as they have
freedom to adopt and imitate, their physiological composition is that
of an earlier order of beings. Annul the work of a few hundreds—
I might almost say scores—of men, and on what plane of civilisation
should we be? We should not have advanced beyond the medieval
stage without printing, chemistry, steam, electricity, or surgery worthy
the name. These things are the contributions of a few excessively rare
minds. Galton reckoned those to whom the term ‘ illustrious’ might
be applied as one in a million, but in that number he is, of course,
reckoning men famous in ways which add nothing to universal progress.
To improve by subordinate invention, to discover details missed, even
to apply knowledge never before applied, all these things need genius
in some degree, and are far beyond the powers of the average man of
our race; but the true pioneer, the man whose penetration creates a
new world, as did that of Newton and of Pasteur, is inconceivably
rare. But for a few thousands of such men, we should perhaps be in
the Paleolithic era, knowing neither metals, writing, arithmetic,
weaving, nor pottery.

In the history of Art the same is true, but with this remarkable
difference, that not only are gifts of artistic creation very rare, but

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 33

even the faculty of artistic enjoyment, not to speak of higher powers
of appreciation, is not attained without variation from the common
type. I am speaking, of course, of the non-Semitic races of modern
Europe, among whom the power whether of making or enjoying works
of art is confined to an insignificant number of individuals. Apprecia-
tion can in some degree be simulated, but in our population there is
no widespread physiological appetite for such things. When detached
from the centres where they are made by others most of us pass our
time in great contentment, making nothing that is beautiful, and quite
unconscious of any deprivation. Musical taste is the most notable
exception, for in certain races—for example, the Welsh and some
of the Germans—it is almost universal. Otherwise artistic faculty is
still sporadic in its occurrence. The cost of music well illustrates the
application of genetic analysis to human faculty. No one disputes
that musical ability is congenital. In its fuller manifestation it
demands sense of rhythm, ear, and special nervous,and muscular
powers. Hach of these is separable and doubtless genetically distinct.
Hach is the consequence of a special departure from the common type.
Teaching and external influences are powerless to evoke these faculties,
though their development may be assisted. The only conceivable
way in which the people of England, for example, could become a
musical nation would be by the gradual rise in the proportional numbers
of a musical strain or strains until_the present type became so rare
as to be negligible. It by no means follows that in any other respect
the resulting population would be distinguishable from the present one.
Difficulties of this kind beset the efforts of anthropologists to trace
racial origins. It must continually be remembered that most characters
are independently transmitted and capable of such recombination. In
the light of Mendelian knowledge the discussion whether a race is pure
or mixed loses almost all significance. A race is pure if it breeds pure
and not otherwise. Historically we may know that a race like our
Own was, as a matter of fact, of mixed origin. But a character may
have been introduced by a single individual, though subsequently it
becomes common to the race. This is merely a variant on the familiar
paradox that in the course of time if registration is accurate we shall
all have the same surname. In the case of music, for instance, the
gift, originally perhaps from a Welsh source, might permeate the
nation, and the question would then arise whether the nation, so
changed, was the English nation or not.

Such a problem is raised in a striking form by the population of
modern Greece, and especially of Athens. The racial characteristics
of the Athenian of the fifth century B.c. are vividly described by

_ Galton in ‘ Hereditary Genius.’ The fact that in that period a
population, numbering many thousands, should have existed, capable
1914. D

34 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

of following the great plays at a first hearing, revelling in subtleties of
speech, and thrilling with passionate delight in beautiful things, is
physiologically a most singular phenomenon. On the basis of the
number of illustrious men produced by that age Galton estimated the
average intelligence as at least two of his degrees above our own,
differing from us as much as we do from the negro. A few generations
later the display was over. The origin of that constellation of human
genius which then blazed out is as yet beyond all biological analysis, but
I think we are not altogether without suspicion of the sequence of the
biological events. If I visit a poultry-breeder who has a fine stock of
thoroughbred game fowls breeding true, and ten years later—that is to
say ten fowl-generations later—I go again and find scarcely a recognis-
able game-fowl on the place, I know exactly what has happened. One
or two birds of some other or of no breed must have strayed in and
their progeny been left undestroyed. Now in Athens we have many
indications that up to the beginning of the fifth century so long
as the phratries and gentes were maintained in their integrity there
was rather close endogamy, a condition giving the best chance of
producing a homogeneous population. There was no lack of material
from which intelligence and artistic power might be derived. Sporadi-
cally these qualities existed throughout the ancient Greek world from
the dawn of history, and, for example, the vase-painters, the makers
of the Tanagra figurines, and the gem-cutters were presumably pur-
suing family crafts, much as are the actor-families? of England or
the professorial families of Germany at the present day. How the
intellectual strains should have acquired predominance we cannot tell,
but in an in-breeding community homogeneity at least is not surprising.
At the end of the sixth century came the ‘ reforms’ of Cleisthenes
(507 B.c.), which sanctioned foreign marriages and admitted to citizen-
ship a number not only of resident aliens but also of manumitted
slaves. As Aristotle says, Cleisthenes legislated with the deliberate
purpose of breaking up the phratries and gentes, in order that the
various sections of the population might be mixed up as much as
possible, and the old tribal associations abolished. The ‘ reform’ was
probably a recognition and extension of a process already begun; but
is it too much to suppose that we have here the effective beginning
of a series of genetic changes which in a few generations so greatly
altered the character of the people? Under Pericles the old law was
restored (451 3.c.), but losses in the great wars led to further laxity in
practice, and though at the end of the fifth century the strict rule
was re-enacted that a citizen must be of citizen-birth on both sides,
the population by that time may well have become largely mongrelised.

Let me not be construed as arguing that mixture of races is an

° For tables of families, see the Supplement to Who’s Who in the Theatre.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 35

evil: far from it. A population like our own, indeed, owes much of
its strength to the extreme diversity of its components, for they con-
tribute a corresponding abundance of aptitudes. Everything turns on
the nature of the ingredients brought in, and I am concerned solely
with the observation that these genetic disturbances lead ultimately
to great and usually unforeseen changes in the nature of the population.

Some experiments of this kind are going on at the present time,
in the United States, for example, on a very large scale. Our grand-
children may live to see the characteristics of the American population
entirely altered by the vast invasion of Italian and other South
Buropean elements. We may expect that the Eastern States, and
especially New England, whose people still exhibit the fine Puritan
_ qualities with their appropriate limitations, absorbing little of the
alien elements, will before long be in feelings and aptitudes very notably
differentiated from the rest. In J apan, also, with the abolition of the
feudal system and the rise of commercialism, a change in population
has begun which may be worthy of the attention of naturalists in that
country. Tull the revolution the Samurai almost always married within
their own class, with the result, as I am informed, that the caste had
fairly recognisable features. The changes of 1868 and the consequent
impoverishment of the Samurai have brought about a beginning of
disintegration which may not improbably have perceptible effects.

How many genetic vicissitudes has our own peerage undergone!
Into the hard-fighting stock of medisval and Plantagenet times have
successively been crossed the cunning shrewdness of Tudor states-
men and courtiers, the numerous contributions of Charles IT. and
his concubines, reinforcing peculiar and persistent attributes which
popular imagination especially regards as the characteristic of peers,
ultimately the heroes of finance and industrialism. Definitely intellec-
tual elements have been sporadically added, with rare exceptions,
however, from the ranks of lawyers and politicians. To this
aristocracy art, learning, and science have contributed sparse in-
gredients, but these mostly chosen for celibacy or childlessness. A
remarkable body of men, nevertheless; with an average ‘ horse-power,’
as Samuel Butler would have said, far exceeding that of any random
sample of the middle-class. If only man could be reproduced by
budding what a simplification it would be! In vegetative reproduction
heredity is usually complete. The Washington plum can be divided
to produce as many identical individuals as are required. If, Bay,
Washington, the statesman, or preferably King Solomon, could
similarly have been propagated, all the nations of the earth could
have been supplied with ideal rulers.

Historians commonly ascribe such changes as occurred in Athens,
and will almost certainly come to pass in the United States, to

36 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

conditions of life and especially to political institutions. These agencies,
however, do little unless they are such as to change the breed.
External changes may indeed give an opportunity to special strains,
which then acquire ascendency. The industrial developments which
began at the end of the eighteenth century, for instance, gave a chance
to strains till then submerged, and their success involved the decay
of most of the old aristocratic families. But the demagogue who
would argue from the rise of the one and the fall of the other that
the original relative positions were not justifiable altogether mistakes the
facts.

Conditions give opportunities but cause no variations. For example,
in Athens, to which I just referred, the universality of cultivated dis-
cernment could never have come to pass but for the institution of
slavery which provided the opportunity, but slavery was in no sense a
cause of that development, for many other populations have lived on
slaves and remained altogether inconspicuous.

The long-standing controversy as to the relative importance of nature
and nurture, to use Galton’s ‘ convenient jingle of words,’ is drawing
to an end, and of the overwhelmingly greater significance of nature
there is no longer any possibility of doubt. It may be well briefly to
recapitulate the arguments on which naturalists rely in coming to
this decision both as regards races and individuals. First as regards
human individuals, there is the common experience that children
of the same parents reared under conditions sensibly identical may
develop quite differently, exhibiting in character and aptitudes a
segregation just as great as in their colours or hair-forms. Conversely
all the more marked aptitudes have at various times appeared and not
rarely reached perfection in circumstances the least favourable for
their development. Next, appeal can be made to the universal experi-
ence of the breeder, whether of animals or plants, that strain is
absolutely essential, that though bad conditions may easily enough
spoil a good strain, yet that under the best conditions a bad strain
will never give a fine result. It is faith, not evidence, which encourages
educationists and economists to hope so greatly in the ameliorating
effects of the conditions of life. Let us consider what they can do
and what they cannot. By reference to some sentences in a charming
though pathetic book, ‘ What Is, and What Might Be,’ by Mr. Edmond
Holmes, which will be well known in the Educational Section, I may
make the point of view of us naturalists clear. I take Mr. Holmes’s
pronouncement partly because he is an enthusiastic believer in the
efficacy of nurture as opposed to nature, and also because he illus-
trates his views by frequent appeals to biological analogies which help
us to a common ground. Wheat badly cultivated will give a bad yield,
though, as Mr. Holmes truly says, wheat of the same strain in similar

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 37

soil well cultivated may give a good harvest. But, having witnessed
the success of a great natural teacher in helping unpromising peasant
children to develop their natural powers, he gives us another botanical
parallel. Assuming that the wild bullace is the origin of domesticated
plums, he tells us that by cultivation the bullace can no doubt be
improved so far as to become a better bullace, but by no means can
the bullace be made to bear plums. All this is sound biology; but
translating these facts into the human analogy, he declares that the
work of the successful teacher shows that with man the facts are other-
wise, and that the average rustic child, whose normal ideal is ‘ bullace-
hood,’ can become the rare exception, developing to a stage corre-
sponding with that of the plum. But the naturalist knows exactly
where the parallel is at fault. For the wheat and the bullace are
both breeding approximately true, whereas the human crop, like jute
and various cottons, is in a state of polymorphic mixture. The popula-
tion of many English villages may be compared with the crop which
would result from sowing a bushel of kernels gathered mostly from the
hedges, with an occasional few from an orchard. If anyone asks
how it happens that there are any plum-kernels in the sample at all,
he may find the answer perhaps in spontaneous variation, but more
probably in the appearance of a long-hidden recessive. For the want
of that genetic variation, consisting probably, as I have argued, in
loss of inhibiting factors, by which the plum arose from the wild form,
neither food, nor education, nor hygiene can in any way atone. Many
wild plants are half-starved through competition, and transferred to
garden soil they grow much bigger; so good conditions might certainly
enable the bullace population to develop beyond the stunted physical and
mental stature they commonly attain, but plums they can never be.
Modern statesmanship aims rightly at helping those who have got sown
as wildings to come into their proper class ; but let not anyone suppose
such a policy democratic in its ultimate effects, for no course of
action can be more effective in strengthening the upper classes whilst
weakening the lower.

In all practical schemes for social reform the congenital diversity,
the essential polymorphism of all civilised communities must be recog-
nised as a fundamental fact, and reformers should rather direct their
efforts to facilitating and rectifying class-distinctions than to any futile
attempt to abolish them. ‘The teaching of biology is perfectly clear.
We are what we are by virtue of our differentiation. The value of
civilisation has in all ages been doubted. Since, however, the first
variations were not strangled in their birth, we are launched on that
course of variability of which civilisation is the consequence. We can-
not go back to homogeneity again, and differentiated we are likely
to continue. For a period measures designed to create a spurious

38 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

homogeneity may be applied. Such attempts will, I anticipate, be made
when the present unstable social state reaches a climax of instability,
which may not be long hence. Their effects can be but evanescent.
The instability is due not to inequality, which is inherent and congenital,
but rather to the fact that in periods of rapid change like the present,
convection-currents are set up such that the elements of the strata
get intermixed and the apparent stratification corresponds only roughly
with the genetic. Ina few generations under uniform conditions these
elements settle in their true levels once more.

In such equilibrium is content most surely to be expected. ‘To the
naturalist the broad lines of solution of the problems of social dis-
content are evident. They lie neither in vain dreams of a mystical and
disintegrating equality, nor in the promotion of that malignant indi-
vidualism which in older civilisations has threatened mortification of
the humbler organs, but rather in a physiological co-ordination of the
constituent parts of the social organism. The rewards of commerce
are grossly out of proportion to those attainable by intellect or industry.
Even regarded as compensation for a dull life, they far exceed the
value of the services rendered to the community. Such disparity is an
incident of the abnormally rapid growth of population and is quite
indefensible as a permanent social condition. Nevertheless capital,
distinguished as a provision for offspring, is a eugenic institution; and
unless human instinct undergoes some profound and improbable
variation, abolition of capital means the abolition of effort; but as in
the body the power of independent growth of the parts is limited and
subordinated to the whole, similarly in the community we may limit the
powers of capital, preserving so much inequality of privilege as
corresponds with physiological fact.

At every turn the student of political science is confronted with
problems that demand biological knov ledge for their solution. Most
obviously is this true in regard te education, the criminal law, and
all those numerous branches of policy and administration which are
directly concerned with the physiological capacities of mankind.
Assumptions as to what can be done and what cannot be done to
modify individuals and races have continually to be made, and the
basis of fact on which such decisions are founded can be drawn only
from biological study.

A knowledge of the facts of nature is not yet deemed an essential
part of the mental equipment of politicians; but as the priest, who
began in other ages as medicine-man, has been obliged to abandon
the medical parts of his practice, so will the future behold the school-
master, the magistrate, the lawyer, and ultimately the statesman,
compelled to share with the naturalist those functions which are
concerned with the physiology of race.

\
i aie

REPORTS

ON THE
= (

STATH OF SCIENCH.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Seismological Investigations.—Nineteenth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chairman),
Professor J. Perry (Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Mr.
Horace Darwin, Mr. F. W. Dyson, Dr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK,
Mr. M. H. Gray, Professor J. W. Jupp, Professor C. G.
Knott, Sir J. Larmor, Professor R. Metpona, Mr. W. EH.
Puummer, Dr. R. A. Sampson, Professor A. ScHUSTER, Mr.
J. J. SHaw, and Dr. G. W. WALKER. (Drawn up by the

Chairman.)
[Prats I.]
CONTENTS.
PAGE

I. General Notes, Registers, Visitors, Stations . ; z r J A ae 4
er SemmicAchouityiin VOU Nae os et we, SE
II. Distribution of Harthquake Centres : A iii ates Mie tice! Cee suo.
IV. Discussion of Results from Different Seismographs cabs MET Ne Weny ere, WAG
V. Comparison of Films for 1911 A TODA a, Park mine. (roe
VI. Comparison of Milne and Galitzin Pnsirmenis te ako fen ator Old. it 4D
VII. Present Value of the Milne Instrument. . . . . «. «. . 62
VIII. Correction of the GD ESS On Ee Gnd. Mat hr. me da ect i) ciae) Resets, 2 ee LOO
IX. Discussion in Azimuth . Uy atin. OLE BOSE EAE SOG (EOE

I.—General Notes.

Tue Committee asks to be reappointed with a grant of 60).

The death of John Milne, in July 1913, creates a situation of
some difficulty and anxiety. He organised a world-wide seismological
service with very little financial help from others. In many of the
outlying stations the instrumental equipment was provided either by
himself or by one of his friends, and the care of it has been gener-
ously undertaken by a volunteer who is often busily engaged in other
work. The collation of results was in the early years undertaken by
Milne himself, with the able help of Shinobu Hirota. Of late years
a subsidy of 200]. a year from the Government Grant Fund allowed
of paid assistants; and Shinobu Hirota thus obtained a well-deserved
official position; but for many years the only salary he received was
paid from Milne’s own pocket. It is by no means certain that the
volunteer services at the stations, and the subsidy from the Govern-
ment Grant Fund which makes it possible to keep running the
central station at Shide, can be long continued; and it seems in
any case very improbable that they can be rendered permanent.
But a much more serious difficulty is the want of a salary for a
Director or Superintendent of the whole British network of stations,
who can give undivided attention to the valuable results which they
have accumulated and to which they are daily adding. The salary of

42 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

a competent Director, with the requisite mathematical knowledge,
cannot be put lower than 5001. or 600]. a year, and there is at
present no prospect of obtaining even this endowment. The super-
intendence has, of course, been hitherto provided voluntarily by Milne
himself; and a certain amount of volunteer attention is available for
the present. But seismology is developing so rapidly that the whole-
hearted attention of at least one English mathematician should be
devoted to it; and if an endowment for a British Director could be
obtained this would surely be the most direct method of doing
justice to a new and fascinating science which was nurtured by an
Englishman. The negative result of previous appeals to the Govern-
ment does not encourage the hope of their taking any action, and
the chief hope thus lies in the direction of private benefaction.
Is it too much to hope that some generous benefactor will provide a
firm footing for seismology ?

The present state of affairs is as follows:—The Shide Observatory
is rented from Mrs. Milne at 20]. a year. The work of the Shide
station and the collation of results from other stations is being
done by Mr. J. H. Burgess, who assisted Professor Milne in the later
years of his life, especially after the return of Shinobu Hirota to
Japan. At the time of Professor Milne’s death the work of collation
was in arrear; and in order to bring it up to date assistance is
being temporarily rendered by Mr. 8. W. Pring (who had already
considerable knowledge of the work) and his daughter. The general
superintendence is undertaken by the Chairman of this Committee,
partly by correspondence and partly by personal visits to Shide (on
September 20-21, January 17-20, March 29-April 2, and May 9-11).

Registers. Card Catalogue System. Monthly Bulletins.—The
form of the Circulars has been changed. Up to the present the in-
formation supplied by each individual station has been printed separ-
ately, thus leaving the formal collation of results to others. But
since a good deal of collation was actually done at Shide in order
to eliminate accidental tremors from the records, it seemed desirable
to render this work generally available at the cost of a slight
extension. The collation was formerly done in a large book with
ruled columns, one double page being devoted to each month. In
place of this a card catalogue system has been adopted. The
information supplied by the stations is copied on to cards, a separate
card for each day. A cabinet of twelve drawers (one for each calendar
month) has been made, each drawer divided into 32 partitions (4 x 8)
corresponding to the days of the month (with 1—4 over), and the
cards are slipped into the proper partition as they are copied off.
When all the records have been received for the month (and the
stations have been asked kindly to send their records each month) it
is easily seen by comparison of the different cards in any partition
which are the important quakes and which are microseisms or
accidental tremors. For the first few months of 1913 details were
printed for all disturbances recorded at more than four stations; but
experience quickly showed that much of this information was of

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 43

comparatively little value, the records for small quakes being liable
to errors of various kinds; and from April 1913 onwards a chart
has been printed showing merely that such and such a quake has
been observed at a particular station without further details, except
in the case of a really large earthquake. It is, of course, difficult to
draw a satisfactory line between large earthquakes and small, but a
practical procedure was based on the following figures given in the
April Bulletin :—

Number of Stations recording an Earthquake :
Month oo |
| 5 to 10 | 11 to 20 | 21 to 30 | 31 to 40 41 to 50 | Over 50 |
|
a | | |
January BLN wksareie lh tag ccd Sts) eres 4 2
February Dia 5 ay 1 0 1
March . 6 | 9 7 3 2 3
April. 9 | 13 6 10 4 3
Total =. .| 28 | 32 21 16 10 9

According to this table, if attention is confined to those earthquakes
recorded at thirty-one stations at least, we should get a hundred of
them in a year; and it was thought sufficient to give full details for
these. It should be remarked that the stations are no longer Milne
stations only—the list has been extended to include all those stations
which send their records to Shide; and it is hoped that this compre-
hensive collation of results will be found useful. Undoubtedly a
comparison with tabular theoretical results would increase its useful-
ness, and it is hoped to undertake such a comparison from January
1914; but to attempt this for 1913 would have seriously delayed
publication (already considerably in arrear), and indeed was scarcely
possible until a tentative discussion such as is given later in the present
Report had been carried out.

Notation.—One other change will be made in January 1914. The
symbols P,, P,, P,, &c., were introduced by Milne, and have been
used by him throughout his work, although he assented to the change
to P, S, L, &c., as determined at the Manchester Meeting, 1911, of
the International Seismological Association. It seemed only a proper
mark of respect to complete the year of Milne’s death (1913) in his
notation; but the change to the adopted system will be made from the
beginning of 1914.

Visitors.—The station at Shide continues to attract a number of
visitors, many of them with only a limited knowledge of seismology ;
their visits naturally make inroads on the time of the assistant-in-
charge, but it seems undesirable to discourage them at the present
juncture. The visits of seismologists have naturally been affected by
Milne’s death; and in the consequent disorganisation the visitors’ book
was for a time not regularly posted; but we have had the pleasure
of seeing at Shide Mr. J. J. Shaw of West Bromwich, Mr. E. F.
Norris of Guildford, Mr. J. Round and Mr. S. B. Round of

44 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Birmingham, Mr. L. F. Richardson of Eskdalemuir, and Mr. J. E.
Crombie of Aberdeen.

Il.—Seismic Activity in 1911.

The visit of the British Association to Australia makes it necessary
to have the greater part of this Report in proof at an earlier date than
usual. The list of origins for 1911, in continuation of those given in
previous Reports, is not completed at this date; but it is hoped to add
it at the end of the Report before it is finally printed off for
distribution.

IlI.—Distribution of Earthquake Centres.

Study of the information collected by Milne in previous Reports has
suggested a new form of the map which he has usually printed
showing the distribution of large earthquakes. On some of these
maps he has shown Libbey’s Circle, and on others a cycle of his
own running through the chief earthquake centres,

On scrutiny of the distribution of centres not thus accounted for,
the existence of a curve of secondary disturbance was suggested,
with the suggestive feature of enclosing most of the land on the earth’s
surface—skirting especially the Western coast of North America and
the Eastern coast of Asia. Adjustments by trial and error of these
two curves showed that it was not difficult to make them great circles
cutting at right angles; but not easy to make them account for all
the striking facts. More or less by accident, the third great circle
cutting both at right angles was drawn, and immediately several
striking geographical features fell into line. Further work on this
system of three great circles suggested after many trials a system
symmetrical with respect to the earth’s axis, the points of intersection
being at about 55° (accurately tan ~!./2) from the poles; and there
was little trouble in fixing the approximate longitudes at 259 + 60° n
Kast.

A system of three great circles cutting at right angles divides the
surface of the sphere into eight equilateral right-angled triangies. If
we project each of these on a tangent plane at its centre, we get
an octahedron surrounding the sphere, and we can unwrap it into a
plane in various ways. The particular plan of the accompanying map
is adopted in order to bring out the striking symmetry, both seismo-
logical and geographical, of the earth as thus represented, a symmetry
only slightly disguised by the one-sidedness of the water covering.
[ We can imagine the distribution made quite symmetrical, and then
the upper right-hand corner dipped slightly more under the water; but
we will neglect this point for a moment. ]

Six of the triangles are easily recognised, the other two have
been divided by their median lines in order to show the symmetry
while keeping the figure compact; but ABC and CBD could be detached
from AC and CD, and joined along CB placed in a vertical position,
thus keeping the symmetry at the expense of a little detachment.

Let us consider the triangle EFK, which is chiefly Asia. India lies
nearly on the median line, pointing to the apex of the triangle; and just

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.] [Prats I,

Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigations.
[To face page 44,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 45

above India Tibet, the highest land in the world, occupies nearly the
centre of the triangle. The side KE runs through a well-known
series of earthquake centres skirting the coast, of which perhaps the
most important are at HE (Japan) and S (Borneo), one at the extremity
and the other near the middle point. The continuation of KE is EC,
since the angles FEK and FEC, though they are only 60° on the
plane projections, are 90° on the sphere; and since there is a notable
centre U (Alaska) near the middle of EC, we may perhaps consider
S and U as corresponding points of strain.

The side KF is not so conspicuous a line of earthquakes at present,
though the point F (Crete) is a familiar region, and corresponding
to S we may take R, the middle point of FK, as representing earth-
quakes in the Indian Ocean. But apart from modern records, the
geographical features of ‘this line RF, viz., the Red Sea, the Grecian
Archipelago, and the Adriatic, are strongly suggestive of crumpling
into folds at some time in the past. Continuing the line along FC,
there is an active centre near the middle point T which is not far
from Iceland; so that S, E, V have corresponding points in R, F, T;
the former are at present the stronger, but this may not have been
always so.

The apex C is not an earthquake centre, but near it, and sym-
metrically disposed on the sides CD, CA, are the Californian and
West Indian regions. The symmetry of the whole arrangement round
the point V (close to Tomsk) will be complete if we may put two
Antarctic centres at the points P and Q which are in latitude —53° and
longitudes 55° and 115° East. Milne assigned two Antarctic regions
near these as a result of observations made during the voyage of the
“ Discovery ’ (March 14, 1902, to November 28, 1903), but it is doubt-
ful whether the material is sufficient to locate them exactly.

As regards the remainder of the map, the symmetrical disposition
of South Africa and Australia is noteworthy; but as we go northwards
from them the symmetry disappears, the upper half of the African
triangle being land, that of the Australian water (though much of it
not very deep). Superposed on the arrangement symmetrical, about
the line CK there is at least one unsymmetrical character which may
be roughly described as a division into land and water hemispheres,
and as such has been often noted. In the present diagram the salient
points of this contrast are :—

(a) Land in the triangle FGK, water in the triangle CDE.

(b) Water in the middle of land in the triangle ACF, land in the
middle of water in EKL.

(c) The absence of land corresponding to South America, on the
line CD. If a bathy-orographical map be consulted it will, however,
be found that there is a shallow in this part of the ocean, not very
different from South America in shape. It is conceivable that a mere
shift of the earth’s centre of gravity might uncover this ‘ image’ of
South America.

Tn a future Report it is hoped to show the actual distribution of
observed earthquakes on this map; but this will take some little time.

46 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

IV.—Discussion of Results from Different Seismographs.

The card catalogue system introduced at Shide for records from
January 1913 onwards facilitates the comparison of results from
different instruments. The following discussion is only preliminary, and
the unit of time adopted (0°l m. or 6 sec.) is not small enough to
do justice to the best instruments. But itis as small as can reasonably
be adopted for the Milne instruments, and the main object of the
discussion is to bring out the comparative attainments of the Milne
seismographs as compared with modern and much more sensitive
apparatus.

From the beginning of 1912, the weekly Bulletins issued from
Pulkovo give epicentres for the large earthquakes, determined by
Galitzin’s method for a single station. Adopting these as correct
and using the table printed by G. W, Walker on p. 54 of his mono-
graph on ‘ Modern Seismology,’ or by Galitzin in his ‘ Vorlesungen
iiber Seismometrie,’ p. 137, we can deduce from the times recorded at
Pulkovo for either P or S, the time of the earthquake itself. Re-
applying the table we can deduce the theoretical times of arrival of
P and S at other stations, for comparison with their records. For
this purpose the distances of the stations from the epicentre were read
to whole degrees from a globe, which again is a method unsuitable to
refined investigation, but sufficiently accurate for the present pre-
liminary examination.

As an example, the times recorded for the earthquake of 1913,
January 11, were as follows :—

P S
haem” 8 be, moses
13 29 45 13 40 9
Subtract ‘ : ; ; 12 36 22 54
Time at epicentre. . . . LSP ee =D 13 17 15

The distance of Florence from the adopted epicentre (6° N., 1179 B..)
was read off as 98°, and the calculated and observed times were:

For P | For S
C Cppaabie Ooh Hae ergata
i Mitt || sae eee h m. | m.
| 18 31-1] 13 30:2) —0-9 | 18 42-7 | 13 35 | —7:7

These differences O—C were collected and discussed for the following
five earthquakes :—

Date Adopted Epicentre aoe mere oa

° ° ° h. m.

1913, January 11 Rite ge 6-0 N., 117-0 E. 83 13. 17-2
1913, March 23... . «(| 26-3N., 143-38. 78 20 47-2
1913, April30 . . . «| 50-2N., 176-:3.E. 67 13 34-4
1913, May 18 . . . . | 263N., 143-7E. 79 2 9-7
19lesdune 22) 2 ae a OO N. al7S8-1 66 13 50:3

Summary
(Corrected)

— 100°— 130°

ON..SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
TaBLE I.
134 Errors of P for Seismographs other than Milne’s.
Distance from Epicentre

Large Errors

glarend CP Sr RS rs 9 Go ret ir
Ais dtdmaaaaes

0200000000 SPAHMrOMOHAOAAS AAG HH SE OBOAA
} 0 Ped game all tae ee srooooocooooooooseoooooornas
, geocxwoeovwo% = ote | le lias}
| Ao btm aaae

ean ey

Large Errors

48 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIm#NCE.—1914,

In Table I. the differences are grouped under distances from epi-
centre, all instruments other than Milne being grouped together.

Errors greater than 6 m.—The five large positive residuals are as
follows :—

Instru- | rrors | Dist. fr
Observatory ment | Date a 7 acne
m. m. =

FUPICSE auc) uancoe eee tts W 1913, Jan. 11 | +106 +7-4 95
Tneshwceyy a1 ak Ww 1913, May 18 | +104 — | 96
Triest . Se Dee W 1913, June 22. +103 — 83
Czernowitz . : : Ma. | 1913, May 23 +10-1 +9-5 89
Pompeii - . «| OA. | 1913, June 22 | 492 — | 88

The difference between the times of arrival of P and S being near
10m. it is possible that some of these are mistakes of P for S. But
in the case of Czernowitz, a mistake of 10m. in both P and S seems
probable. It is safer to omit these cases as anomalies than to attempt
to correct them.

Errors. <6 m. and >1 m.—With the exception of a couple near
the epicentre these do not develop until near 90°. Between 90° and
100°, however, they outnumber the normal errors given in the body of
the table. They are doubtless due to the fact that a reflected wave
has been mistaken for the direct wave. The fact that the first reflected
effect PR is often more pronounced than P in the case of distant earth-
quakes is duly noted in Walker’s monograph (p. 41); it may not, how-
ever, be realised that it is so often mistaken for P in the published
records of sensitive instruments. Beyond 100° from the epicentre
no times for P were correctly given at all for the five earthquakes
here examined. It is not intended to ignore the fact that these differ-
ences will change with distance from epicentre, but for the present
rough review we will neglect this change. The median is 3°75 m.
or 3m. 45s. The mean of the differences from this is + 0°53m. But
it does not seem clear that some of the differences which may be faulty
P readings should be included. If these are excluded the median is’
3°8m.; the mean is 3°87m.; and the mean of the differences from
the mean is + 0°35 m.

Normal Errors.—Coming now to the main part of Table I., if we
take the errors as they stand (assuming the time-table for P correct
throughout) the mean of the 87 differences is —O'07m. or —4s.
But there is a systematic run about the differences as may be seen
from the following means for the separate columns :—

0° — 40° — 80° — 90° — 100°
m. m. m. m.
+0-13 =-0-01 —0-11 —0:27
The process adopted in the previous work does not justify any
great. refinement of correction; but we may fairly correct the different
columns by the quantities

0° — 40° — 80° — 90° — 100°
m. m. m. m.
—0-1 0-0 +0-1 +0-3

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 49

and then the errors are distributed as in the last column. The mean
is now +0°014m. or +0°8s. and the mean of the errors is + 0°31 m.,
very close to the mean of the errors 0°35 m. obtained above for the
reflected wave. A’ considerable part of this mean error may be due
to the errors of reading distances from the epicentre, and to the error
of assumed position of the epicentre itself.

Large Negative Readings.—The eight negative readings are prob-
ably due to accidental air tremors just preceding the quake; these
call for no special remark here except that they seem to be pretty
clearly separated off from the normal readings; even making a generous
allowance for accidental error in the latter. It will be seen that the
numerically smallest (—2°3m.) is a full minute away from the out-
side error (— 1'2m.) included among possible normal readings. The
details may be given here in case the observatories care to examine
the records :—

Observatory pee Date es Ss wees

m. m. Fa
Lemberg B.O Jan. 11, 1913 — 33 — 88
Lemberg B.O. Mar. 23, 1913 — 50 — 87
Lemberg B.O. April 30, 1913 —14-2 — 79
Lemberg B.O. June 22, 1913 — 42 —3-9 78
Aachen . W. April 30, 1913 —248 — 80
Paris. . —_ Mar. 23, 1913 — 34 —0-7 98
Ksara — Mar. 23, 1913 — 23 — 90
Batavia W. Mar. 23, 1913 - 33 — 47

Coming now to S, two large positive errors have already been
mentioned as associated with large positive errors in P, viz., +9°5 m.
at OCzernowitz on 1913, March 23, and +7°4m. at Triest on 1913,
January 11, as also one considerable negative error of —3°9m. at
Lemberg on June 22, 1918. These are omitted from further notice.
Two large negative errors are

Observatory Machine Date P Ss A
Tiflis . igs Ca G 1913, Jan. 11 +02 —81 ie
Florence . . . A 1913, Jan. 11 —09 —7-7 gs°

The former is due to some unknown mistake; the latter is probably
a mistake of S for PR,. These are also omitted from further notice.
Two positive errors of smaller amount as follows :—

Observatory Date P Ss A
IRiverviow «|... <« . & 1913, June 22 —0:3 +4:5 94°
Heidelberg . . . . 1913, June 22 +01 +4-7 80°

are omitted as quite anomalous. The remaining errors are grouped

in Table II.

1914. a E

50 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Tasxe II.

- Errors of S for Seismographs other than Milne’s.
(Unit 0-1 m. or 6s.)
Distance from Epicentre
40° 80° 130°

oO
°

+2-1 to 42. 5
+1-6 to +2:0
+1-1 to +1-5
+0-6 to +1:0
+0:1 to +0°5
—04to 00
—0-9 to —0°5
—14to—10 |
| —19to —15 |
| —2-4 to —2-0
—2°9 to —2:5

id
“Tho bo OO OR Re toe

se Fa

Mean . 4 +0°5 —0°2 —0°5

_It would hereby appear that while the tables for P are fairly
accurate, those for § are sensibly in error. The amount of error
cannot be assigned more than very roughly by the present method,
because the error for Pulkovo comes differently into the various earth-
quakes. But it would appear that the times of arrival of S at 20°
distance and at 100° distance from the epicentre are relatively erro-
neous by something like a whole minute. The error is apparently
not complicated in the case of § by any reflection phenomenon; the
residuals for P are definitely grouped about two separate maxima,
but for 5 this is not so. The first group (0°—40°) is too small to
show a decided maximum ; but the position of the maximum is clearly
marked in the other two by the numbers given in the table. As a
rough expedient the following corrections have been applied :—

Distance from Epicentre
15° 258°! M45 bos 659 Tb? Bb" eNO abe
Correction . —0-3 —0-2 —01 00 +01 +02 +03 +04 +05 +0-6
the correction for 15° being applied to distances between 10° and
20°, and so on. The corrected errors are then distributed as follows :—

Distance from Epicentre .

oe 2 6—— )=—40° SO —)Ss 80° — so -180°—Ss Al

+2:8 to +3-2 te been ty | le Gee
+2:3 to +2-7 — —_ 3 3
41-8 to 12-2 = as aa 0
413 to 41-7 1 1 2 4

j +0-8 to +1-2 2 6 — 8
40-3 to --0-7 2 4 6 12
—0:2 to +0-2 — 11 13 24
—0:7 to —0:3 2 2 12 16
—1-2 to —0°8 1 4 10 15
—1:7 to —1:3 — 2 1 3
—2-2 to —1:8 — 1 —_— 1
Totals 8 31 48 87

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 51

The mean of the errors is + 0°73 m., and though there is a slight
tendency to increase from the second group to the third, the material
is fairly homogeneous. Now, comparing this with the mean for P,
viz. + 031 m., it is clear that we are dealing with a much less
definitely marked phenomenon, as is indeed well known. Part of
each of these mean errors is due to errors of reading, &c.; and this
part should be approximately the same in both. If we were to calcu-
late and remove it, the ratio between the two, already greater than
2 to 1, would be sensibly increased.

In determining A from P and §, the superior accuracy of P is there-
fore rendered more or less useless by the uncertainty of S. Galitzin’s
azimuthal method of determining the epicentre has thus obvious
advantages; if the epicentre is well determined from the azimuths
at several stations, and if the time of the catastrophe is determined
from the Ps at these stations, we should appear to have the material
in the best shape for improving the tables of P and S, especially the
latter.

But this is a digression from the present investigation, which is
primarily concerned with the performance of the Milne instruments.

Putting aside for the present any question of correcting the tables
for S, and therefore the position of the epicentre (as determined from
Pulkovo), and consequent correction of the calculated times, it is clear
that we can compare the performance of the Milne pendulums with
other instruments on a common basis (though not the ultimate basis)
by collecting their records for the same earthquakes in the same way.
This is done in the following Table III., which corresponds to
Table I.

It will be seen—

(2) That there are 5 large positive errors and 8 large negative
errors, for which no special explanation can be given. In Table I.
there are 8 negative errors, no positive.

(b) That in 6+5+104+5=26 cases, S has presumably been read
in place of P. With other instruments there were only 5 such cases.

(c) That in at least 17 cases a reading has been made which can
be attributed to a reflected wave. There are, moreover, 9 readings
intermediate between these and the normal readings, which are extreme
cases of one or the other. The line of demarcation is not so sharp as
before. Similarly there are 5 doubtful negative readings.

(d) In the middle part of the table have been collected within the
same limits as before what may be fairly regarded as normal readings.

They number 25 in all, They do not of themselves suggest
any corrections to the table for P, but we might use the same correc-
tions as before. It is simpler, however, to resfrict attention to the
second and largest group, the mean of the errors for which is + 0°4 m.
If, however, we include in this the ‘ doubtful’ +1°8m., +1°4m.,
+12 m., and —1:0 m., —1°2 m., the mean of the errors rises to

“+ 0°6 m. For other instruments this mean was + 0°31 m.

The most significant fact is perhaps that of the whole 95

readings-only 25-at a severe scrutiny; and at most (i.e., including

EB 2

52 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Taste III.

95 Errors of P for Milne Seismographs in 1913.

Distance from Epicentre

Error 0° — 40° — 80° — 90° — _ 100° — _ 130°
Large = 16-7. | 2.904 +40-7 = —
Positive — +15:3 — | +25:0 — —
Transferred | — (6) (5) | (10) (5) =
| to S | |
as — | 443 | — (9) (6) —
| Bd +3:3 — | — — —
2 = -+— 2
| Doubtful a 42-9 pe | 2:8 42.0 st
— +2:7 we +2-0 —. —
ae 41:8 Eh Sic = =
| == 41-4 a | mt mL
ne +1-2 —_ | aos _ =
m.
+0:9 — 1 = | — 1 —
+0:8 —_ 1 — | — = or
+0-7 = = 1 | — —
+0:6 — — 1 | — 1 --
+0-5 1 1 eh oe — —
40-4 = 1 = = —~ | =
+0-3 rig 3 _ — = ==
+02 | — 2 = a8 = —
Ot. ly 2 ae ie ty oF
0-0 _ 1 = | oe a8 =a
—0-1 reid at an ee = =
—0-2 2 1 1 ss = —
—0-3 ma 1 == best is 23:
—0-4 \ aS fs fe aes a
—0°5 at ee a a= tee ==
—06 =. ict we a aoe =
—0-7 ar 1 ze se Es a
—0°8 | aes ee 5 3 aes =
—0-9 = 1 | 1 = —
| A
Doubtful —1-2 —10 | —1-9 —10 —
2s: —1-2 at zm =
ims bee
Large —_— — 3-4 — \) ap —12-4 _—
Negative — — 58 — | — —17:5 —
— —10-1 tS iii —25-4 ait)
= —35-3 ies | AS te ay
|

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 53

all those marked doubtful) only 39, can be regarded as true readings
of P; say 40 per cent. at most. With the other machines there are
87 out of 134, or 65 per cent.

Coming now to §, and correcting the results (which include those
transferred from P) as for other instruments, we find 12 large errors;
the others are distributed as below :—

TaBxeE LY.
38 Errors for S in Milne Seismographs tn 1918.

Distance from Epicentre

| oo — 40° — 80° — 130° All

. m. m. |
+3:3 to +3-7 — | 1 1 2
+2-8 to +3-2 Sar Seda _— —
+2:3 to +2:-7 | — — 3 3
+1:8 to +2:-2 — 1 1 2
esta ei-72 > PS = 1 1
+0:8 to +1:2 — 1 2 3
+0:3 to +0-7 2 2 2 6
—0-2 to +0:2 | — 3 3 6
—07to-03 | 9 — 2 5 7
—12to-08 = — ~ 2 2

Pepto 9-3 ak ist) vig 2 4

| —2-2 to —1:8 —_— — 1 1
—2-7 to —2:3 — 1 — 1

The mean of the errors ig + 1‘1m.; for other instruments it was
+0°73m. The ratio of these is about the same as in the case of P.
But it will be seen that there are acceptable readings of S in 38 cases,
whereas for the same earthquakes there are only 39 of P at most.
It is usually considered that the Milne instruments show P but not S.
The evidence here tabulated points to the conclusion that S is shown
at least as well as P. It is true that the five earthquakes considered
are large ones; but it might reasonably be argued that P should
therefore have the better chance of asserting itself. It seems probable
that in some cases P could be recovered from the records when it was
realised that the reading formerly given was that of S. The important
point is that without any great difficulty it can be settled when
we have an § reading, for the cases of doubt are few. We may now
give the 12 large errors excluded as mistakes; they are +35°2m.,
+11:9m.,:+10°3m., +91m., +8'7m., +86m., the smallest of
which exceeds the maximum error (+3°5 m.) accepted as S by over 5 m. ;
and on the negative side we have —4°4m,, —4°4m., —51m., —80m.,
+118m., and —14:2m. Here the separation is not so marked; but
there is a full 2m. interval. Some or all of these negative errors may
be readings of PR, but the two largest, which both occur on January 11
(Toronto —11°8 m. and Stonyhurst —14°2 m.), are supported by
several other readings and probably refer to a preliminary shock. As
the performance of the Milne pendulums is the main point under

54. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.,

investigation, not only were the above five earthquakes used, but also
five others in 1911 as follows :—

— Date Adopted Epicentre | Adopted Time

é 3 hi ai. 8
IE - 3 ; 1911, July 4 39-0N., 714E. 13 33 33
ing, : ie oe 1911, July 12 27-0 N., 116-0 E. | 4 9 7
Il. : ; : 1911, Aug. 16 19-08.,1400E. | 22 38 51
IV. : ; . 1911, Oct. 14 33:5.N., 82:5 E. 23 «24 1
We : : : 1911, Dec. 16 12-0 N., 101-8 W. 19° aS or

For these earthquakes Pulkovo epicentre determinations were not
available, but the results from Galitzin instruments at Eskdalemuir are
published in the ‘ Geophysical Journal,’ and have been adopted for
use. The computations were kindly made by Mr. A. E. Young,
formerly Deputy Surveyor-General of the Malay Survey, who is at
present working at the Oxford University Observatory; and in this
instance greater care was taken, Mr. Young calculating the distances
trigonometrically (instead of reading them from a globe) and using
the times and tables to seconds of time in the computations, though
in giving the results the unit 0'lm. has been considered sufficient.

V.—Comparison of Films for 1911.

The chief object in using this additional material was as follows.
It was thought that some of the errors of the Milne instruments might
be due to faulty readings of the records, susceptible of correction. To
test the general accuracy of such readings the different stations were
invited to send their films for the year 1911 to Shide, and many
of them have responded. Some had bound up their films in such a
way that transmission was undesirable; but films for 1911 have been
received at Shide from Cape Town, Cork, Toronto, San Fernando,
Sydney, Helwan (Egypt), Victoria, Ascension, Perth, Seychelles,
Eskdale, Guildford, and Colombo, and have been systematically
examined at Shide by Mr. Burgess and Mr. Pring, who have had
much experience in reading the Shide films. It was thought advisable
to make this examination quite independently, before knowing
whether the revised readings would suit the calculated facts better; and
indeed the calculations were made at Oxford, so that the Shide readings
were made in ignorance of the tabular result either before or after.
On comparing the old and new readings with expectation, it does not
appear that the new afford any systematic improvement on the old.
The actual figures for the above five earthquakes are as follows (the
quantities given being differences from expectation, calculated as already
indicated). They apply entirely to the phase P, the phase 5 being
seldom read from the Milne records.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 55

: TABLE V.
Comparison of Original and Revised Readings of Various Films for the
Phase P.
Ascension. Seychelles.
Quake. Orig. Rev. _ Quake. Orig. Rev.
Il. .- . . . —5:5 Not read . Menges ea ee ies peor
III. es she Ok 5-1 I. OT CRON EERY 3 0 —1:
Ss Pa [a ee: Bea Rae ieee ae
Cape T V. . - (37:0) (34-0)
ey erie For V. epicentre is so distant that tables
T . —09 +0-2 fail.
II - 42:3 +429
It . +63 +58 Sydney.
‘a ce ae le Ecce) mele ter P96 Ta
a ee ee ae beer emer We
Helwan. IT. R j , . +1-7 —13-2
Readings for Jan. and Feb. confirmed IV. Se A Se a
former results so consistently that the | For II. an earlier quake is confirmed by
scrutiny was discontinued as super- Alipore. For III. see Toronto.
fluous.
Toronto.
Perth. Bi A Sar og NOL) be
eee. 8. +86 13-5 Le eee eG Dee ME es
iV. ee eed EDD Ii. © ea Oe aes
V. oe ee te —10-se—o
San Fernando. For IIT. see Sydney.
I. Se ow) 0:2 —3:0 eer
ITl. en eee ete '27-0) ©--6-6 Victoria.
IV. . : +65 +21-7 V. 5 é é -— 01 — 0-1
V —0:3 —0:7 Films not sent for other earthquakes,

After consideration of the above figures, it was decided to apply
no corrections at all, but to accept the original readings as they stand,
and in Table VI. these are compared with calculated values. The table
corresponds to Table III. except that A was now used in km., and
the grouping is therefore a little different.

There is room for some difference of opinion as to the 17 records
marked doubtful; but the 12+13+15+3+4=47 readings in the body
of the table are probably normal. We thus get at least 47 but not
more than 64 normal readings out of 108. These figures are better than
the 1913 figures and encourage the hope that on the whole 50 per cent.
of the recorded readings for P may be normal; but the percentage
cannot be higher than this.

One feature of the records seems to demand further investigation.
There is a suggestion that the readings are divisible into two groups
separated by about a whole minute; and this applies also to the
results for 1913, though they are scarcely numerous enough to declare
it independently. It will be seen that the records —0°4 m. and —0°5 m.
are not represented in either table, thus creating an appearance of
Separation. But this may be purely accidental.

Coming now to §, Table VII. has been formed in the
bame manner as before, adopting the same corrections to the tables
for time of S. There are three consistent observations of S at A
=15,000 kms. for which the tables are scarcely available but were

Tasie VI.
108 Errors of P for Milne Seismographs in 1911.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Distance from Epicentre in kms.
0 — 5000 — 9000 — 10000 — 11000 — 13000 over
| i
m. m. |
Large Errors . | +17-2 | +22-1 — — | — | =
— +16-1 — — ae ss
SP ee (2) (6) (1) (3) (0) — +10-8?
— — — = — == + 9-7?
ae ra ave } — —- —— + 8 5?
| eas
PR, — +45 | +44 |4+61) +63 +59 +5-2
see I ee ee a pe 2a 2 ee
= +2-6 +4-2 _ +49 +55 +4-4
— +2:6 —_ _ a= ras +3-9
|
Doubtful . +1-7 41-7 | +15 — | 42:8 +3-0 ee
41-2 +1-7 | +15 | — | 423 | 42-4 — |
+1-0 +15 | +1-0 — | +10 | 41-4 — |
+1-0 +1:5 ee | Ranh aes — |
+0:9 _ — — ia | ss
+08 — — | — cers — =
+0-7 — —- | — — — | —
+05 | — 1 - — Atta} —
40-4 — — 1 —| — | —
+03 = igen, or eee a
40-2 1 16a thie a 7 i as
+01 _ _ —- — |) 1 1
0:0 — 1 1 —_|;— =
—0:1 1 — 2 — —_— 1
—0-2 a 2 a = pal =
—0:3 1 eed 2 — — 1 |
—0-4 berape fy See Nae eae ec oesat | ae Es |
—0°5 \eicee = ay = = —— |
—0:6 | 9 5 — |; — —
—0-7 ie el - | — —- |) — ==
—0:8 2 {aie ee ne ak
—0-9 1 ly ool! Toe — — ==
ait) 1 =e = = = =
—1-1 1 — — — = =
—1-2 = 4c 1 aus = ms
—1:3 ae = 1 Efe a =
—1-4 a eee te = sats
ide —a 1 = 2 = | —
Large Errors . | —43-0 —3-6 —4:8 | —3-7 = —5:5
— —4-5 — | = —
— —4:7 _ — ue

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 57

provisionally extended. It seems clear that an even larger correction is
necessary at this distance than has been assumed. In calculating
the mean error these observations have been omitted, and the mean
error is then +1:1m. as before. Including them as they stand
raises if to +1°2m. :

TasLe VII.
36 Errors for S for Miine Seismographs in 1911.

|
Distance from Epicentre in kms.
0 — 5000 — 9000 — 10000 — 11000 — 16000 — All

+2-8 to +3-2
+2-3 to +2-7
+1:8 to +2-2
+1:3 to +1-7
+0-:8 to +1-2 |
40:3 to +0-7
—0-2 to +0-2
—0-:7 to —0:3 |
—1-2 to —0:8
—1-7 to —1:3
—2-2 to —1-8
—2-7 to —2-3

[Pe Stiniec Ses ate

—~-
hoe
Sr

Te SN

Re DARRPOWOND eS

1
1
1
1

Per rwro| | He |

LPs 1 sledge hare en]

In addition there are three large positive errors (+9°9m., +7°8m.
and +7Sm.) and four large negative (-52m., —5'8m., —6'7m.
and —81 m.), which may be reflected waves. The percentage is
slightly less than before, but, putting 1911 and 1918 together, we
have 36+39=75 tolerably certain S readings as against 47+25=72,
or possibly 644+39=103 P readings. The fact that S is as often
readable as P on Milne seismograms, at any rate for large earthquakes,
seems to be thus fairly well established.

VI.—Comparison of Milne and Galitzin Instruments.

To the information conveyed by the above discussion the following
may be added. At Eskdalemuir Observatory various seismographs have
been mounted side by side for comparison, and Mr. G. W. Walker
made very careful and thorough comparisons of the relative advan-
tages as indicated in his book already referred to. It seemed desirable
at the present juncture to have a formal report on the comparison of
the Milne instrument with at least one other; and the Galitzin seemed
the best to select as standard of comparison. Application was there-
fore made to the Superintendent of the Meteorological Office, and he
kindly sent the following report, to which the names of L. F.
Richardson and L. H. G. Dines are attached.

Comparison between the Milne and the Galitzin types of Seismographs.

It is convenient to treat the question under several different
aspects, and a brief description of the two instruments may usefully
precede the rest.

It is unnecessary to say much about the Milne instrument.
Extreme lightness and compactness characterise it, and no simpler

58 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

method of optical registration could well be devised. No expensive
lenses are needed, and, with the exception of a few parts of the
mechanism, no specially high-class work is required in manufacture.
The whole of the apparatus is self-contained and does not take up
much floor-space. It does not require a continuously darkened room
in which to work. Two pendulums to record both N.S. and E.W.
movements can be installed in the same case and record on the same
drum.

The Galitzin instrument, on the other hand, is a very much more
complicated affair. It is designed to follow a somewhat elaborate
mathematical theory, and high-class workmanship and accuracy are
needed in its construction. Its pendulum is shorter than the Milne
and much heavier—say, seven kilograms. It is hung by two steel
wires (Zollner system), and has no pivot at all in some cases, Pro-
vision, however, is made on the pendulum and frame for a steel point
and cup to be inserted if required. The supporting wires might, with
advantage, be made of tungsten if corrosion were feared. At the outer
end of the boom are fixed to the frame four powerful horseshoe
magnets. Between the poles of one pair of these moves a set of wire
coils fixed to the boom and coupled in series with a delicate galvano-
meter placed in any convenient position elsewhere. Between. the
other pair is a large copper plate, also fixed to the boom, and this last
acts as a magnetic damper. The magnets can be adjusted as desired
to vary the.magnetic field between the poles.

The galvanometer is of the moving coil type, and has a long period
of oscillation when undamped. ‘This galvanometer is an excellent,
piece of work and is electrically damped so that it can be rendered
just aperiodic. With the whole instrument in normal working it is
necessary that the undamped periods of both pendulum and galvano-
meter should be the same, and that they both should be damped just
to the limit of aperiodicity.

The optical registration consists of a collimator with a fine slit
powerfully illuminated. The beam is reflected from a mirror on the
galvanometer and thence to the recording drum, where a cylindrical
lens condenses the line of light into a point on the paper.

The two pendulums for recording N.S. and E.W. movements are
under entirely separate covers, and in a more refined installation two
separate drums are also used; but it is possible to use one drum only
and arrange the spots of light from the two galvanometers side by
side.

A good deal of floor space is required, and the room in which the
recording parts are placed must be kept dark.

The galvanometers and recording drum may be placed in a separate
room altogether; and, in fact, are better so placed. The presence of
the attendant is likely to disturb the pendulum if he brings his weight
near the pillar on which it stands. The recording part of the
apparatus is quite unaffected by disturbances in the room in which it
is placed.

For a further description of the Galitzin instrument see
(1) ‘ Modern Seismology,’ by G. W. Walker, F.R.S., chapters 2 and 3.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 59

(2) The catalogue supplied by H. Masing, St. Petersburg, the
makers of the pendulum and recording part of the instrument.
(83) ‘ Ueber ein neues Aperiodisches Horizontalpendel mit galvano-
metrischer Fernregistrierung,’ by Prince B. Galitzin. (4) ‘ Ueber
einen neuen Seismographen fiir die Vertikalkomponente der Boden-
bewegung,’ by Prince B. Galitzin. (5) ‘Die electromagnetische
Registriermethode,’ by Prince B. Galitzin, Academy of Sciences,
St. Petersburg.

The Galitzin recorder for vertical movements operates electrically
in exactly the same manner as the horizontal instrument, and a similar
magnetic damper is fitted to it. The room in which the pendulum
is placed must be maintained as far as possible at a uniform tempera-
ture, as the change in the elasticity of the spring which supports the
pendulum causes excessive wandering if the temperature changes by
even as little as 0.5 per cent.

Comparative cost.—A Galitzin installation is much more expensive
than a corresponding Milne one. Two horizontal pendulums complete
with galvanometer and one recording drum cost at least 148/., while
the pendulum for vertical movements with galvanometer and drum
costs at least 1101.

This does not exhaust the expensiveness of the instruments, since

about six times as much sensitive paper is required for one Galitzin

recording drum as for one modern Milne drum for two pendulums.
It is customary to run the paper at three centimetres per minute, and
unless the optical arrangements were improved it would be hardly
feasible to run it at much less speed without losing a good deal.
Under these circumstances the cost in paper alone of one recorder is
about 331. per annum.

Attention required.—The Milne instrument does not require more
than ordinary skilled attention. If the operator be used to handling

_ delicate instruments little more is required. Of the Galitzin instrument

the same may be said as far as the ordinary routine is concerned, but

the greater complexity of the apparatus means a greater number of
_ things liable to go wrong, and sooner or later it is almost certain
‘to happen that highly skilled attention is necessary. Both types of

instrument require periodical standardisation, but while in the Milne

_ type this is quite a simple process, in the Galitzin it is quite otherwise.

A certain amount of auxiliary apparatus is required, such as telescopes
and scales, and two persons are necessary to make simultaneous obser-

vations of the pendulum and galvanometer; when these have been
made the constants of the instrument can be determined. Prince
_ Galitzin has worked out formule for this purpose.

__ The whole process has in general to be gone through twice for each
Instrument, and it is a lengthy operation, taking probably about two
working days. A certain measure of observational skill is required to
take the necessary readings accurately, as well as a fair working know-

ledge of mathematics to deal with the results when obtained.

Tt would be possible to simplify the process somewhat more
than has at present been done, and reduce it largely to routine; but

60 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

a Galitzin installation must always require a greater measure of ~
skilled attention to run it successfully than is the case with the
simpler types of instruments.

It is difficult to estimate what is the minimum of mathematical
and physical knowledge that must be possessed by an assistant in order
to maintain successfully a Galitzin installation. A working know-
ledge of algebra is essential, and probably with this as a basis an
intelligent operator could learn the rest of the routine with the aid
of computing-forms. But without a knowledge of higher mathematics,
and particularly elementary differential equations, it is impossible to
understand the meaning of the formule by which the constants are
determined.

Results obtainable.—The Milne type of instrument is very sensitive
as a mere seismoscope. With the exception of very faint movements
indeed, some record of a distant quake can always be obtained by it;
this is due to the absence of damping and almost entire absence of
solid friction; by altering the period of oscillation of the boom
it can be made particularly sensitive to any wave-period desired.
The instrument at Eskdalemuir Observatory has at present a period
of about eighteen seconds, and this corresponds approximately
with the wave periods from very faint and remote shocks. For
waves of this type the Milne instrument leaves some record of
almost any earthquake that affects the Galitzin instrument; but
whereas the latter gives a trace that approximately follows the actual
movements of the ground, the trace from the former has little re-
semblance to it. Maximum movements on the Milne record may
or may not coincide with the maximum movements of the ground:
it depends on the type of the earth movements and on the period of
the pendulum. By damping slightly, a more faithful record can be
obtained, and by making the pendulum actually dead beat a moderately
close agreement will prevail between the actual earth movements and
those worked out from the record. This can be established theoreti-
cally, but Prince Galitzin has also conducted experiments which show
that theory and practice are in close agreement. See Professor C. G.
Knott’s book on ‘ The Physics of Earthquake Phenomena,’ chapter 5,
Unfortunately the reduction in the scale of the record which accom-
panies damping renders the Milne pendulum very insensitive when
damped. For some months an oil damper has been fitted to one of the
Milne pendulums at Eskdalemuir; the ratio of successive elongations
is approximately 2:4. The results obtained are disappointing for the
reason given above.

If any satisfactory means could be found of increasing the magnifi-
cation optically even by a moderate amount, the damped Milne
pendulum should be capable of yielding good results, and the greater
simplicity of standardisation should be another point in its favour.

Turning to the Galitzin type of machine, as an instrument of
precision it may safely be said to be ahead of all others. The inter-
pretation of its records is not a very simple matter, but by those
prepared to spend the time a vast amount of information can be

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 61

obtained. The scale of magnification varies widely with different wave-
periods, being in general approximately 800 as a maximum and for
periods of about fourteen seconds, and falling off for either longer or
shorter periods.

The preliminary tremors of a distant earthquake can be examined
particularly well, and individual impulses analysed. An experienced
observer can analyse these preliminary phases from the shape and
general appearance of the record far more easily than can be done in
the case of the undamped Milne record. See ‘ Modern Seismology,’
by G. W. Walker, F.R.S., chapter 7, for fuller information on this

oint.

; It is probably safe to say that a full and rigid investigation into
the theory of these instruments has not yet been published, and the
possibilities of deducing complicated formul in that direction are vast.
The high degree of accuracy that in favourable circumstances has been
obtained in locating epicentres, using the records from a single station
only, is sufficient to demonstrate the excellence of the instrument as
at present used. It would be well to state here that, though the
Galitzin record does not represent the ground motion accurately in
many cases, yet in the case of the first movement of the first
phase P of an earthquake the movements on the N.S. and H.W.
records will be proportional to the actual earth movements provided
that the two pendulums and galvanometers are in correct adjustment
and have the same undamped period. Hence the azimuth can in
favourable circumstances be accurately and easily determined, though
to work out the actual earth movements would be a complicated
matter.

One point worthy of mention in which the Galitzin instrument
differs from most or perhaps all others is the absence of trouble
arising from the wandering of the pendulum. However the latter may
wander, the zero of the galvanometer is unaffected. The scale value
may be altered slightly if the pendulum be far from the middle
position, but this can easily be corrected from time to time. This
quality renders the instrument useless for determining slow changes in
tilt, as can be done with other types.

Mention has been made above of varying scale value; this intro-
duces another limitation. For very short periods the magnification
is very small, being about 110 for one-second period and varying
directly as the period for lesser values.

Hence rapid vibrations will leave no record, and this may be
the explanation of the fact that small local earthquakes are not
recorded on this type of instrument.

Owing to the high degree of magnification and great sensitivity,
some trouble is experienced from disturbances due to high winds,
and from experience at Eskdalemuir it would seem desirable to house
the pendulum in a small sheltered building rather than a large exposed
one. Heavy weights moving in the vicinity cause trouble, as with any
other sensitive instruments ; but the records so produced being of definite
character can be readily traced to their origin, and are immaterial if not

62 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

too frequent. Occasional traffic along a neighbouring road would not
cause much confusion on the record.

A curve is shown attached giving the magnification of movement
in both the Milne and Galitzin types. It refers solely to the case

300

B00 | Galitzmadjusted ! salthat the pendulum
f and galvanometer have the same period
| of 24-7secs.and hee! damped so

|
700 — Z }
| .

as to be just aperiodic
|
600 | I al fae
x |
A]
2
Si | ——— irs —
S00 = S t - T + figs
SES |
Se

400

Magnific
continue

300

ae 4 es {ete

fon long

|
Omort, just speriodic, Undamped\ period /5secs
motion of hip af boom magmbied 6 Hmes optically _

| [Sat oa sd ati i Hai

SS
9 5 10 15 20 25

of a long-continued series of uniform waves; but it is noteworthy that
in the Milne type it cannot be applied to any other kind of motion and
may be considerably in error even one or two minutes after the
commencement of the series.

In the Galitzin type, however, the free motion dies away much
more rapidly.

VII.—Present Value of the Milne Instrument.
We may summarise the present situation as follows :—

(a) The Milne instrument is undamped, but for one purpose—viz.,
the determination of times of arrival of P and S—this does not matter.
There has been an idea that S (or P:) is not easy to read on Milne
records; but S has often been read in mistake for P, and when these
readings are counted properly S seems to be identifiable as often as P.
On the other hand, the absence of damping makes the readings of
maximum of uncertain significance.

(b) The time scale of the Milne instrument is small and its magni-
fication is also small. Both might be increased with advantage, and
it seems probable that then the times of arrival of P and S$ could
be read as well as on most other instruments.

(c) The present wide dispersion of Milne stations makes the records
of great value. Most of the modern instruments are in Europe. For

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 63

an earthquake in Europe they are distributed in various azimuths
(not quite a complete circuit even then), but for distant quakes they
cluster in the same azimuth and give no material for discussion in
azimuth (see Section VIII.). The Milne stations, however, especially
those in Australia, can supply this information.

It is clear, then, that the usefulness of the Milne instruments is
by no means at an end, as the perfection of modern seismographs
(especially the Galitzin instrument) might at first suggest. And it
should not be difficult to. extend it considerably.

(a) It can be damped effectually. Mr. J. J. Shaw, of West Brom-
wich, has done this electro-magnetically with an aluminium plate
in place of the Galitzin copper plate, which is too heavy for the light
Milne boom. At present, however, he has not obtained simultaneously
sufficient magnification to give the damping effect: damping is
chiefly of use for following the movements of the long waves, and the
scale should be big enough to show them clearly. Mr. Shaw is still
at work on the instrument, and hopes to obtain the requisite magnifi-
cation.

(b) There should be little difficulty in increasing the magnification
moderately both in movement and in time scale, though it may
not be easy to settle which is the very best way of doing it. The
experiments being made by various observers should at least give us
a feasible plan.

(c) Meanwhile if special attention is paid to getting good time
determinations, and if the films are carefully read with a lens, the times
of arrival of P and S for Milne stations should enable us to correct
the tables for considerable distances from the epicentre where the
European stations all agree and are all in error owing to their con-
gestion in azimuth. (See next Section.)

VIII.—Correction of the Tables for P and S.

Recurring to the discussion of Section IV., it was shown that the tables
for both P and S were sensibly in error, and the question arises how far
they can be corrected. The main facts are these :—

(a) The tables for small values of A are sensibly correct. This is
shown by the agreement of determinations of epicentres from Pulkovo
and Eskdalemuir, quoted by G. W. Walker in his monograph (p. 65).
From each station the azimuth a and the distance A can be determined ;
and from the two azimuths a and a, the epicentre can be determined
without reference to A at all.1_ This is a modern advance, the importance
of which is not easily over-estimated. If then the values of A determined
from the P and S tables agree (to a fraction of a degree) with those found
from the azimuths, the tables must be fairly correct. The value of A
is about 20°.

(3) But this single example may give quite a wrong impression of
the accuracy with which an epicentre is at present determined. At
greater distances we gradually lose the accordance between these stations.
Thus, on January 4, 1912, Pulkovo gives 175° E., 49°-5 N., and Eskdale-

1 See letter of Galitzin and Walker-in Nature for September 5; 1912,

64 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

muir 177°E., 51°N.; on July 9 Pulkovo gives 30°-3 E., 2°-1N., and Eskdale-
muir 33°-9 H. and 5°-3.N.; and at greater distances still the discordance
may be 5° or even 10°. The azimuths may still be good, though as the
azimuthal lines do not meet so sharply, the determination becomes less
definite ; and, moreover, it must be remembered that actual errors in
the adjustment of the booms become of greater importance. We have
nothing to set against the clear evidence offered in Section IV. that the
tables for § are in error, though since the errors there found are only
relative, we may add a constant to them all, substituting, for instance, for

Error at 15° 35° 55° 75° 95° 115°
m. m. m. m. m. m.
—0:3 —0-1 +0-1 +0:3 +0-5 +0-7
the revised values
0-0 +0-2 +0-4 -+0-6 +0°8 +1-0
so that the error is small near the epicentre.
Similarly the errors for P might be written—
Error at 15° 35° 55° 75° 95° 115°
0-0 0-0 +0-1 +0-2 +0-4 +0-6
if we determine to keep the error small near the epicentre. In this case
it seems possible that the revised tables just published by the K.G. Landes-
antalt fiir Meteorologie und Geodynamik in Zagreb (Agram) might supply
information which would determine the unknown arbitrary constant.

The errors of the Galitzin tables indicated by Zagreb at the above points
are

m. m. m m. m. m.
+0-1 +0-1 0-0 +0-1 -+0-2 +0:3
Difference +0-1 +01 —0-1 —0-1 —0-2 —0:3

The differences do not, however, remain constant, even approximately.
The present comparison indicates larger errors for values of A greater
than 75° than the Zagreb tables admit.

It thus appears that the moment is not yet come to suggest corrections
to the tables which are likely to meet with general acceptance. It seems
better to retain the old tables until a much greater mass of material has
been discussed, and the old tables will accordingly be used for the com-
parisons made at Shide at any rate for the observations of 1914. The
discussion of some 100 earthquakes should provide corrections approxi-
mating to definitive ones. Meanwhile, the best available corrections
to the tables from the material above discussed, incorporating the in-
formation derived from the next section, are given at the end of the next
section. °

IX.—Discussion in Azimuth.

If the receiving stations are arranged in azimuth (A) round the epi-
centre, then

(a) Assuming the velocity of transmission constant in all azimuths,
any error (8) of position of the epicentre will give rise to an error

c+ ecos (A — Ay)
in the observed times at the stations: where A, is the azimuth in which
the epicentre is erroneously displaced ; A is the azimuth of the receiving

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 65

station ; ¢ is the effect of the displacement (8) on P or §, as the case may
be, at the distance of the receiving station ; and c is a constant depending
on the position of Pulkovo, or other station from which the epicentre is
determined.

(6) If the velocity of transmission varies with the azimuth, then, if the
velocity in azimuth A is not the same as in azimuth A + 180°, there will
be a first-order harmonic which will be mixed up with that just written,
due to the error in position of epicentre ; and it may be difficult to separate
the two. If, however, the velocity is the same for A and A + 180°, then
we may look for a second-order harmonic to represent the variation. It
will be seen from what follows that there are no trustworthy indications
of such terms from the material now discussed. The material is insufficient
to pronounce definitely against the existence of such terms, especially
with small coefficients ; but it is apparently sufficient to discredit any
large term of the kind. For instance, Milne suggested a velocity N.
and §. sensibly less, in the case of the large waves, from the velocity
Ki. and W. (Eighteenth Report, § v). No such difference can be detected
in the velocities for P and 8.

We will first give in some detail the results for a single earthquake,
that of 1915, January 11, adopted epicentre 6° N., 117° E. The residuals
for P, when corrected for distance from epicentre as in Section IV., and
arranged in azimuth measured from the N. point round the epicentre in
the direction N., K., 8., W., are as shown in Table VIII.

We see at a glance the better distribution of the Milne pendulums ;
most of the modern pendulums are in Europe and appear in the same
azimuth-class 300°—330°. Were it not for the Milne instruments we
should have very scanty material for an azimuth discussion; and yet
this is one of the most favourable cases. The inferiority of the Milne
instrument suggests giving a smaller weight to its records, but it will be
seen that we should gain very little thereby. Taking the simple means
as in the last column and filling in vacant terms by simple interpolation
(in brackets), we can make a very rough harmonic analysis, obtaining

—1-6 + 7-5 cos (A—330°) + 2-7 cos 2 (A — 70°).

Treating the 8 observations in the same way, we get Table IX.

The material for discussion in azimuth is even more scanty and un-
certain than before ; but, analysing it for what it is worth, we get

—1-2 + 8-0 cos (A — 332°) + 4-7 cos 2 (A — 177°).

__ Now, considering the nature of the material and of the process used,
It is somewhat remarkable that the results from P and § should accord
so well in indicating a correction to the epicentre. The direction is in
azimuth 331° say, and as the azimuth of Pulkovo is 330°, it is pretty
clear that the estimated A for Pulkovo is in error, owing doubtless to
the errors of the tables. The amount of displacement is not so easy to
assess. In the above simple process we have treated all stations, at
whatever distance from the epicentre, alike. A displacement of the
epicentre of 1° will, however, alter the times of arrival of P by 16 s. near
the epicentre, by 5} s. at 90°, and by less still at greater distances. Never-

a on calculating the alterations for the actual distances, the mean
14. F

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

| F
Gain rh et o Bye ea: 0 a | 8a | i a (ees +) | e+
|
|
|

|
e+ |
6 — c+ | / 91 — al —
eT + (ore le pater 0 Ei 6 = = Ir +
“squaMngsUT aupezy (q)
9 er !
iG] —
lee ate
z+ |
| G “ie
ee-F
ese
Paste
i? oa
9 - ‘
Var —
sa e+
ots ieee 0 Tet CL y+
—.09€—.0€€ — .00€ Seni No oOFS — OIG — .08T ee 00ST — 0GI Ta 006 i. 009 = 60Ga= 00

‘aut W0Y? WayjO syuamnugsuT (VD)
(‘s008 9 10 ‘WH [.Q St 41un oy 7.)
“IT funnune ‘E161 ‘auquanda punos ynunzn ur g fo siossa fo Uor4ngrAjsiq

TIA @1avI,

nN
91 + 0 9+ (g—) és =) oa A ee | (OI—) (¢—) (0) | ¢ + Geeyy)
st 0g — |
a Ole

‘aUpLy Udy? LayjO squawn4ysUT (dD)
(‘8098 g 10 “UL [-Q SI grun ey.)
“TL Aumnuve ‘E161 ‘atquaonda punos ynunzn we g fo siousa fo Uworng?.4sig
x ; Senta : ; re “XI DLS Va, ee: . a i 7 i oy PA ig x, rene a < A bales Ber’

68 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

for the different groups was found to be nearly constant at about 8 s.
Since the coefficient (8 units of 0-1m.) means 48 s., we may take it that
the epicentre is about 6° wrong. As regards direction, note that the
observed times for receiving stations on the side of the epicentre remote
from Pulkovo are too small; so that the epicentre must be moved nearer
to them and further from Pulkovo. The observed S—P at Pulkovo, viz.
10 m. 24 s., does not correspond (as indicated by the present tables) to an
epicentral distance of 83°-5, but to a distance of 89°:-5.

Turning to §, we find the average value of 1° to be about 13.8. The
first harmonic of 8 thus indicates a displacement of 48°/13 or 3°-7. We
may regard this as a satisfactory confirmation of the magnitude of the
error, which may be put at about 5°.

The second harmonics in both cases are small, and the phases are
quite discordant. We may fairly say that there is no evidence of a varia-
tion in velocity of an elliptic type.

As regards other earthquakes analysed for azimuth the following
notes will suffice :—

1913, March 14. Epicentre 11° N., 123° E., distant 82° from Pulkovo.

Of nearly same type as that of 1913, January 11, but distribution of
stations not so good. The numbers in the 30° divisions for P are

‘Mes Ti ls | Se Fate anes Wen Gai: Sie, 255 5)
and the harmonic expression is (in units of 0-1 m.)
+ 0-2 + 5-0 cos (A — 302°) + 4-0 cos 2 (A — 36°).
For § the number of stations are
1-3-0006 0 O30 2
and the harmonic expression is
—- 7-8 + 14-5 cos (A — 345°) — 4-2 cos 2 (A — 7°).
In spite of the broken nature of the series, the indication of
an error of about 4° or 5° in A is tolerably plain. The azimuth
of Pulkovo is 330°, and the magnitudes of the displacement assigned

by the P observations may be put at 30°/8 = 3°.8.
» § ” . . S73 = 6 1.

There is some indication of a second order term, but it cannot be
regarded very seriously.

1913, March 23. Epicentre 26° N., 143° E., distant 78° from Pulkovo.

The only available observations between azimuths 0° and 210° are
two Milne observations of P and one Milne of 8. There seems no
advantage in making even a rough estimate.

1913, April 30. Epicentre 50° N., 176° E., distant 67° from Pulkovo.
Number of observations in the separate groups

for P 4 2-0/0 2°)..0 0.3 13 oe
for § to AO Ot 0 0 1 2 a

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 69

Harmonic expressions
from P + 2-:1+ 2-7 cos (A — 207°) + 3-6 cos 2 (A — 73°)
from S + 0:5 + 11-0 cos (A — 235°) + 2-6 cos 2 (A — 160°)

Azimuth of Pulkovo being 342°, the mean direction of displacement
(azimuth 220° say) is nearly at right angles to the direction of Pulkovo,
and cannot be wholly explained by an error of tables. The small com-
ponent in the line joining epicentre to Pulkovo is in the opposite direction
to that previously noted.

1913, June 14. Epicentre 43° N., 26° E., distant 17° from Pulkovo.
There are unfortunately no observations of 8 from azimuth 90° to

270°, so that we cannot make any analysis. The mean results for the
other azimuths are

Azimuth 270°—300°—330°—0°—30°—60°—90°
Mean +1 —4 —2 —4 +4 0
No observations 4 4 11 2 of ll

which suggest a displacement in the opposite direction to that of January 11
and March 14, and in the same direction as the component of April 30.
The numbers for P are
ae 20” Over OF Ae oy Ale 2
and the harmonic expression is
+ 2-1 + 2-8 cos (9 — 165°) + 1-6 cos 2 (6 — 111°)
The azimuth of Pulkovo being 7°, the small displacement indicated is
nearly radial and in the opposite direction to those of January 11 and
March 14.

Hence, so far as this evidence goes, the error of S—P is about 30 s. at
85°, diminishes at lesser distances, and changes to a small negative value.
The corrections needed by the Galitzin tables would seem to be approxi-
mately as follows :—

BS lor abr abr rn45ot) Sao Gh > Tbee (Sar, 1:957)1057

s. Ss. Ss. Ss. 5. Ss. s. Ss. s. s.

Correction P= 0 0 0.6 0 —1 —3 ~—8 —15 —24

Correction S=4+5 0 —4 -—8 -—11 —14 —17 —24 —35 —50

Correction (S-P) =+5 0 -4 —8'—11 —13 —14 —16 —20 —26

Correction A=-—5 O +6 +13 +18 +24 +28 +31 +42 +52
the correction to A being expressed in units of 0°'1.

Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.—Thirteenth Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. N. SHaw (Chairman),
Mr. E. Goup (Secretary), Messrs. C. J. P. Cave and W. H.
Dines, Dr. R. T. GuazepRook, Sir J. LARmMor, Professor
J. KH. PeTAvEL, Dr. A. ScHUSTER, and Dr. W. WATSON.

A mretrina of the Joint Committee was held in the rooms of the Royal

Meteorological Society on May 5, 1914. It was decided to allocate the

grant from the British Association towards the expense of investigations

with pilot balloons over the ocean to be undertaken by the Secretary
on the journey to Australia, via the Cape of Good Hope. An

70 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

additional grant was made from the funds of the Royal Meteorological
Society to enable simultaneous observations to be made by Dr. W.
Rosenhain, of the National Physical Laboratory, on the journey via
the Suez Canal. A report on the observations is in preparation and
will be published in due course.

The report by Mr. G. I. Taylor on the observations which he made
on board the Scotia in 1918, referred to in the Committee’s report last
year, has been published in the official account of the results of the
Scotia Expedition, issued by the Board of Trade. The results which
Mr. Taylor obtained throw much light on the formation of fog and
on the propagation of heat through the atmosphere by means of eddies.
He found generally that thick fogs were associated with a large increase
in the temperature of the air in a vertical direction, while light fogs
occurred when the increase was small.

The Committee records with regret the death during the year of
Mr. Douglas Archibald, who was one of the earliest investigators of
the upper air by means of kites, and had served on the Committee
since its appointment at Glasgow in 1901.

The Committee asks for reappointment, with a grant of 2651.

Radiotelegraphic Investigations.—Interim Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir OLIVER LODGE (Chairman), Dr. W. H.
Kccues (Secretary), Mr. StpNey G. Brown, Dr. C. CHREE,
Professor A. 8. Eppineton, Dr. ERSKINE-MuRRAY, Professors
J. A. FLEMING, G. W. O. Howe, and H. M. Macpona.p,
Sir H. Norman, Captain H. R. Sankey, Professor A.
ScHUSTER, Dr. W. N. SHaw, and Professor S. P. THOMPSON.

THE past year has been occupied mainly by the designing, printing,
and distribution of books of forms for recording observations, by the
enrolment of observers, and by the preliminary work in connection with
the observations to be made during the forthcoming solar eclipse.

I. Collection of Ordinary Duily Statistics.

We have obtained the cordial support of many Government Depart-
ments of the British Empire and of other countries. In the British
Empire the Navy has taken forms sufficient to distribute to about
120 ships. The Post Office has sent forms to nine stations. The
Government of Canada have undertaken to get statistics from four
stations on the Pacific Coast. The South African Government have
authorised the collection of statistics at Cape Town and Durban. The
Australian Government have brought eight stations into the scheme, and
the New Zealand Government and the Indian Government each several
stations. The Colonial Office has kindly circularised other of the
Colonies, and of these the following have already replied favourably, and
have had supplies of forms despatched to them :—

Falkland Islands. Zanzibar. British Guiana.
Bahamas Somaliland. Jamaica.
Trinidad. Fiji. Sierra Leone.

Ceylon. Gold Coast.

ON RADIOTELEGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS. 71

The Government of Norway have agreed to have statistics collected
at four stations; the United States Government at five; in Germany
the Telegraphs Versuchsamt is making observations at Berlin, and
there are some Russian Government stations likely to co-operate.

The following Companies are taking a prominent part in the collec-
tion of statistics: The Marconi International Marine Communication
Company, Litd., have already twenty-three ships at work; the Marconi
Company of Canada have thirteen stations at work on the East Coast of
Canada, in Newfoundland and on the Great Lakes ; the American Mar-
coni Company have put fifteen land stations (between Alaska and the
Gulf of Mexico) to work, and several ships; the Federal Wireless Tele-
graph Company of America have started observations at their San
Francisco station; the Gesellschaft fiir drahtlose Telegraphie will put a
considerable number of stations to work as soon as forms have been
translated, and they have the intention of establishing a small prize
scheme amongst their operators for the best series of observations. At
the Slough station the Anglo-French Wireless Company started obser-
vations which will be continued by the Galletti Company; while the
English Marconi Company are doing the like at Chelmsford.

With regard to Russia, the language difficulty was likely to prove
formidable, but the Editor of the Russian ‘ Journal of Wireless Tele-
graphy ’ has arranged that the forms be translated into Russian and
that the collection of statistics be urged upon readers of his Journal.
The Société Russe de Télégraphes et Téléphones sans Fil have agreed
that the forms, when translated, shall be used at a number of the
stations under the control of the Company in Russia.

Among private experimenters of note we have obtained the support
of several gentlemen abroad, who will doubtless have to be mentioned
in subsequent reports. There are also a number of Professors in the
British Isles and in the Colonies helping, and about sixty-one amateurs.
Of these there are thirty-six in England, two in Scotland, six in Ireland,
and one in Wales.

A considerable number of completed forms have already come to
hand and a start has been made on the analysis.

Il. Observations to be made during the Eclipse of August 21, 1914.

The central line of the eclipse passes across Norway, Sweden, the
Baltic, Central Russia, the Black Sea, and Persia, to the coast of India.
Accordingly, the Governments of Norway, Sweden, Russia, and India
have been approached. The Norwegian Government have generously
placed practically all their stations at the disposal of the Committee ;
the Swedish Government have agreed that the observations they wish to
make on their own behalf shall be made in accord with the programme
of the Committee, to whom copies will be supplied; and the Russian
Government will set a number of stations to work, but the number and
position of these have not yet been settled. The Société Russe will place
their high-power station at St. Petersburg at the disposal of the Com-
mittee, and the Gesellschaft fiir drahtlose Telegraphie is also willing
to allow two or three large stations to come into the scheme. This

72 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Company will enact that observations on the day of the eclipse shall be
compulsory in many of its stations in the Baltic and in Germany. The
Indian Government have agreed to help also. In Western Europe the
transmission of special signals is not of such great importance as in
the districts nearer the central line of the eclipse, but some observa-
tions ought to be instituted on signals in that part of the world. The
Marconi Company have kindly expressed their willingness to aid the
Committee by transmitting from certain high-power stations a few
special signals, if desired, at times to be arranged by the Committee.

Many private observers in different parts of the world have signified
their willingness to make a special effort on the day of the eclipse. It
has been explained to the authorities in the United States, Canada,
Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand, that although there is not
much likelihood of the effects of the eclipse being perceived in their
territories, yet they will be advised of the programme of the Com-
mittee, in order that they may, if they will, determine precisely whether
there is, or is not, any effect. Since it seemed important to enlist the
sympathies of as large a number as possible of skilled observers on the
Eastern boundaries of Germany, Austria, and Hungary, the Editor of
the ‘Jahrbuch fiir drahtlose Telegraphie ’ was asked, and has agreed,
to seek German-speaking observers, conduct all preliminary corre-
spondence with them, translate forms and get them printed and dis-
tributed, and to collect the forms. It has recently been arranged that a
large proportion of this work may be shared with the International
Commission of Brussels.

In addition to all this welcome assistance, we are especially glad
to report that the Board of the Admiralty have agreed to co-operate on
an extensive scale.

The Relations between this Commiltlee and the International
Commission of Brussels.

As a member of the British Section of the International Commissicn,
the Secretary was made a delegate to the recent Conference in Brussels,
and there suggested that it might be to the advantage of both organisa-
tions, especially when requesting assistance from Government Depart-
ments or Companies, or even private experimenters, that a public
announcement should be made showing that the aims of the two bodies
are different, that there is room for both, that there is little danger of
any Government or Company or private experimenter being asked to
do the same thing twice, or to favour one to the detriment of the other ;
and that if on any occasion there were overlapping, then the two
organisations should endeavour to co-operate. The International
Commission therefore drew up and passed the following resolution :—

‘La Commission Internationale de T.S.F.S., ayant pris connais-
sance du but des travaux du ‘‘ Committee for Radio-telegraphic Investi-
gation of the British Association,’’ estime que les travaux des deux
organisations ont des objets différents.

‘La Commission Internationale de T.S.F.S. se propose, en effet, de
faire des recherches qui portent principalement sur les mesures quantita-

ON RADIOTELEGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS. 73

tives se rapportant 4 l’émission, & la propagation et 4 la réception des
ondes électriques.

‘L’Association Britannique a décidé, de son cété, de recueillir, de
classer et de commenter les résultats des observations susceptibles de
faire ressortir les relations entre les phénoménes géophysiques et la
propagation des ondes électriques. Il entre également dans ses vues de
dresser la statistique et de faire l'étude des phénoménes anormaux et des
perturbations atmosphériques.

‘En conséquence, si les champs d’activité des deux organisations
viennent 4 avoir des points communs, la Commission Internationale de
T.S.F.S. engage ses adhérents 4 préter éventuellement-le concours le
plus complet 4 la ‘‘ British Association.’’ ’

At a meeting of the British Association Committee on May 8, 1914,
the following resolution was adopted :—

‘That the Radiotelegraphic Investigation Committee of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science take cognisance of the
resolution adopted by the Commission Internationale de Télégraphie sans
Fils Scientifique at the recent conference in Brussels, and desire to
affirm that they. find themselves in full accord with the definitions, as
expressed in the resolution, of the differences between the aims and
methods of the researches promoted by the two organisations; while,
in regard to those researches in which the two bodies both take an
active interest, this Committee warmly welcome and value highly the
offer of co-operation, and gladly undertake to give all assistance in
their power.’

The Committee has expended up to the present in office expenses,
printing, and distribution of forms, the sum of 1441,

[Note.—The following communication was circulated to Members of the Com-
mittee by the Secretary on behalf of the Chairman in December, 1914 :—

The war has naturally had a very direct effect on radiotelegraphic investi-
gations. About August 1 last, private wireless telegraph stations throughout
the Empire were nearly all dismantled or taken possession of by military authori-
ties, while naval and other Government stations stopped all merely scientific
observing. The radiotelegraphic stations in Russia, Germany, and neighbouring
countries doubtless discontinued the filling up of our forms as soon as mobilisa-
tion began. A few stations in India, Australia, Canada, the West Indies, and
the United States are, however, still at work. In the last-named country about
thirty stations are making observations.

The Committee’s programme for the collection of statistics three days a week
in all parts of the English-speaking world and in a few other countries was
planned to embrace one complete round of the seasons. The fact that the pro-
gramme has been interrupted after only three months of really full work
diminishes greatly the scientific value of such statistics as have been collected.
Tt also implies considerable financial loss. A large batch of forms was distri-
buted to our Navy in July: in clearing for action these forms would probably
be wasted. The German edition was distributed in June. The Russian edition
also was probably distributed before the outbreak of war.

The extensive scheme of special observations projected for the occasion of
the solar eclipse failed almost completely in the countries in which the eclipse
‘was visible. A small amount of work was done in Norway and Sweden. All
the necessary forms had been printed, and some had been circulated before the
war started. The financial loss to the Committee in this respect exceeds a
hundred pounds.

74 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

The day-by-day statistics collected in the period April to July are now being
analysed. The conclusions drawn from these observations will, it may be
hoped, have some scientific value of their own, and in any case they should yield
information which may guide the Committee, when the time comes, to further
attacks on the problems concerned. A similar thought may be set down as
consolation for the eclipse failure.

In October last, at a special meeting summoned by the Inspector of Wireless
Telegraphy at the General Post Office, where it happened that the Committee
were represented by Dr. Erskine-Murray and the Secretary, the Committee were
asked to draw up for the Home Office a list of gentlemen distributed over the
British Isles who would be willing, if and when called upon, to assist the
police by acting as voluntary experts in wireless telegraphy. The police cannot
in general be expected to possess sufficient technical knowledge to discriminate
between dangerous radiotelegraphic apparatus and other apparatus. Co-operation
with the police authorities in each locality by someone possessing technical
knowledge will help to prevent blunders and may assist in detecting illicit
traffic. Accordingly gentlemen whose names appear in the address book of the
Committee have been written to, and lists of voluntary experts have been sup-
plied to the Home Office. ]

Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chair-
man), Dr. W. G. DUFFIELD (Secretary), Rev. A. L. CoRTIE,
Dr. F. W. Dyson, and Professors A. 8S. Epp1ineton, H. F.
Newatu, J. W. NicHouson, and A. ScHusTER, appointed to
aid the work of Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia.

Tuer Committee records with great sorrow the death of its former
Chairman Sir David Gill, whose name has always been so prominently
associated with scientific enterprises connected with the Southern
Hemisphere. Professor H. H. Turner has been appointed Chairman
in his place.

The Secretary has great pleasure in reporting that the following
letter has been received from the Commonwealth Authorities in re-
sponse to further representations regarding the desirability of erecting
a Solar Observatory within the Commonwealth :—

Commonwealth Offices,
72 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.
March 10, 1914.
Dear Dr. Duffield,

With reference to previous correspondence in regard to the estab-
lishment of a Solar Observatory in Australia, I desire to inform you
that I have now received a memorandum from the Commonwealth
Government advising that in the scheme for the organisation of services
in connection with the Seat of Government at Canberra, provision
has been made for the establishment amongst general astronomical
studies of a section to be devoted to solar physics in particular. _

Yours sincerely,
(Signed) R. Murrueap Commins.

Dr. Geoffrey Duffield,

University College, Reading.

The Committee records its great satisfaction at the promise of the

ON ESTABLISHING A SOLAR OBSERVATORY IN AUSTRALIA. 75

institution of Solar Research in Australia—an end for which it has
worked since its appointment at the Dublin Meeting of the Association
in 1908. The Prime Minister of the Commonwealth has consented
to receive a deputation of overseas astronomers with regard to the
nature of the solar work which should be undertaken in Australia.

The Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor M. J. M. Hint (Chairman),
Professor J. W. NicHouson (Secretary), Mr. J. R. Atrey,
Professor L. N. G. Finon, Sir GEORGE GREENHILL, Professor
E. W. Hosson, Professor ALFRED LopGE, Professor
A. E. H. Love, Professor H. M. Macponatp, and Professor
A. G. WEBSTER.

THE grant given to the Committee during the past year has been ex-
pended on the calculation of the Logarithmic Bessel Functions, for which
it was specially allocated. In the present report are Tables of the functions
Y,(z) and Y,(z), whose significance was explained on page 29 of the last
report. These proceed from argument «+ = 0:02 to x = 15:50, at
intervals of 0-02, and are correct to six significant figures.

Some further Tables of the functions G,(x) are also included, for
varying order n of the functions. These are incomplete at present. The
Committee is proceeding with the further calculation of the functions
Mem); Ne(X), =>» ee on the same scale as the present Tables of Yo
and Y,.

The Committee desires to ask for a further grant of 30/. during the
coming year, to be allocated to this work.

Some Tables calculated by Mr. Doodson, of the University of Liverpool,
are given at the end of the report. They deal with the functions of
type J,,,,(z), where 7 is a positive or negative integer, A considerable
demand for these Tables exists at present. Mr. Doodson is continuing
this work, and it is suggested that his name be added to the Committee.
The previous requisition that a large number of copies of the report
(about 100) should be placed in the hands of the Secretary for distribution
__ is repeated, as the demand for these Tables from physicists is increasing.

Tables of the Neumann Functions Y,(x) and Y,(x) or Bessel Functions of
the Second Kind.

The second solution of Bessel’s differential equation
"y y _—
2 d? d 2 2

has been given in several forms—G,(z), Y,(x), K,(z), &c. Tables
of G(x) and G,(z) for values of x from 0:01 to 16:00 by intervals of 0-01
were published in the report for 1913.

Short Tables of the Y,(z) and Y,(«) functions defined by
2 4/
Yow) = Jo(w) -logw + (5) — (1 + 4) (5) /2!?
6)
+ (1 +4++4) (G) Fi cae

76 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Yj (2) = Jy(z) logar — Io(a))z —% + (1 +4) (Z) [1!2!
& (1+4+4)(5) [21314...

have been calculated by B. A. Smith for = 0-01 to 1-00 and 1-0 to
10-2 to four places of decimals, and by J. R. Airey for x = 0-1 to 16-0
to seven places.
The following Tables have been computed from the relation
Y,,(%) aa (log a Y) Jn(@) Zz G,(2)

and verified by the method of differences.
The interpolation formule for other values of the argument are

2 3 2
Yolo +h) = [1 - s + = 2+ | Yue) + [Fate] Lie)

Yi(e ti) = [1 h_Fa- 2 bs Yi) + [= eon Y,(z).

Tables of the Neumann Cylinder Functions.

e | Ya) Yu(z) z | — Yo(a) Yi(z)
0:02 | —3'911532 —50-044118 0-76 | —0-099484 —1-569515
0-04 —3-217189 | —25-074360 0-78 —0-068482 —1-530927
0-06 —2-809980 | —16-766014 0-80 —0-038237 —1-493705 |
0-08 —2-520090 —12-620908 0-82 —0-008725 —1-457735 |
0:10 —2-294335 | —10-139907 0:84 +0-020080 —1:422912 |
0:12 | —2-109042 —8-490185 0-86 +0-048199 | —1-389144 |
0-14 | —1-951600 —7-314934 0-88 +0:075652 | —1-356346
0:16 | —1:814487 —6-435818 0:90 +0:102458 —1-+324442
0-18 | —J-692861 —5-753809 0-92 -+-0-128635 —1-293362
0-20 | —1-583421 —5:209517 0-94 +0-154198 —1-263043
0:22 | —1-483817 —4-765173 0:96 +0-179162 —1-233429 |
0-24 | —1:392318 | —4-395614 0:98 -+0:203539 —1-204467 |
0:26 —1:307611 | —4-083430 1-00 +0:227344 | —1-176110 |
0:28 | —1-228681 —3°816195 1-02 -+-0-250588 —1:148315
0:30 —1-154725 —3-584806 1-04 +0:273280 | —1-121042
0:32 —1:085096 | —3-382440 1-06 +0:295433 —1-094256
0:34 | —1-019269 —3-203886 1-08 +0:317054 | —1-067922
0:36 | —0-956809 | —3-045093 1-10 +0-338152 —1-04201) |
0:38 | —0-897355 | —2-902869 1-12 +0:358737 —1-016496 |
0-40 | —0-840601 | —2-774662 1-14 -+0-378815 —0:991350 |
0-42 | —0-786288 —2-658408 1-16 +0-398393 —0-966551
0-44 —0-734196 —2-552423 1-18 +0-417479 —0-942079
0-46 —0-684132 —2-455317 1-20 +0-436078 —0-917912
0-48 —0-635932 —2-365931 1-22 +0-454197 —0-894033
0-50 —0-589450 | —2-283297 1-24 +0-471841 | —0-870426
0-52 —0-544561 | —2-206594 1-26 +0-489016 | —0-847076
0-54 — —0-501152 —2-135127 1-28 +0-505726 —0-823970
0-56 —0-459125 | —2-068299 1-30 -+0-521976 —0-801094
0-58 —0-418392 | —2-005598 1-32 +0-537771 —0°778438
0-60 —0:378875 | —1-946580 1-34 +0:553115 —0-755991
0-62 —0-340507 —1-890861 1-36 +0-568012 —0-733743
0-64 —0-303222 —1-838105 1-38 +0-582466 —0-711687
0-66 —0-266965 | —1-788017 1-40 +0-596481 —0-689814
0-68 —0:231685 | —1-740338 1-42 +0-610060 — 0668116
0-70 —0-197337 | —1-694840 1-44 +0:623207 —0-646589
0-72 —0-:163878]] | —1/651320 | 1-46 +0-635925 —0-625226
0-74 —0:131272 | —1-609599 1:48 +0-648217 —0-604021

ON THE CALCULATION

OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES,

Neumann Cylinder Functions—continued.

x Yo(z) Y,(z) | Fy Yo(z) Y,(z)

150 | +0-660086 | —0-582971 || 2-68 | +0-714906 | +0-397539
152 | +0-671537 | —0-562070 270 | +0-706843 | +0-408760
1-54 | +0-682570 | —0-541317 2:72 | +0-698557 | +0-419757
1:56 | +0-693190 | —0-520706 2-74 +4+0-690054 | +0-430529
158 | -+0-703399 | —0-500237 2:76 | +0-681338 | +0-441073
160 | -+0-713200 | —0-479905 | 2-78 | +0-672413 | -10-451389
162 | -+0-722596 | —0-459710 2:80 | +0-663284 | +0-461474
1-64 | +0-731590 | —0-439650 | 2:82 | +0-653955 | +0-471327
1-66 | -+0-740183 | —0-419723 2:84 | +0-644432 | +0-480947
168 | +0-748380 | —0-399929 2:86 | +0-634719 | +0-490331
1-70 | -+0-756181 —0-380266 2:88 +0-624821 +0-499477
1-72 | -+0-763591 —0-360734 2:90 | +0-614742 | +0-508385
1-74 | +0-770612 | —0-341333 2-92 | +0-604487 | +0-517054
1-76 | -+0-777245 | —0-322063 2-94 | +0-594061 .0-525482
1-78 | -+0-783495 | —0-302924 | 2-96 | +0-583469 | -0-533667
1:80 | +0-789363 | —0-283916 | 2-98 | +0-572716 | +0-541608
1-82 | +0-794853 | —0-265040 | 3-00 | -+0-561806 | +0-549305
1-34 | +0-799966 | —0-246297 | 3-02 | +0-550745 | +0-556756
186 | +0-804705 | —0-227687 || 3-04 | -+0-539538 | -+0-563960
1-88 | +0-809074 | —0-209212 | 306 | +0-528189 | +0-570917
1:90 | +0-813075 | —0-190874 | 3-08 | +0-516703 | +0-577625
1-92 | +0-816710 | —0-172672 || 3-10 | +0-505085 | +0-584083
1-94 | +0-819982 | —0-154608 | 3-12 | +0-493341 | +0-590291
1-96 | +0-822895 | —0-136685 | 3-14 | +0-481475 | -+0-596249
198 | +0-825451 | —0-118904 | 316 | +0-469493 | +0-601955
200 | +0-827652 | —0-101266 | 3-18 | +0-457399 | +0-607408
2-02 | +0-829502 | —0-083773 | 3-20 | +0-445198 | +0-612620
2:04 | +0-831004 | —0-066427 3-22 | +0-432896 | -+0-617559
2:06 | +0-832161 | —0-049231 3-24 | +0-420498 | +0-622254
2.08 | +0-832974 | —0-032186 | 3-26 | +0-408008 | +0-626696
2:10 | +0-833449 | —0-015294 | 3-28 | +0-395431 | +0-630885
212 | +0-833587 | +0-001443 | 3:30 | +0-382774 | +0-634820
2-14 | +0-833392 | +0-018022 | 3-32 | +0-370040 | +0-638501
216 | +0-832867 | +0-034441 | 3-34 | +0-357236 | +0-641929
2:18 | +0-832016 | +0-050698 | 3:36 | +0-344365 | +0-645103
2:20 | +0-830841 | +0-066791 | 3-38 | +0-331433 | +0-648024
2-22 | +0-829345 | +0-082717 | 3-40 | +0-318446 | +0-650691
224 | +0-827533 | +0-098473 | 3-42 | +40-305407 | +0-653106
2:26 | +0-825407 | +0-114058 | 3-44 | +0-292323 | +0-655269
2:28 | +0-822972 | -+0-129470 3-46 | +0-279198 | -+0-657180
2:30 | +0-820230 | +0-144705 3-48 | +0-266038 | -+0-658840
2:32 | +0-817185 | +0-159762 3:50 | +0-252846 | +0-660249
2-34 | +0-813841 | +0-174637 3:52 | +0-239629 | +0-661408
2-36 | +0-810201 | -10-189329 3:54 | +0-226392 | +0-662318
2:38 | +0-806269 | +0-203836 3:56 | +0-213138 | +0-662980
2:40 | +0-802048 | +0-218154 3:58 | +0-199874 | +0-663395
2-42 | +0-797544 | -10-232281 3-60 | +0-186604 | +0-663564
2-44 | +0-792758 | +0-246215 3-62 | +0-173333 | +0-663487
2-46 | +0-787696 | -10-259954 3-64 | +0-160066 | +0-663166
2-48 | +0-782362 | -+.0-273495 3-66 | +0-146808 | +0-662602
250 | +0-776758 | -+0-286837 3-68 | +0-133564 | +0-661797
2-52 | +0-770889 | +0-299976 | 3-70 | +0-120338 | -+0-660752
254 | +0-764760 | +0-312910 | 3-72 | +0-107135 | -+-0-659468
2:56 | +0-758374 | +0-325637 3-74 | +0-093961 +.0-657947
2:58 | +0-751736 | -L0-338156 3-76 | +0-080819 | +0-656190
2-60 | -+0-744850 | -10-350464 3-78 | +0-067715 | +-0-654199
2-62 | +0-737719 | -+0-362558 | 3:80 +0-054653 | +-0-651976
264 | +0-730349 | +0-374436 3:82 +0-041637 | +0-649523
2-66 + +0-722743 | +0-386097 3-84 | +0-028673 | +0-646841

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Neumann Cylinder Functions —continued.

78
x Yo(x)
3°86 +0-015765
3°88 +0:002917
3-90 —0:009866
3-92 —0-022579
3-94 —0-035219
3:96 —0-047781
3:98 —0-060260
4:00 —0-072653
4:02 —0-084955
4:04 —0-097162
4:06 —0-109270
4.08 —0-121275
4.10 —0-133172
4:12 —0-144959
4-14 —0-156631
4-16 —0:168184
4:18 —0-179615
4-20 —0-190919
4-22 —0-202093
4-24 —0-213134
4-26 —0-224038
4:28 —0-234802
4-30 —0-245422
4:32 —0-255894
4:34 —0-266216
4:36 —0-276384
4:38 —0-286395
4:40 —0-296247
4-42 —0-305936
4-44 —0-315458
4:46 —0-324812
4:48 —0-333995
4-50 —0-343003
4-52 —0-:351834
4-54 —0-360487
4:56 —0-368957
4-58 —0-377243
4:60 —0-385342
4-62 —0-393252
4-64 —0-400971
4-66 —0-408497
4:68 —0-415828
4:70 —0-422961
4:72 —0-429895
4:74 —0-436629
4:76 —0-443160
4-78 —0:449486
4-80 —0-455607
4-82 —0-461520
4:84 —0-467225
4:86 —0-472719
4-88 —0-478003
4:90 —0-483074
4-92 —0-487931
4-94 —0-492574
4:96 —0-497002
4:98 —0-501213
5:00 —0-505208
5-02 —0-508984

Y,(z) x Y,(@) Y,(x)
+0-643933 || 5-04 —0-512543 +0-172467
+. 0:640800 5-06 —0-515883 +0-161521
+0-637444 5-08 —0-519004 | +0-150556
+0-633868 5-10 —0-521905 | +0-139577
+0-630073 5-12 —0-524587 +0-128587
+0-626063 5-14 —0-527048 +0-117590
+0-621839 5-16 —0-529290 +0-106591
+0-617404 5-18 —0-531312 +0-095594
+0-612760 || 5-20 —0-533114 | -10-084602
+0-607909 || 5-22 —0-534696 +0-073619
+0-602855 | 5-24 —0-536059 +0-062650
+0-597600 | 5-26 —0-537202 -+0-051700
+0-592146 | 5-28 —9-538127 +0-040771
+0-586497 | 5-30 —0-538833 -+0-029867
+0:580655 || 5-32 —0-539322 | +0-018994
+0-574623 || 6-34 —0-539593 +0-008154
+0-568403 || 5:36 | —0-539648 | —0-002650
+0-562000 || 5-38 —0-539488 —0-013412
+0-555415 5-40 —0-539112 | —0-024128
+0-548652 5-42 —0-538523 | —0-034796
+0:541715 || 5-44 —0-537721 | —0-045411
+0-534605 5:46 —0-536707 —0-055970
+0-527327 || 5-48 —0-535482 —0-066468
+0:519884 || 65-50 —0-534048 —0-076903
+0-512279 || 5-52 —0-532406 —0-087270
+0:504515 || 5-54 —0-530558 —0-097566
+0-496596 || 5-56 —0-528504 —0-107786
+0-488525 || 5:58 —0-526247 —0-117929
+0-480306 || 5-60 —0-523788 —0-127990
+0-471943 || 5-62 —0-521128 —0-137965
+0-463488 | 5-64 —0-518270 —0-147852
+0-454795 || 5-66 —0-515215 —0-157646
+0-446018 5-68 —0-511964 —0-167345
+0-437112 5-70 —0-508521 —0-176945
+0-428078 5-72 —0-504887 —0-186443
+0-418921 5-74 —0-501064 —0-195836
+0-409646 5-76 —0-497055 —0-205120
+0-400255 5:78 —0-492861 —0-214293
+0-390753 5:80 —0-488484 —0-223350
+0-381144 5:82 —-0-483927 —0-232290
+0-371430 5:84 —0-479194 —0-241110
+0-361617 | 5-86 —0-474284 —0-249806
+0-351708 || 5-88 —0-469202 —0:258375
+0-341706 5-90 —0-463949 —0-266815
+0-331617 5-92 —0-458529 —0-275123
+0-321444 5:94 —0-452945 —0-283297
+0-311191 || 5-96 —0-447199 —0-291333
+0-300862 | 5:98 | —0-441293 | —0.299299
+0-290461 600 | —0-435231 —0-306982
+0-279992 6-02 —0-429015 —0-314590
+0-269459 6:04 —0-422648 —0-322051
+0:258867 6:06 —0-416134 —0-329363
+0-248219 6-08 —0-409474 —0-336522
+0-237519 6:10 —0-402674 —0-343527
+0-226772 6-12 —0:395735 —0-350376
+0-215981 6-14 —0-:388660 —0-357066
+0-205151 6-16 —0-381453 —0-363595
+0-194286 6-18 —0-374117 —0-369961
+0-183390 | 6-20 —0-366656 —0-376164

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Neumann Cylinder Fumetions—continued.

a Yo(z) Y,(z)

D —0-359072 —0-382201
—0-351369 —0-388069
—0-343550 —0-393768
—0-335619 —0-399295
—0-327579 —0:404649
—0:319434 —0-409828
—0-311187 —0-414832
—0-302842 —0-419657
—0-294402 —0-424305
—0-285871 —0-428773
—0-277253 —0-433060
—0-268550 —0-437165
—0-259767 —0-441086
—0-250908 —0-444824
—0-241976 —0-448377
—0-232974 —0-451743
—0-223907 —0-454924
—0-214778 —0-457917
—0-205592 —0-460723
—0-196351 —0-463340
—0-187059 —0-465768
—0-177721 —0-468008
—0-168340 —0-470058
—0-158920 —0-471918
—0-149465 —0-473589
—0-139978 —0-475069
—0-130463 —0-476360
—0-120925 —0-477461
—0-111366 —0-478372
—0-101791 —0-479093
—0-092203 —0-479626
—0-082607 —0-479969
—0-073006 —0-480123
—0-063403 —0-480090
—0-053804 —0-479868
—0-044211 —0-479460
—0-034627 —0-478865
—0-025057 —0-478085
—0-015504 —0-477120
—0-005973 —0-475972
+0-003533 —0-474640
+0-013011 —0-473126
+0-022457 —0-471431
+0-031867 —0-469557
+0-041238 —0-467504
+0-050566 —0-465274
+0-059848 —0-462868
--0-069080 —0-460288
+0-078258 —0-457534
+0-087380 —0-454609
+0-096442 —0-451514
+0-105440 —0-448250
+0-114371 —0-444820
+0-123231 —0-441225
+0-132018 —0:437467
+0-140729 —0-433548
+0-149359 —0-429470
+0-157907 —0-425234
+0:166368 —0-420843

79
@ Yo(z) Y,(z)
7:40 -+0-174739 —0-416299
7-42 +0 183019 —0-411604
744 | +0-191203 —0-406760
746 | +0-199288 —0-401770
748 | -0-207272 —0-396635
7:50 | +0-215153 —0-391359
7-52 +0-222926 —0-385943
7-54 | +0-230589 —0-380390
7-56 +0-238140 —0-374702
7-58 +0-245577 —0-368882
7-60 +0-252895 —0-362933
7-62 +0-260093 —0-356857
7-64 +0-267168 —0-350657
7-66 +0-274118 —0-344335
7-68 +0-280941 —0-337895
7-70 +0-287633 —0-331339
7-72 +0-294193 —0-324670
7-74 +0-300619 —0-317890
7:76 +0:306909 —0-311003
7:78 +0-313059 —0-304012
7:80 +0-319068 —0-296919
7:82 +0-324935 —0-289727
7-84 +0-330657 —0-282440
7:86 +0-336232 —0-275061
7-88 +0:341659 —0-267593
7-90 -+0-346935 —0-260038
7-92 +0-352060 —0-252399
7-94 +0-357031 —0-244681
7:96 +0-361846 —0-236886
7-98 -+0-366505 —0-229018
8-00 +0-371007 —0-221079
8-02 +0:375348 —0-213073
8-04 +0:379529 —0-205003
8-06 +0-383548 —0-196873
8-08 +0-387404 —0-188686
8-10 +0-391095 —0-180445
8-12 +0-394621 —0-172152
8-14 +0-397981 —0-163812
8-16 +0-401173 —0-155429
8-18 +0-404198 —0:147005
8:20 +0-407053 —0-138543
8-22 +0-409739 —0-130048
8:24 +0-412255 —0-121522
8-26 +0:414600 —0-112969
8-28 +0-416773 —0-104392
8-30 +0-418775 —0-095795
8-32 +0-420605 —0-087181
8-34 +0-422262 —0-078553
8-36 +0-423747 —0-069914
8-38 +0-425059 —0-061269
8-40 +0-426198 —0-052621
8-42 +0:-427164 —0-043972
8-44 +0-427957 —0-035326
8-46 +0-428577 —0-026687
8-48 +0-429024 —0-018058
8-50 +0-:429299 —0-009442
8-52 +0-429402 —0-000843
8-54 +0:429333 +0:007737
8-56 +0-429093 +0-016293

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Neumann Cylinder Functions—continued.

Ge 9 G0 Go a0 GA GO G0 GD © G9 Op Op G0 G9
MATA AAAIRWBABWHBAHOHM

GSOOCOGOGOGOOGOGOGOGOOGOGOGOOOOOODOOSOODOODODODODDONDONHNHMNDDH
WIARARAMBAAAAATARAR RAR DOdOdDwMODHHNMDMHH EE HOO SSO OSD OOG

Yoo) | Hie w Yoo) | Xa
| |
8 -+0-428682 +0-024823 9-76 +0:152558 | +0-380212
0 +0:-428100 | +0-033324 9-78 +0-144931 | +0-382406
2 +0:-427349 | +0-041792 9-80 +0-137263 | +0-384445
4 +0-426428 +0-050223 9:82 +0:129555 +0:386327
6 +0:425340 +0-058615 9:84 | +0-121811 +0-388053
8 +0-424084 | +0-066964 9-86 +0-114034 +0-389622
0 +0-422662 +0-075268 9-88 +0-106227 +0-391034
2 +0-421074 4+0-083524 9-90 +0-098393 +0-392288
4 +0:419321 | +0:091728 9-92 +0-090536 +0-393385
6 +0-417405 | +0-099876 9-94 +0-082659 | +0-394323
8 -+0-415327 | -+0-107966 9-96 +0-074764 | -+0-395104
0 +0-413087 | +0-115996 9-98 +0-066856 | +0-395727
2 -++0-410687 | +0-123962 10-00 +0-058936 -+0-396193
4 +0-408129 | +0-131860 10-02 +0-051009 +-0-396500
6 +0-405413 | -+0-139689 10-04 +0-043077 | +0-396650
8 +0:402542 |§ +0-147445 10-06 +0-035144 +0-396643
0 -+0:399516 | +0:155126 10-08 +0-027213 +0-396479
2 +0-396338 | -+0-162728 10:10 | +0-019286 | +0-396158
4 +-0:393008 | -+0-170249 10-12 +0-011367 +0-395681
6 +0-389528 | -+0-177686 || 10-14 +0:003460 | +0-395049
8 +0-385901 | -+0-185036 10:16 —0:004434 +0-394262
0 +0:382127 | -+0-192297 10-18 —0-012310 +0-393320
2 +0:378209 | ++0-199465 10:20 | —0-020165 | +0-392224
4 +0-374149 | +0-206539 10-22 —0-027998 | +0-390975
6 +0:369948 | +0-213517 10-24 —0-035804 +0-389574
8 -+-0-365609 | -+0-220394 10-26 —0-:043580 +0-388021
0 +0-361133 | -+0-227169 10-28 —0-051323 +0-386318
2 -+0:356523 | +0-233840 10:30 —0-059031 +0-384466
4 +0-351781 | +0-240404 | 10-32 —0:066701 +0:382464
6 +0-346908 | -+0-246858 10-34 —0-074329 +0-:380316
8 +0-341907 +0-253201 10-36 —0-081912 +0-378020
0 +0-336780 +0-259430 10:38 —0-:089449 +0:375580
2 +0-331530 +0:-265544 10-40 —0-096935 +0:372996
4 +0-326159 -+-0-271539 10:42 —0:104367 | +0-370269
6 +0-320670 +0-277414 10-44 —0:111744 | +0-367400
8 +0-315064 | +0-283167 10-46 —0-119063 | +0-364392
0 -+0-309344 -+-0-288795 10-48 —0-126319 | +0-361245
2 +0-303513 -+-0-294297 10-50 —0-133511 +0-357961
4 +0-297573 -+0-299672 10-52 —0-140637 +0:354541
6 +0-291527 +0-304917 || 10-54 —0-147692 | +0-350987
8 +0-285377 +0-310030 || 10-56 —0-154675 +0-347302
0 +0-279126 +0-315009 10-58 —0-161583 | +0-343486
2 +0-272778 +0-319853 10:60 | —0-168414 +0-339541
4 +0:266334 +0-324561 10-62 —0-175164 +0-335469
6 +0-259796 +0-329131 10-64 —0-181832 +0-331271
8 +0-253169 +-0-333561 10-66 —0-188414 +0-326950
0 +0-246455 +0-337850 10:68 —0-194909 +0-322508
2 +0-239656 +0-341996 10-70 —0-201314 +0-317947
4 +0-232776 -+-0-345999 | 10-72 | —0-207626 +0-313268
6 -+-+0-225817 +0:349856 || 10-74 —0-213844 +0-308474
8 +0-218783 -+0-353567 10:76 | ~—0-219964 | +0-303566
0 +0:211675 +0-357131 10:78 | —0-225985 | +0-298547
2 -+0-204498 +0-360546 | 10:80 | —0-231905 +0-293419
4 +0-197254 +0:363811 | 10:82 | —0-237722 +0-288185
6 +0-189947 +0-366926 | 10-84 | —0-243433 +0-282846
8 -++0-182578 +0-369890 10:86 | —0-249035 +0-277405
0 +0-175152 +0-372701 10-88 —0-254528 +0-271864
2 +0-167671 +0:375359 10-90 —0-259909 +0-266225
4 +0-160139 +0-377862 10:92 | —0-265176 +0-260491

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Neumann Cylinder Functions—continued.

Y,(x) | - Y;, (x) | x
—0-270328 +0-254665 | 12-12
—0-275362 +0-248748 | 12-14
—0-280277 +0-242743 | 12-16
—0-285071 +0-236653 | 12-18
—0-289743 -+-0-230480 | 12-20
—0-294290 +-0-224228 | 12.22
—0-298711 +0-217898 12-24
—0-303005 +0-211492 12-26
—0-307170 +0-205014 12-28
—0-311205 +-0-198467 12-30
—0-315109 +0-191853 12-32
—0-318879 +0-185175 | 12-34
—0-322515 +0-178435 | 12-36
—0-326016 +0-171637 | 12-38
—0-329380 +0-164783 | 12-40
—0-332607 +0-157875 | 12-42
—0-335695 +0-:150917 | 12-44
—0-338643 +0:143912 | 12-46
—0-341451 +0-136862 | 12-48
—0-344118 +0:129771 | 12-50
—0-346642 +0-122640 | 12-52
—0-349023 +0-115473 | 12-54
—0-351261 --0:108274 | 12-56
—0-353354 +-0-101044 | 12-58
—0-355302 +0-093786 | 12-60
—0-357105 +0-086504 | 12-62
—0-358762 +0-079200 | 12-64
—0-360273 +0-071878 | 12-66
—0-361637 +0-064540 | 12-68
—0-362854 +-0-057189 | 12-70
—0-363924 +-0-049828 | 12-72
—0-364847 +0-042460 12-74
—0-365623 +0-035088 12-76
—0-366251 +0-027715 | 12-78
—0-366731 +-0-020344 | 12-80
—0-367065 +0-012977 | 12-82
—0-367251 +0-005617 | 12-84
—0-367289 —0-001732 | 12-86
—0-367181 —0-009068 12-88
—0-366927 —0-016387 12-90
—0-366526 —0-023688 12-92
—0-365979 —0-030967 12-94
—0-365288 —0-038221 12-96
—0-364451 —0-045447 = 12-98
—0-363470 —0-052643 13-00
—0-362345 —0-059807 13-02
—0-361078 —0-066935 13-04
—0-359668 —0-074024 13-06
—0-358117 —0-081071 | 13-08
—0-356426 —0-088075 | 13-10
—0-354595 —0-095032 13-12
—0-352625 —0-101939 | 13-14
—0-350517 —0-108795 | 13-16
—0-348273 —0-115596 13-18
—0-345894 —0-122340 | 13-20
—0-343380 —0-129024 | 13-22
—0-340733 —0-135645 | 13-24
—0-337955 —0-142202 | 13-26
—0-335046 —0-148692 | 13-28

Yo(a)
—0-332007
—0-328841
—0-325550
—0-322133
—0-318593
—0-314932
—0-311150
—0-307251
—0-303235
—0-299104
—0-294861
—0-290507
—0-286043
~-0-281473
—0-276797
—0-272018
—0-267139
—0-262160
—0-257084
—0-251914
—0-246652
—0-241299
—0-235859
—0-230333
—0-224723
—0-219032
—0-213263
—0-207418
—0-201500
—0-195510
—0-189451
—0-183326
—0-177138
—0-170888
—0-164580
—0-158216
—0-151799
—0-145331
—0-138815
—0-132253
—0-125649
—0-119005
—0-112323
—0-105607
—0-098859
—0-092082
—0-085279
—0-:078452
—0-071604
—0-064738
—0-057856
—0-050962
—0-044058
—0-037147
—0-030231
—0-023314
—0-:016398
—0-:009485
—0-002580

Y,(z)

—0-155112
—0-161460
—0-167733
—0-173929
—0-180046
—0-186082
—0-192034
—0-197899
—0-203676
—0-209364
—0-214959
—0-220460
—0-225864
—0-231170
—0-236376
—0-241479
—0-246478
—0-251372
—0-256158
—0-260834
—0-265399
—0-269851
—0-274189
—0-278412
—0-282517
—0-286503
—0-290369
—0-294114
—0-297737
—0-301235
—0-304608
—0-307855
—0-310974
—0-313965
—0-316827
—0-319558
—0-322158
—0-324626
—0-326961
—0-329163
—0-331231
—0-333163
—0-334960
—0:336622
—0-338147
—0:339536
—0-340787
—0-341901
—0-342878
—0-343717
—0-344418
—0-344981
—0-345406
—0-345694
—0:345843
—0-345855
—0-345729
—0-345466
—0-345067
G

82 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.
Neumann Cylinder Functions—continued.

x Yo(x) Y,(z) | x Yo(zx) Y,(z)
13-30 +0:004316 —0-344531 14-42 -+-0-299680 —0-129889
13-32 +0-011201 —0:343858 14-44 +0-302216 —0-123694
13-34 +0-018070 —0-343050 14-46 +0-304628 —0-117459
13-36 +0:024922 —0-342107 14-48 +0-306914 —0-111185
13-38 +0:031753 —0-341029 14-50 +0-309075 —0-104876
13-40 +0:038562 —0-339817 14-52 +0:311109 —0-098534
13-42 +0:045345 —0-338472 14-54 +0:313016 —0:092161
13-44 +0:052100 —0:336994 14:56 +0-314795 —0-085760
13-46 +0:058824 —0-335386 14-58 +0-316446 —0-079334
13-48 +0:065515 —0-333645 || 14-60 +0-317968 —0-072886
13-50 +0:072169 —0-331775 || 14-62 +0-319362 —0-066417
13-52 +0-078785 —0-329776 || 14-64 +0-320625 —0-059931
13-54 +0-085359 —0-327649 | 14-66 +0:321759 —0-053429
13-56 +0-091890 —0-325395 || 14-68 +0:322762 —0:046915
13-58 +0:-098374 —0-323014 | 14-70 +0-323635 —0-040392
13-60 +0-104809 —0-320508 || 14-72 +0-324378 —0-033861
13-62 +0-111193 —0-317879 || 14-74. +0-324990 —0-027326
13-64 +0-117524 —0:315127 14-76 +0-325471 —0-020788
13-66 +0:123798 —0-312254 14-78 +0-325821 —0-014251
13-68 +0-130013 —0:309261 || 14-80 +0-326041 —0:007717
13-70 +0-136167 —0:306150 || 14-82 +0-326130 —0-001189
13-72 +0-142258 —0-302922 || 14:84 +0-326088 +0-005330
13-74 +0-148283 —0-299577 || 14:86 +0-325917 +0-011839
13-76 +0-154241 —0-296118 14-88 +0:325615 +0-018334
13-78 +0-160128 —0-292547 14-90 +0-325183 +0-024813
13-80 +0-165942 —0-288865 14-92 +0:324622 +0:031274
13-82 +0-171681 —0:285073 14-94 +0:323932 +0-037714
13-84 +0-177344 —0-281173 14-96 +0:323114 +0-044130
13-86 +0:182928 —0:277167 14-98 +0-322167 +0:050519
13-88 +0-188430 —0:273056 15-00 +0-321093 -++0-056880
13-90 +0-193849 —0-268843 15-02 +0:319893 +0-063210
13-92 +0-199183 —0-264529 15-04 +0:318566 +0-069507
13-94 +0-204430 —0-260116 || 15-06 +0:317113 +0:075767
13-96 -+0-209587 —0-255606 | 15-08 +0:315535 +0-081989
13-98 +0:214653 —0-251001_ || 15-10 +0-313833 +0-088171
14:00 +0-219627 —0-246303 | 15-12 +0-312008 +-0-094309
14-02 +0-224505 —0-241513 | 15-14 +0-310061 +0-100401
14-04 +0-229286 —0-236634 15-16 +0-307993 +0-106445
14-06 +0-233969 —0-231668 15-18 +0-305804 +0-112439
14-08 +0-238553 —0-226617 15-20 +0-303496 +0-118380
14-10 +0-243034 —0-221483 15-22 +0-301069 +0-124266
14-12 +0-247411 —0-216268 15-24 +0:298525 +0:-130095
14-14 +0-251684 —0-210975 15-26 +0:295865 +0-135865
14-16 +0-255850 —0-205605 15-28 +0-293091 +0:141573
14-18 +0-259908 —0-200161 15-30 +0-290203 +0-147217
14-20 +0-263856 —0-194645 15-32 +0-287203 +0-152796
14-22 +0-267693 —0-:189059 15-34 +0-284092 +0-158306
14-24 +0-271418 —0-183406 15-36 +0-280871 +0-163746
14-26 +0-275029 —0-177688 15-38 +0-277542 +0-169113
14-28 +0-278525 —0-:171907 15-40 +0-274107 +0:174406
14-30 +0-281905 —0-166066 15-42 +0-270567 +0-179624
14-32 +0-285167 —0-160167 15-44 +0-266923 +0:184763
14-34 +0-288311 —0-154213 15-46 +0-263177 +0-189822
14-36 +0-291335 —0-148205 15-48 +0-259330 +0:194799
14-38 +0:294239 —0-142147 15-50 +0:255385 +0-199691
14:40 +0-297021 —0-136041

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 83

The Neumann G Functions.

The Neumann Functions G,(x) of order greater than unity are of
frequent occurrence in physical problems, such as the diffraction of light,
pressure of radiation, &c. Tables of the functions have been found from
those of G,(x) and G,(x) by (a) direct calculation and (b) logarithmic
computation from the recurrence formula

Grnsi(X) a s G,,(z) i

and verified in the case when z is an integer by the relation

Jn(%) Gpii(z) — Inas(2) G,(2) =

G,-1(2)

The Bessel Functions J,,(x) for positive integral values of n and w have
been given by Meissel for 7 = 1 tox = 24

The Tables may be used to calculate G,(x) for other values of: the
argument x by employing the following formula :

G(e +h) = G,(x) +h E Cota) (2)
a al {a — 1)
gy?

- 1) @(@ + = Gn) shh

2!
Tables of the Newmann Functions. G,(«).

x= O1 0°2 03 0°4 0°5
+ 2-40998 +1-69820 -+1-26806 | +0-95194 -+-0-69825
+10:14570 -+5:22105 +3-60200 +2-79739 +2-31138
— _— — — +8:54729

Gi(z) | a= 06 07 0'8 09 1:0
n=0 +0-48461 +0-29950 +0-13635 —0-00884 —0-13863
1 -+1-97982 +1-73298 + 1:53647 --1:37150 -+1-22713
2 +6-11479 +4-65188 +3:70481 | +3-05663 -+2-59289
| 3 — — _— | — +9-14442

Gi(e) |a2= 11 1:2 1:3 14 15
n=0 —0-25473 —0-35827 | —0-45009 —0-53076 —0-60075
1 -+-1-09660 +0-97568 +0-86161 -+0-75264 -+0-64765
2 +2-24855 +1-98440 +1-77565 -+-1:60597 +1-46429
is +17-07994 + 5-63900 +4-60192 +3-83584 +3-25711

G(x) T= gA:6 17 18 1:9 2:0
n= 0 —0-66041 —0-71004 —0:74995 —0-78040 —0-80170
1 +0-54597 +0:44725 +0:35133 +0-25825 +0-16813
2 -- 1-34287 + 1-23622 +1-14032 +1-05224 +0-96982
3 -+2-81121 +2-46149 +2-18271 +1-95700 +1-77152
4 +9-19916 +7-45141 +6:13537 +5-12776 +4-34473

84 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Tables of the Newmann Functions. G,(x)—continued.

Gr(z) |= 21 22 2:3 a4 2'5
—0-81413 —0-81805 —0-81379 —0-80176 — 0-78237
-+0-08118 —0-00234 —0-08212 —0-15785 —0-22921
+0-89144 +0-81592 +0-74238 +0-67022 -+0-59900
+1-61681 +1-48583 +1-37322 +1-27488 +1-18761
>+-3-72802 +3-23634 + 2-83993 + 2-51698 +2-25126

— — +8:50480 +-7-11504 +6-01643
a= 26 2-7 2'8 2:9 3-0
—0-75607 —0-72336 | W—0-68474 —0-64075 —0-59195
—0-29588 —0-35756 —0-41398 —0-46486 —0-51000
+0-52847 +0-45849 | -+0-38904 +0-32015 +0-25196
+1-10891 +1-03682 | -+0-96974 -+0-90645 +0-84594
+ 2-03056 +1-:84554 | +1-68899 +1-55526 +1-43992
+5:13897 +4:43145 +3-85593 -+3-38393 +2-99385
= — = = + 8-53959
ete 3-2 38 34 35
—0-53894 —0-48232 —0-42269 —0-36068 —0-29692
—0-54920 —0-58231 —0-60924 —0-62991 —0-64432
+0-18462 +0-11837 +0-05345 —0-00986 —0-07127
+0-78742 +0-73028 +0-67403 +0-61832 +0-56287
+1:33942 -+1-25090 -+1-17206 +1-10100 +1-03619
+2-66914 +2-39697 + 2-16732 +1-97228 +1-80557
+7-27071 + 6-23963 +5-39557 +4-69982 +4-12257
|a= 236 37 3°8 39 40
ates Bee Oe remy tS = |
—0-23202 —0-16662 —0-10132 —0-03672 -+0-02661
—0-65250 —0-65451 —0-65049 —0-64060 —0-62506
—0-13048 —0-18717 —0-24104 —0-29180 —0:33914
+0-50752 +0-45217 -++0-39676 +0-34133 -+0-28592
+0-97635 +0-92041 +0-86751 -+0-81691 +0-76802
-++1-66214 +1:53791 | -+1-42957 +1-33439 +1-25012 |
-+3-64070 +3:23611 | -++2-89452 +2-60460 | +2-35728
= +8-95757 | _+-7-71102 -+6-67976 +5-82172
ee 42 43 44 45 |
0 +0-08811 +0-14726 +0-20357 +0-25657 -+0-30584
1 —0-60412 —0-57807 —0-54726 —0-51203 —0-47281
2 —0-38281 —0-42254 —0-45811 —0-48931 —0-51598
3 ~-+0-23065 +0-17566 +0-12111 +0-06721 +0-01416
4 +0:72034 +0-67348 -+-0-62710 +0-58095 +0:53486 |
5 +1-17490 +1-10715 +1-04558 +0-98908 -+0-93670
6 + 2:14526 +1-96260 +1-80449 +1-66694 +1-54669
7 +5-10391 +4-60029 +3-99020 +3-55714 +3-18781 |
8 | — — — +9-65122 | +8-37095 |

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 85
Tables of the Newnann Functions. G,(x)—continued.
Gr(e) = 46 | 47 4'8 49 5:0
n=0-| +0-35101 +0-39174 +0-42773 -+0-45876 +0-48462
1 —0-43000 —0-38406 —0-33547 —0-28470 —0-23226
2 —0-53797 —0-55517 | —0-56751 —0-57496 —0-57752
3 —0-03780 | —0-08842 —0-13746 —0-18466 —0-22976
4 +0-48866 | +0-44229 +0-39569 +0-34885 -+0-30182
5 40-88765 | +0:84125 | +0-79694 +40-75421 +40-71266
6 +1-44101 +134761 +1-26460 +1-19036 — +1-12351
7 -.2-87150 412-59946 | +2:36457 +2-16095 +1-98376
8 4-7-29834 46:39546 | +5-63205 +4-98377 +4-43101
Gr(x) TS nerd. 52 5°38 | 54 55
n= 0 +-0-50517 +0-52033 | +0-53005 +0-53433 | +.0-53325
1 —0-17866 —0-12439 | —0-06998 —0-01591 +0-03732
2 —0-57523 —0-56817 | —0-55645 —0-54023 _ —0-51968
3 —0-27251 —0-31266 | —0-34999 —0-38426 —0-41527
4 +0-25464 +0-20741 | +-0-16024 -+0-11327 +0-06666
5 +-0-67194 +0-63175 | -+0-59186 +0-55207 +0-51223
6 +1-06289 4+1-00750 | -++0-95647 -+0-90908 | +0-86467
7 + 1-82897 +1-69324 | +1-57374 +1-46811 | +1-37432
8 43-95783 43-55123 | +3-20058 +2-89712 | +2-63361
at are +9-23362 | +8-08839 +7:11596 | +6-28707
| Ga(z) [x= 56 57 5:8 5:9 6-0 /
ey | = - — aa ae ’
| »=0_| +0-52691 +0:51547 | +0-49911 +0-47810 | +0-45270 |
| 1, +40°08923 +0-13937 | -+0-18729 | -+0-23260 +0-27491
2_| —0-49505 —0-46657 —0-43453 | —0-39925 | —0-36106
3 | —0-44283 —0-46678 —0-48697 | —0-50328 —0-51561
| 4 +0-02058 —0-02478 —0-06923 | —0-11256 —0-15455
5 | 40-47224 +0-43200 -+0-39148 | +0-35066 +0-30954
6 40-2270 | +0-78268 | +0-74419 | +0-70689 | +0-67046
7 | +1:29069 | +1-21574 | +1-14823 | +1.08709 | +1-03137
| 8 | +2-40402 | +2-203835 | +2-02740 | +1:87264 +1-73607
| 9 4+5-57794 4+4-96911 | +4-44461 | +3-99125 +3-59816
ee, 10 | et. em = — | +0-05841
Gr(w) -— 2= 6% 7:0 15 | 8-0 85
| | |
n= 0 +0-27213- +0-04076 | —0-18428 | —0-35111 | —0-42444 |
1 +.0-43054 40-47543 | +0-40704 | +0-24828 | +0-04111 |
2 —0-13965 4009507 | -+0-29282 | +0-41318 | +0-43411
3-| —0-51648 —0-42110 | —0-25087 | —0-04169 | +0-16318
4- —0-33710 —0-45602 | —0-49351 | —0-44445 | —0-31892
. 5 4010159 —0-10006 | —0-27555 —0-40275 | —0-46334
| 6 +0-49339 +0-31307 | +0-12612 | —0-05900 | —0-22619
| 7 4.080929 +0-63676 | -+0-47734 |- +0-31426 | +-0-14402
| 8 4-1-24969 +0-96044 | -+0-76491 +0-60895 | +0-46340 |
9 4-2-26687 +1-55854 | +1-15447 | +0-90364 | +-0-72826 |
10 4502780 | +3-04723 | +2-00582 | +1-42424 , +1-07879 |
ll — | +7-14782 | 4419437 | +2-65697 | +1:81008 |
12 — — = | +5-88241 | +3-60612 |
13 = | = = a +8-37101 |

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Tables of the Newmann Functions.

OCMOWIMSU8H PWNS

G,,(x~)—continued.

z= 90 95 10:0 10°5 11'0
—0:39260 —0-26894 —0-08745 +0-10608 +0-26522
—0-16386 —0:31915 —0:39115 —0-36710 | —0-25715
+0:35619 +0-20175 +0-00922 —0-17600 —0-31198
+0:32216 +0-40410 +0-39484 +0-30005 +0-14370
—0-14141 +0-05347 -+-0-22769 +0-34746 +0-39036
—0-44786 —0-35907 —0-21269 —0-03532 -+0-14020
—0-35621 —0-43144 —0-44038 —0-38110 —0-26291
—0-02709 —0-18591 —0-31576 —0-40022 —0-42701
+0-31408 +0-15747 —0-00169 —0-15253 —0-28056
+0-58544 +0-45112 | +0-31306 +0-16780 +0-01893
+-0-85681 +0-69729 | -+0-56519 +0-44018 +0-31153
+1-31859 +1:01685 | -+0-81733 +0-67064 +0-54749
+2-36640 +1-65753 +1-23293 -+0-96497 +0:78344

~-+4-99180 | +3-17058 +2-14171 +1-53501 +1-16185

@2= 115 12°0 12°5 130 13'5
+0-35379 | +0-35380 | -+0-26894 +0-12285 —0-04724
—0-09102 +0-08969 +0-24165 +0-33000 +0-33619
—0-36962 —0-33885 —0-23028 —0-07208 +0-09705
—0-03755 —0-20264 —0-31534 —0-35217 —0-30743
+0-35003 -+0-23753 +0:07892 —0-09046 —0-23369 |
+0-28105 +0-36100 +0-36584 +0-29651 +0-16895
—0-10564 +0-06330 +0-21376 +0-31854 +0-35883
—0-39128 —0-29770 —0-16064 —0-00247 +0-15001
—0-37070 —0-41061 —0-39367 —0-32120 —0-20326 |
—0-12448 —0-24979 —0-34326 —0-39285 —0:39092 |
+0-17587 +0-03593 —0-10063 —0-22275 —0:31796 |
+0-43034 +0-30968 +0-18226 +0-05016 —0-08013 ©
+0-64738 +0-53181 +0-42140 +0-30763 +0-18737 |
+0-92073 +0-75394 +0-62684 -+-0-51778 +0-41324

a= 140 145 15'0 15°5 16°0
—0-19979 —0-29893 —0-32274 —0-26805 —0-15050
-+0-26177 +0-12730 | —0-03310 —0-18031 —0-27956
+0-23719 +0-31648 | +0-31833 +0-24478 +0-11555
—0-19400 —0:03999 -+0-11799 +0-24348 +0-30845
—0-32033 —0:33303 | —0-27113 —0-15053 | +0-00012
+0-01095 —0-14375 | —0-26259 —0-32117 —0-30839
+0-32815 -+0-23390 +0-09607 —0-05667 —0-19286
+0-27032 +0:33782 +0-33945 +0-27730 +0-16375
—0-05783 +0-09179 -+0-22075 +0-30713 +0-33614
—0-33641 —0-23603 —0-10398 +0-03975 +0-17239
—0:37470 -| —0-38480 —0-34553 —0-26098 —0-14220
—0-19887 —0-29472 —0-35672 —0-37649 —0:35014
+0-06218 —0-06237 —0:17766 —0-27340 —0-33925
+0-30548 +0-19149 +0-07246 —0-04683 —0-15873

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 87

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order.
The solution of the ae ee

Wz 3 +t 3 1— 7D = Un — 0
being taken in the symbolical form

uu. = a” of ( - 1 =) ae Sk Be* £.
a xe dz xe

yields as standard functions of real quantities

: A Set 18 it d\" sin
er 2 [= x an) Pit

eer 1 d\" cos a
Ol) =a ( 3 7) Pe,
x eg ae Piagt nines elie
with E,(%) = « ( i ss) aaa C" (x) — 78, (2)

as an important associated function.
The functions (KE, (x) )? = (S, (x) )?-+ (C, (#) )?
(H,’ (2) )? = (Sy! (2) )? + (Cy! (2) )?
are of importance, and have been tabulated with S, (x), C, (x), and their
derivatives 8,’ (x), C,’ (a).
The connection with Bessel Functions is apparent from the differential
equation, giving
8, (2) = V4raJ,,;(2)
C, (w) = (—1)"/E x(x) J_,_, (2).
From the differential equation, we obtain

S.! (a) = Eo? 8, (@) S3 (2)

8," («) = 8, -1(2) — 28, (@)

with corresponding formule for C,/ (a), E,’ (2).
By elimination of §,’ (x), we get the recurrence formula

8, +1 (x) = eS S, (a) rae S., -1 (x).

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order.

(EAC)?

| n Sn(1) C,(1) n
Be: “8414710 “5403023 | 1-0 0
1 “3011687 1:3817733 2-0 1
2 -0620351 3605018 13°0 2
3 -0090066 16°64331 277-0 3
| 4 -0010110 1128982
ne -0000926 999-4403
6 -0000072 10880°95
7 -0000005 140452:8
n Sn!(1) | C "(1) [En’(1)? ie
0 “5403023 | —-8414710 1-0 | 0
1 “5403023 —-8414710 1:0 1
2 ‘1770986 —5-828262 34:0 2
3 0350153 —46°32493 2146-0 3
4 0049625 —434-9494 |
5 “0005482 —4884°304 |
6 -0000496 — 6428623
‘| -0000038 —972289:0
n Log. [Sn(1)] Log. [Cn(1)] | Log. (En(yJ? | om
0 1-9250391 1:7326368 0000000 sO
1 14788098 ‘1404368 “3010300 1
2 2:7926371 *5569074 11139434 ) 9
ee 3 9545600 1-2212399 2:4424798 | 3
4 | 30047580 2-0526869 |
| Log. [Sn'(1)] Log. [Cx'(1)] Log. [En’(1)}? n
0 17326368 19250391 “0000000 0
1 1-7326368 1:9250391 -0000000 1
2 1:2482150 7655390 15314789 | 2
3 2:5442579 1°6658147 3°3316297 fags
4 36957021 2:6384387
n $n(2) Cn(2) [En(2)}? n
0 -9092974 —-4161468 1000000 | =O
1 *8707955 7012240 1:250000 =I
2 -3968959 | 1:4679828 2-312500 2
eas -1214442 | 2-968733 8828125 3
4 | -0281588 | 8922583 79:61328 4
5 | -0052703~—C 37-18289 1382°567 5
gH -0008281 | 195°5833
ie "0001122 1234-109
8 | -0000134 9060-232
9 | -0000014 | 1577786
10 | -0000001 710829'4

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 89
Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.
|» Sw'(2) Cn'(2) | [B»(2)]? n
| 0 | —4161468 —-9092974 10000000 s«O
° 1 | :4738997 —"7667588 ‘8125000 =| 1
2 —— -4738997 —-7667588 8125000 | 2
3 -2147296 —2-985117 8:957031 1
. 4 0651266 — 1487643 221-3125 4
; 5 0149829 —84-03464 7061:821 5
6 | 0027861 —549-5671
7 -0004354 —4123-797
8 “0000587 —35006°82 |
9 -0000070 —331940°1 .
10 “0000007 —3478369: | |
n Tog. [S,(2)] Log. [Cx(2)] Log. [En(2)]? | ™
0 19587060 1-6192466 “0000000 | 0
| 19399162 18458568 | “0969100 1
2 | 15986767 ‘1667210 | 3640817 | 2
a | 1-0843767 “4725711 . “9458684 | 3
4 2:4496139 “9504906 | 19009855 4
5 3'7218386 15703431 3°1406862 hes
| 6 4-9180733 2-2913318 |
n Log. [Sn’(2)] Log. [Cn’‘(2)] Log. [En'(2)}? {1
0 1-6192466 1-9587060 0000000 lo
1 1-6756864 18846588 1-9098234 1
2 1-6756864 18846588 1-9098234 2
3 1:3318919 “4749613 9521642. 3
4 2:8137585 11724988 2°3450059 | 4
5 21755970 19244583 3°8489167 8
i 3'4449957 2:7400207 :
n 8,(3) C,(3) _ (En(3)P ee
0 “1411200 —-9899925 1-0000000 0
1 1:0370325 —'1888775 11111111 1
2 “8959125 *8011150 14444444 2
3 “4561550 15240692 2°530864 3
4 “1684491 - 2°755046 7°618656 4
5 “0491924 6°741070 45°44444 5
6 ‘0119231 21:96221 482-3389 6
7 “0024745 88:42851
8 “0004495 420-1803
, 9 ‘0000726 2299-593
10 -0000106 14099°58
11 -0000014 9640445
12 “0000002 725001:2

90 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—19]4.
Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.
n Sn'(8) Cn'(8) [En/(3)? n
0 —"9899925 —'1411200 1:0000000 0
1 —+2045575 —-9270333 “9012346 1
2 "4397575 —"7229542 *7160494 2
3 “4397575 —"7229542 "7160494. 3
4 -2315561 —2-149326 4-673220 4
5 ‘0864617 —8-480070 71-91907 5
6 "0253460 —37°18335 1382-602 6 |
7 -0061492 —184-3710
8 “0012759 —1032:052
9 0002316 —6457°600
10 -0000374 —44705-00
11 “0000054 —339383°4
12 “0000007 —2803600-
n Log. [Sn(3)] Log. [Cn(3)] Log. [En(8)]? n
0 1-1495886 | 1-9956319 “0000000 0
1 70157924 1:2761801 ‘0457574 1
2 1-9522656 1:9036949 -1597008 2
3 1-6591125 “1830046 “4032688 3
4 1-2264687 “4401289 "8818784 4
5 2°6918984 “8287288 1:6574808 5
6 2:0763909 1:3416761 2-6833523 6
7 3°3934926 19465923
mm Log. [Sn'(3)] Log’ [Cn’(8)] Log. (En’(8)]? n
0 1-9956319 1-1495886 70000000 0
1 13108155 1-9670954 19548378 1
2 16432133 18591108 1:8549430 2
3 1-6432133 1°8591108 18549430 3
4 1-3646563 -3323022 6696163 4
5 2-9368240 "9283995 1:8568440 5
6 24039119 15703485 3'1406973 6
7 3°7888217 2°2656927
n Sn(4) Cx(4) [En(4)]? n
0 —-7568025 — 6536436 1-0000000 0
1 4644430 —--9202134 1-0625000 1
2 1-1051347 — 0365164 1-2226562 24
3 ‘9169754 ‘8745679 1-6057129 sa
4 4995723 1-5670102 2-705093 4 |
5 -2070622 2-6512051 7071763 5
6 0698487 5-7238037 32-76681 6
7 0199460 15-95116 254-4398 7
8 0049490 54-09304 2926-056 8
9 0010870 218-9442
10 0002144 962-1421
11 0000384 4837-302
12 -0000063 26852-34
13 -0000009 162989-8
14 0000001 1073329-

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n S(4) Cn'(4) [En'(4) n
0 — 6536436 -++7568025 1-0000000 0
1 —-8729132 —-4235903 9414062 1
2 —-0881244 —-9019552 8212891 2
3 ‘4174032 — 6924423 6537018 3
4 4174032 — 6924423 6537018 4
5 2407446 —1-746996 3-109954 5
6 “1022891 —5-934501 35-22876 6
7 0349431 —22-19072 492-4293 7
8 0100481 —92-23491 8507-279 8
9 0025032 427-2815

10 0005511 —2191-411

11 0001088 —12340-44

12 0000195 —175719-73

13 0000032 —502864-7

14 0000005 —3593662-

n Log. [Sn(4)] Log. [Cn(4)] Log. [En(4)]? n
0 1-8789825 18153410 0000000 0
I 1-6669324 1-9638885 0263289 1
2 0-0434153 2-5624884 0873043 2
3 1-9623577 1-9417935 2056678 3
4 1-6985983 01950719 4321823 4
5 1-3161007 4234433 8495276 5
6 2-8441582 ‘7576848 1-5154341 6
7 2-2998566 1-2027922 24055851 7
8 3-6945133 1-7331414 34662827 8
9 3-0362346 2-3303006

n Log. [Sn(4)] | Log. [Cn’(4)] Log. [(En'(4)? n
0 1-8153410 1-8789825 0-0000000 0
1 1-9409711 1-6269460 1-9737771 1
2 2-9450960 1-9551850 1-9144960 2
3 1-6205557 1-8403836 1-8153797 3
4 1-6205557 1-8403836 1-8153797 4
5 1-3815565 2422918 4927540 5
6 1-0098296 ‘7733841 1-5468972 6
7 2:5433616 1-3461714 2:6923439 7
8 2-0020852 1-9648953 3-9297907 8
9 3-3984910 26307141

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n Sn(5) Cn(5) [En(5)} |»

| o | 9589243 | 2836622 1-0000000 0
1 —-4754470 —-9021918 1-0400000 1
2 ‘6736561 —-8249773 1-1344000 2
3 1-1491031 0772145 1-3263999 a
4 ‘9350883 ‘9330777 1-7450241 Berit
5 5340558 16023252 2-852662 5
6 2398345 2-592038 6-776181 6
7 0895139 5-136973 26-39650 7
8 0287072 12-81888 164-3244 8
9 0080905 38-44722
10 0020367 133-2806 -
11 0004637 521-3312
12 ‘0000964 2264-843 |
13 0000185 10802-88 |
14 0000033 56071-73
15 0000005 314413-1
16 | — -0000001 1893290:
n Sn'(5) | Cn’(5) [E'(5n)}? n
0 ‘2836622 ‘9589243 - -1-0000000 0 |
1 — -8638349 4641006 -9616000 a)
2 —-7449095 — -5722009 -8823040 2
3 —-0158058 —-8713060 ‘7594240 3
4 4010325 —-6692476 6087194 4
5 4010325 —-6692476 6087194 5
6 | 2462544 —1-5081202 2:335068 6
7 ‘1145151 —4-599725 21-17059 7
8 0435824 —15-37324 236-3383 8
9 0141443 —56-38612
10 0040171 — 228-1139
11 0010165 —1013-648
12 0002323 — 4912-292
13 0000484 —25823-65
14 0000093 —146197-9
15 | 0000017 —887167-7
16 | — 0000003 —5744114-
n Log. [Sn(5)] Log. [Cn(5)] Log. [En(5)]? n
0 1-9817843 14528015 0000000 0
1 1-6771021 1-9552989 ‘0170333 1
2 1-8284378 1-9164420 0547662 2
3 0603589 2-8876992 1226745 | 3
4 1-9708527 1-9699178 ‘2418014 4
5 1-7275867 -2047506 4552503 5
6 1-3799116 4136413 “8309850 6 |
7 2-9518904 ‘7107073 1-4215464 7 |
8 2-4579904 11078501 2-2157021 a
9 3-9079754 1-5848650 .
10 3-3089316 2-1247668

ON THE CALCULATION

OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

0 Ol EEE EEE EO —————
i

n Tog. [Sn'(5)] Log. [C n'(5)] Log. [En’(5)}? n

0 1-4528015 1-9817843 0000000 0

a: | 1-9364307 1-6666121 1-9829945 1

2 1-8721035 1-7575486 1-9456183 2

S| 2:1988166 1-9401707 1-8804846 3

4 1-6031796 1-8255868 1-7844172 4

5 1-6031796 1-8255868 1-7844172 5

6 1-3913840 1784359 3682996 6

4 1-0588626 6627318 1-3257329 7

8 2-6393112 1-1867653 | 2:3735342 8

9 21505807 1-7511723

10 36039080 2-3581517

n Sn(6) C,,(6) [En(6)]? n |
i ee ee -|

0 — 2794155 9601703 1-0000000 Oo |

L —1-0067395 —-1193871 1-0277778 ly.

2 | —-2239543 —1-0198638 1-0902778 2 |

3 8201110 —-7304994 1-2062114 cdl

4 1-1807504 ‘1676145 1-4222661 4

5 | 9510146 ‘9819212 1-8685981 5

6 | 5627764 1-6325743 2-982016 6

a | 2683343 2-5553232 6-601680 7

8 | 1080593 4-755734 | 22-62868 8

9 0378337 10-91926 119-2316 gr

10 0117474 29:82191 889-3466 10 |

11 0032822 93-45743

12 0008345 328-4316

13 0001948 1275-007

14 | 0000420 5409-102

15 | 0000084 24868-98 |

a6: 0000016 123080-6 :

17 0000003 6520746 |

n Sn!(6) Cn'(6) [En'(6)]? n

0 ‘9601703 2794155 | 1-0000000° oO |

1 — -1116256 9800681 / ‘9729938 1

2 — -9320881 2205675 | ‘9174383 2

3 — -6340098 — -6546141 | 8304880 3

4 0329440 — -8422424 | ‘7104576 4

5 3882382 — -6506531 | 5740783 5

6 3882382 — -6506531 5740783 6

7 -2497198 —1-3486361 1-8811792 |

8 1242552 —3-785655 14-34662 8 |

9° 0513087 —11-62315 | 135-1002 9

10 0182547 —38-78393 1504-193 10

11 0057300 —141-5167 |

12 0016133 —563-4057 |

13 0004125 — 2434-084

14 0000967 —11346-23 | |

15 0000197 = —56763-36 |

16 | 0000040 = —303346-1

17 | 0000008 =| — 1833143:

94 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.
Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n | Log. (Sn(6)) Log. [Cn(6)] Log. [E, (6)}" n
0 1-4462504 1-9823482 0000000 0
1 0029172 1-0769574 -0118993 1
2 1-3501593 0085422 0375371 2
3 1-9138726 1-8636199 0814234 3
4 0721581 1-2243116 -1529808 4
5 1-9781872 1-9920766 -2715159 5

eats 1-7503359 -2128730 4745099 6
7 1-4286762 -4074458 “8196545 7
8 1.0336621 -6772176 1-3546592 8
9 2-5778788 1-0381930 2-0763912 9
10 20699421 1-4745354 2-9490710 10
1] 35161693 1-9706139 3-9412276 11
n Log. [S,,.'(6)] Log. [C,,'(6)j Log. [E,,’/(6)]? n
o | 1-9823482 1-4462504 _ 0000000 0
a | 1-0477638 1-9912562 1-9881101 1
2 | 1-9694570 1-3435416 1-9625768 2
3 | 1-8020960 1-8159854 1-9193334 3
4 2:5177768 1-9254370 1-8515380 4
5 1-5890982 1-8133495 1-7589712 5
Gg 1-5890982 1-8133495 1-7589712 6
708 1-3974530 -1298948 -2744302 7
s | 1-0943146 ‘5781411 1:1567497 8
9 27101914 1-0653238 2-1306561 9
10 | 2-2613742 1-5886518 3-1773036 10
i, | 3-7581532 2-1508077
n Sn(7) C(7) ([En(7)? n |
0 -6569866 1539023 1-0000000 Oo |
1 — -6600470 7646869 1-0204082 1
2 | —-9398639 — 4261793 1-0649730 2
3 —-0112843 —1-0691007 1-1431036 3
4 ‘9285796 —-6429214 1-2756080 4
5 1-2051723 2424875 1-5112406 5
6 | -9652627 1-0239731 1-9802530 6
7 -5874584 1-6591769 3097975 Fi
8 -2935767 2-531406 6-494203 8
9 -1255135 4-488523 20-16258 9
10 0471029 9-651729 93-15808 10
11 ‘0157952 24-46666 598-6178 11
12 0047955 70-73873
13 0013317 228-1717
14 0003410 809-3520
15 0000811 3124-858
16 -0000180 13029-31
17 -0000037 58299-01
18 -0000007 278465-7

19 0000001 1413591- ;

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n 8,'(7) C,'(7) [E,'(7)}? 1
0 ‘7539023 — 6569866 1-0000000 0
1 7512790 + 6446613 9800082 1
2 — 3915145 +-8864524 9390815 2
3 — 9350278 + 0320067 ‘8753014 3
4 —-5419012 —-7017170 ‘7860638 4
5 0677422 — 8161267 6706518 5
6 3778043 — -6352038 5462200 6
7 3778043 — 6352038 5462200 7
8 -2519422 —1-2338585 1-585882 8
9 1322021 —3-239553 10-51218 9 |
10 0582237 —9-299661 86-48708 10
11 0222819 —28-79588 829-2033 11
12 0075743 —96-79974
13 0023224 —353-0087
14 0006497 —1390-532
15 0001673 — 5886-773
16 0000400 —26656-41
17 0000089 —128544-0
18 0000019 —657755:8
19 0000004 —3558425-
ase a Se eens ete
n Log. [Sn(7)] Log. [Cx(7)] Log [En(7)? n
0 1-8175564 1-8773150 0000000 0
1 1-8195749 1-8834836 0087739 1
2 1-9730650 1.6295924 0273386 2
3 2:0524737 0290186 0580857 3
4 1-9678191 1-8081579 ‘1057172 4
5 0810491 1-3846893 ‘1793337 5
6 1.9846455 0102885 -2967208 6
7 1-7689771 2198927 4910780 7
8 1-4677215 4033618 8125259 8
9 1-0986904 6521034 1-3045461 9
10 2:6730476 9846051 1-9692206 10
ul 2-1985243 1-3885748 2-7771497 BI
12 36808361 1-8496573
13 3-1244043 2-3582617

96 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.
Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

5 Log. [Sn'(7)] | Log. [Cn'(7)] Log. [En(? | 2
) 1-8773150 | 1-8175564 _-0000000 | i)
1 1-8758012 1-8093316 | 1-9912297 1
2 1-5927478 1-9476554 1-9727033 z
3 1-9708245 2-5052413 1-9421576 3
4 1-7339202 1-8461593 1-8954578 | 4
5 2-8308592 1-9117576 1-8264970 ies,
6 1-5772670 1-8029131 1-7373676 | 6
7 1-5772670 1-8029131 1-7373676 ee
8 | 1-4013009 0912654 | -2002709 tei tai
9 | 1-1212385 | -5104850 | 1-0216928 9
10 | 2-7650977 | 9684671 1-9369512 10
11 2-3479526 | 1:4593304 2-9186610 ll
12) | 38793411 19858742 |
13 3:3659326 2-5477854 |
nN $n(8) C,(8) [E,(8)/? mn
a -9893582 —-1455000 1-0000000 0
tl -2691698 9711707 10156250 1
2 | —-8884196 -5096891 1-0490725 2
3 — +8244320 —-6526151 1-1055944 3
4 1670415 —1-0807273 1-:1958744 4
5 1-0123538 — 5632031 ~1-3420578 5
6 1-2249449 -3063230 15943238 6
7 -9781817 1-0609780 2.082514 7
8 -6091458 1-6830107 > 3-203583 8
9 -3162531 2-515420 6-427352 9
10 -1419553 4-291111 "18-43378 10
11 0563796 8-748747 76-54376 ll
12 | 0201360 20-86154 435-2041 12
Sr 0065454 56-44356 ;
14 0019547 169-6355
15. | 0005403 “558-4850
16 0001391 1994-494

| 17 | 0000335 7668-802

| 18 } -0000076 31556-52

| 19 | 0000016 138280-1

| 20 | 0000003 642558-9 |

a a a

———ss ”——

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

1914.

n Sy/(8) Cr (8) [E n (8)? n
0 —--1455000 — 9893582 1-0000000 0
1 -9557120 — :2668964 -9846190 1
2 4912747 8437485 9532622 2
3 —-5792575 “7544197 ‘9046883 3
4 — 9079528 — 1122515 *8369787 4
5 — 4656796 —+7287253 7478982 5
6 0936451 — “1929453 -6375318 6
7 3690359 — 6220327 5231121 7
8 -3690359 — -6220327 5231121 8
9 -2533611 —1-1468365 1-379426 9

10 -1388090 — 2-848469 8-133044 10

11 0644334 —7-738416 59-88724 1l

12 0261760 — 22-54356 508-2127 12

13 0094997 —70-85924

14 0031247 — 240-4185

15 0009416 — 877-5239

16 0002621 — 3430-503

17 -0000679 —14301-71

18 0000165 — 63333-36

19 0000038 —296858-7

20 0000008 — 1468117:
nm | Log. [S,(8)] | Log. [Cn/8)] Log. [En(8)] n
0 19953536 11628630 00000000, 0
1 14300263 | 19872956 0067334 1
2 1-9486181 --1-7073058 0208055 2
3 1-9161549 1-8146570 0435958 3
4 1-2228244 _ 103837162 0776855 4
5 0053323 1°7506650 "1277712 5
6 0881165 | 1-4861797 2025765 6
Me. | 19904195 ~ 0257063 3185878 7
8 1-7847213 | 2260868 5056360 8
9 1-5000347 -4006105 8080321 9

10 1-1521516 6325697 1-2656145 10

1l 2-751 1219 9419459 1-8839098 ll

12 2:3039729 13193463 2-6386930 12

13 3-8159352 1-7516144

14 3-2910760 2-2295167

98 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.
Bessel Funetions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n Log. [Sn’ (8)] Log. [Cy"(9)] Log. [En(8)? |
— = pat es SSame. Uy
bg 1-1628630 1-9953536 0000000 0
Hee! 1-9803270 1-4263426 1-9932682 1
| 2 1-6913243 1-9262130 1-9792124 2
ee 1-7628717 1.8776130 1-9564990 3
Ie 1.9580633 | 1.0501919 1-9227145 4
Veg 1-6680872 | 1-8625639 18738424 5
| 6 2-9714850 | 1-8992433 1-8045018 6
| o% 1-5670687 | 1-7938132 1-7185948 7
eng 1-5670687 | 1-7938132 1-7185948 8

9 1.4037399 ‘0595015 0-1396984 9
| 10 1-1424175 4546115 9102531 10
eset 2-8091109 -8886521 1-7773344 a i:
eae 2-4178966 1-3530225 2-7060455 12
| 13 39777117 1-8503964
i4 3-4948071 23809678

n 81(9) | Cn(9) [En(yPF | 2
| 0 ‘4121185 —-9111303 1:0000000 0
eee | “9569212 “3108818 1:0123457 1
arse —-0931448 1:0147575 1:0384086 2
| 3 — 10086683 *2528724 1:0813561 3
ley —6913750 —-8180790 1:1472525 4
| 3 -3172933 —1:0709514 1:2476118 5
hag 1:0791779 —-4908616 1:4055701 6

7 1:2415193 "3619291 1:6723628 7
eae “9900209 10940767 2°177146 8
hie "6285202 1:7046603 3300904 9
| 10 -3368550 2:504651 6°386745 10

11 1574749 4139524 17°16046 11

12 0655808 8074134 65°19594 12

13 "0246941 1828863 3344°745 13

14 “0085014 46°79174 21894°67 14

15 "0026992 132:4848

16 -0007959 409°5447

17 “0002192 1369°179

18 “0000567 4915°041

19 -0000138 18837°10

20 “0000032 76712°39

21 “0000007 330630°4

22 -0000001 1502966-

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n S,’(9) Cc (9) [En'(9)? n
0 —-9111303 ~4121185 1:0000000 0
1 “3057939 — 9456727 -9878066 1
2 9776200 “0853801 -9630307 2
3 -2430780 “9304667 “9248551 3
4 —-7013905 “6164631 *8719753 4
5 ~—"8676491 —+2231060 *8025912 5
6 —-4021587 —~*7437103 -7148366 6
} 7 -1135518 —7723620 “6094370 a
: 8 -3615007 —6105836 “5034950 8
9 “3615007 —-6105836 “5034950 9
10 -2542368 —1°0782848 1°227334 10
. 11 -1443857 —2-554768 6547686 11
12 -0700338 — 6625988 43°90862 12
13 0299116 —18°34277 336°4581 13
14 -0114697 —54-49853 2970-090 14 |
15 -0040027 —174-0162
| 16 -0012842 —595°5946
17 -0003818 —2176-682
18 -0001059 —8460°902
19 -0000275 —34852°17
20 -0000068 —151634-87
21 -0000016 —694758°6
22 -0000003 —3343287-
n Log. [Sn(9)] Log. [Cn(9)] Log. [En(9)]? n
0 1-6150221 1-9595804 0:0000000 0
1 19808761 1-4925953 -0053288 1
2 2-9691584 -0063623 -0163683 2
3 -0037484 1-4029014 “0339688 3
4 1-8397 137 1:9127952 “0596590 4
5 1°5014608 0297698 -0960795 5
6 “0330930 1-6909590 "1478524 6
7 0939534 1°5586235 +2233305 G
8 1:9956444 -0390477 -3378876 8
9 1-7983192 -2316378 5186329 9
10 15274431 ‘3987471 -8052796 10
11 1-1972113 “6169504 1°2345289 11
12 2-8167769 -9070959 1°8142206 12
13 23925925 1:2621811 2°5243630 13
14 39294886 1:6701692 3°3403384 14
15 3:4312382 2-1221659
16 4:9008836 26123012

100 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.
Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n Log. [Sn’(9)] | Log. [€n'(9)] Log. [En’(9)]? n
0 1-9595804 16150221 “0000000 0
1 1-4854289 1-9757408 1:9946719 1
2 1-9901701 29313568 1:9836401 2
3 1°3857457 1:9687008 1:9660737 3
4 1°8459599 1:7899070 1-9405042 4
5 19383441 13485112 19044943 5
6 1 6043974 18714038 18542069 6
7 1-0551940 18878209 1-7849288 7
8 1:5581092 17857452 1:7019951 8
9 15581092 17857452 1:7019951 9
10 14052385 "0327335 ‘0889627 10
11 1:1595242 “4073515 ‘8160879 11
12 2'8453076 ‘8212507 16425498 12
13 24758399 1:2634649 2-5269309 13
14 2:0595528 1°7363848

15 3°6023493 22405896 -

16 3°1086340 2°7749508

n S (10) Cn(10) (En (10)}? n
i) —-5440211 —*8390715 - 10000000 |. 0
1 "7846694 —"6279283 1:0100000 1
2 7794219 “6506930 1:0309000 2
3 —"3949584 ‘9532748 1:0647250 3
4 —1:0558929 "0165993 1:1151852 4
5 —+5553451 —*9383354 1:1888816 5
6 “4450132 —1:0487683 1:2979516 6
7 1:1338623 —'4250633 1:4663225 7
8 1:2557802 -4111733 1°7460475 8
9 1:0009641 1°1240579 2°265235 9

10 6460515 1°7245367 3°391409 10

11 *3557441 2-497469 6°363907 11

12 “1721600 4:019643 16°18716 12

13 0746558 7:551637 57:03279 13

14 -0294108 16°36978 267:9704 14

15 ‘0106354 39°92072 1593-663 15

16 -0035590 107°3844

17 -0011094. 314-4480

18 “0003239 993-1834

19 -0000890 3360°331

20 -0000231 1211211

21 “0000057 46299°30_

22 -0000013 1869749

23 “0000003 795087'8

OCowtooirwnwe ©

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

Sn’(10) C ’(10)
—*8390715 5440211
—*6224881 —*7762787

"6287850 —°7580669
*8979095 *3647106
0273987 "9466351
—'7782203 4857670
— 8223531 —*3090745
—"3486904 —*7512239
*1292381 —‘7540019
*3549126 —°6004788
3549126 —'6004788
*2547330 —1-0226794
*1491522 —2°326102
0751074 —5°797486
0334807 — 15°36605
"0134576 —43°51130
“0049410 — 131-8944
“0016730 —427°1771
“0005264 — 1473-282
0001549 —5391-445
0000428 —20863°88
“0000112 —85116°43
“0000028 —365045°5
*0000007 —1641727-

101

omartornr wn KH ©

Log. [Sn(10)]

1-7356158
1:8946867
1-8917726
1°5965514
0°0236199
1°7445630
1:6483729
"0545604
0989136
“0004185
1:8102671
1°5511378
1:2359323
2:8730639°
2°4685065
9°0267549
3°5513330 -
30450910

Log. [C,(10)]

1-9237990
1-7979100
1:8133761
19792181
22200898
1:9723581
0:0206795
1:6284536
1:6140292
0:0507886
0:2366724
0°3975001
0°6041873
0°8780411
1:2140428
1:6011983
20309414
2°4975488

[En’'(10)]? n
1-0000000 0
-9901000 1
*9700360 2
"9392552 3
"8968684 4
8415964 | 5
°7717916 6
*6859223 7
*56852213 8
-4865378 9
*4865378 10
1110762 | 11
5°432996 12
33°61647 13
236°1167 14
1893°233 15
Log. [En(10)]? Nn
“0000000 0
*0043214 1
*0132165 2
*0272375 3
0473370 4
‘0751386 5
-1132584 6
*1662294 uf
*2420560 8
*3551134 9
*5303798 10
*8037238 11
1:2091707 12
1°7561246 13
2°4280865 14
3°2023961 15

102 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—-1914™

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n Log. [Sn'(10)] Log. [Cn'(10)] Log. [En’(10)]? n
apa 1-9237990 1:7356158 “0000000 0
ld 1-7941311 1°8900177 1-9956791 1

2 1°7985024 1°8797075 1:9867879 7

3 1-9532326 15619484 1:9727835 3)

4 2-4377299 1:9761826 1:9527289 4

5 1°8911026 1°6864279 1:9251039 5

6 19150583 1-4900631 1-8875001 6

7 15424400 18757693 18362748 7

8 1-1113905 1°8773724 1:7673201 8

9 15501214 17784977 | 1°6871163 9

10 1°5501214 1:7784977 1-6871163 10 |

11 1:4060852 0:0097396 | "0456210 11
| 2 1'1736296 ‘3666287 -7350394 12 |

13 28756827 7632397 1°5265521 13 |

14 2°5247951 1:1865623 23731267 14 |

15 2:1289691 1°6386021 3°2772041 15

16 3°6938116 2°1202264

17 32235085 26306079

Binary Canon.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lt.-Col.
ALLAN CUNNINGHAM, R.E. (Chairman), Prof. A. E. H. Love
(Secretary), and Major P. A. MacMaunon, appointed for
Disposing of Copies of the Binary Canon by presentation to
Mathematical Societies.

THe Committee have sent out fifty-eight copies of the above work

to representative Mathematical Societies at home and abroad (thirteen

and forty-five respectively) at a cost of 41. 9s., as per enclosed account,
and return now the unexpended balance of eleven shillings.

Dynamic Isomerism.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor H. EK. ArMstTronG (Chairman), Dr. T. M. Lowry
(Secretary), Professor SypNEY Youne, Dr. C. H. Derscu,
Dr. J. J. Doppiz, and Dr. M. O. Forster. (Drawn up by
the Secretary.)

Anomalous Rotatory Dispersion.

Durine the year much justification has been found for the view
expressed in the Report presented at Birmingham ‘ that a knowledge
of the phenomena of dynamic isomerism is essential for the interpreta-
tion of optical rotation, especially in the case of liquids which show
anomalous rotatory dispersion,’ and that ‘the study of rotatory

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 1038

dispersion will open up a new and fruitful field for the investigation of
dynamic isomerism.’ The importance of this aspect of the subject is
shown by the conspicuous part which it played in a general discussion
on ‘Optical Rotatory Power,’ held before the Faraday Society on
March 27, 1914, to which the Chairman and Secretary of this Com-
mittee contributed papers. Preliminary experiments, which will he
described in a subsequent Report, have shown (1) that ethyl tartrate,
the typical example of anomalous rotatory dispersion, is probably a
mixture, and (2) that nitrocamphor, the typical example of dynamic
isomerism, gives rise to anomalous rotatory dispersion in certain
solvents.

Dynamic Isomerism, Metamerism, Tautomerism, and. Desmotropy.

Attention has recently been directed (Proc. Chem. Soc., April 4,
1914) to the importance of maintaining strict accuracy in the use of
terms to describe the phenomena of reversible isomeric change.

Briefly, it may be said that all the essential facts in reference to
the conception of equilibrium between isomerides are set out in
Butlerow’s classical, but almost forgotten, paper, ‘ Ueber Isodibutylen ’
(Annalen, 1877, 189, 44). The name dynamic isomerism was intro-
duced in 1899 (Trans. Chem. Soc., 75, 235) as a paraphrase of Butle-
row’s description of ‘ a condition of equilibrium depending on incessant
isomeric change ’; but the adjective isodynamic had already. been sug-
gested by Armstrong in 1889 (Watts’ Dictionary, ‘Isomerism’) to
describe those isomerides ‘which change their type with exceptional
facility in the course of chemical interchanges.’ The word metameric
had been used in this sense in 1833 by Berzelius to describe isomerides
which were readily converted into one another, but the usefulness of
‘the word was destroyed by a misguided attempt to transfer it to another
usage.

The hypothesis of tautomerism was introduced by Laar in 1885
(Ber. 18, 648; 19, 730) to account for the facts which had already (as
time has shown) been explained adequately by Butlerow. Laar asserts
that, in every case of tautomerism, the different formule. suggested
by the reactions of the substance represent, ‘ not isomeric, but identical
bodies ’; the term cannot, therefore, be applied to any case of isomer-
ism, however readily the isomerides may be converted into one another.

It is impossible to say whether tautomerism exists; but it has at
least been proved by the work of Knorr that the two substances repre-
‘sented by the formule

CH,:CO:CH,:CO,Et and CH,:C(OH) :CH:CO,Et

are not tautomeric, but have a real existence as well-defined isomeric
compounds, which only change into one another under definite physical
and chemical conditions.

. The word desmotropy was introduced by Jacobson (Ber. 1887, 20,
1732, footnote; 1888, 21, 2628, footnote) in 1887, when it had become
evident that Laar’s theory of tautomerism had broken down in the
very case to which it had been most frequently applied, namely, the
labile isomerism which results from the contiguity of a double bond
and an acidic hydrogen atom. Jacobson considered ‘that the known

104 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

forms of such compounds are to be represented by a definite grouping
of atoms, which in certain reactions passes over into an isomeric group-
ing by a rearrangement of bonds consequent upon the displacement
of a hydrogen atom ’; it was to express this view that the word ‘ desmo-
tropy’ was introduced. If used in this sense, to describe the labile
isomerism produced by the mobility of a hydrogen atom, it might be
of real value; unfortunately the meaning of the word was tampered
with by Hantzsch and Hermann (Ber. 1887, 20, 2802), and, as an
inevitable consequence, it has become ambiguous, and has ceased to
be clearly significant.

Nearly all the cases to which the word ‘ tautomerism’ has been
misapplied in recent years are examples of isomerism pure and simple,
the only special feature being the fact that the isomerides can be
conyerted into one another with greater or less ease. It is therefore
very rarely necessary to use any other words than ‘ isomerism’ and
‘isomeric change’ to describe the phenomena. Isomeric compounds
which owe their lability to a mobile hydrogen atom might well be
distinguished as ‘ desmotropic ’ but for the ambiguity arising from the
ill-advised action of Hantzsch in attempting to extend the meaning of
this term. At the present time the least ambiguous phrase that can
be used to distinguish ethyl acefoacetate and its allies from the very
much larger group of substances which exhibit ‘ dynamic isomerism ’
or reversible isomeric change is to refer to them as examples of ‘ keto-
enol ’ isomerism, and in other cases to use some similar specific name,
describing the nature of the two compounds between which a condition
of equilibrium may exist.

Isomeric Halogen-derivatives of Camphor.

Another fruitful, though expensive, line of research has been opened
out during the year by applying the process of dynamic isomerism to
the preparation. of new halogen-derivatives of camphor. A new
isomeride has been prepared from a-chlorocamphor by acting on it
with alkali, in order to produce a condition of dynamic isomerism in
the liquid, and then arresting the isomeric change by the addition of
acid. On freezing the alcoholic solution, most of the original substance
erystallises out,.and the mother-liquor contains the isomeric a-chloro-
camphor. This melts at 117° (instead of 94°) and has [a],+41°
(instead of +970). As the new compound can be prepared readily
on a large scale, it promises to be of great value in studying the type
of dynamic isomerism in which a catalvtic agent must be added
deliberately in order to bring about a condition of equilibrium between
isomers. The whole series of compounds which is now under investi-
gation will provide valuable data for the study of dynamic isomerism
and rotatory dispersion, and for the elucidation of the crystallographic
structure of the camphor molecule.

The Committee asks for reappointment with a grant of £40. An
increased grant is asked for to cover the heavy cost of the organic
preparations referred to in the last section of the Report.

ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF AROMATIC NITROAMINES. 105

The Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and Allied
Substances, and its Relation to Substitution in Benzene
Derwatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor F. S. Krippina (Chairman), Professor K. J. P.
Orton (Secretary), Dr. S. RuHEMANN, and Dr. J. T.
HEWITT.

The Acetylation of Anilines by Acetic Anhydride in the presence of
Catalysts.

(With W. H. Gray, M.Sc.)

TuE accelerating action of catalysts on the interaction of acetic anhy-
dride and hydroxy- groups has long been known: it was first observed
by Franchimont' in the acetylation of cellulose, and was later noted
by numerous observers.?,_ That catalysts had a similar effect in the
action of acetic anhydride on the amino- group seems, however, to
have been overlooked until Smith and Orton* made the discovery that
negatively di-ortho- substituted anilines, such as s-tribromoaniline, can
be acetylated at great speed at the ordinary temperature in the presence
of sulphuric and other acids.

Such anilines are particularly suitable for such an investigation as
they react very slowly indeed with acetic anhydride at the ordinary
temperature, and at higher temperature mainly yield diacetyl deriva-
tives, Ar-NAc,; in the presence of a catalyst at low temperatures they
yield, on the other hand, the monoacetyl derivative. Anilines with
one ortho- position unoccupied form monoacetyl derivatives with such
extreme ease that the presence of an acid is of no advantage, but, on the
contrary, inhibits the reaction, most probably by forming stable salts
which do not react with acetic anhydride.

Such salts as sodium acetate have long been known as catalysts of
the acetylation of phenols. We have found that various salts have
a similar effect in the case of amines. Ferric salts are as pre-eminent
in this capacity as in the bromination of acetic anhydride and other
compounds, which we are investigating.

An early attempt (Smith and Orton, loc. cit.) to throw light on the
mechanism of such catalyses, using s-tribromophenol, demonstrated
that acids varied greatly in catalytic effect; that the change was a re-
action of the second order; that the speed was proportional to the
concentration of the catalyst.

To follow quantitatively the interaction of acetic anhydride and a
di-ortho negatively substituted aniline has proved a very difficult
matter. The small capacity for forming salts, which is an advantage
in following the effect of acid catalysis on acetylation, is a barrier to
the estimation of unchanged aniline by the diazo- method. Moreover,
the slowness with which the anilide is hydrolysed equally prevents
estimation of the extent of acetylation.

1 Compt. rend., 1879, 89, 711.

2 Skraup, Monatsh. 1898, 19, 458; Freyss, Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, 1899, 44;
J. Thiele, Ber. 1898, 81, 1249; O. Stillich, Ber. 1903, 36, 3115; 1905, 38, 124;
J. Boeseken, Recueil des Trav. Chim., 1911, $1, 350.

5 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1908. 98, 1243 ; 1909. 95, 1060.

106 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

A most excellent method has now been devised for determining the
amount of unchanged aniline. This consists in stopping the reaction
‘by adding anhydrous sodium acetate, equivalent to the acid catalyst,
followed by some excess of an acetic acid solution of nitric acid. The
aniline is rapidly and quantitatively converted into a nitroamine
(Ortont; W. H. Gray*). The nitroamine is completely extracted
from the diluted solution by shaking three times with chloroform, and
its quantity measured by titration of its alcoholic solution with baryta.
The composition of the system could also be checked by direct, estima-
tion of the remaining acetic anhydride by the method devised by Orton
and M. G. Edwards,* and amplified by Orton and Marian Jones.”
The amount of anhydride found at a given period of the reaction corre-
sponded well with that calculated from the initial concentration on
the assumption that the loss of anhydride was solely due to acetylation.
The accuracy and the refinements of this method of analysing the
system are mainly due to the exhaustive experiments of Mr. W. H.
Gray ® on the stability of nitric acid in acetic acid ‘solution and allied
problems. The error in the estimation of the nitroamine in an acetic
acid solution is not above + per cent., whilst the error in the determina-
tion of the aniline by conversion into nitroamine falls below 1 per cent.

The velocity coefficients for a reaction of the second order are re-

markably constant, in spite of the canteens and intricate analyses
by which they are obtained.

Illustrations of the results are given in the following table :—
Exp. A. Initial concentrations :—s- tribromoaniline, 0°04; acetic anhy-
dride 0°04 x 3°83; H,SO,=M/363°8. ~

Percentage aniline

Time from mixing. acetylated. Kn.
Min.

41 17-52 0-031

86 31:5 0-030

146 48-14 0:031

240 69-92 0-037

Exp. B. s-tribromoaniline, 0°02; acetic anhydride, 0°02 x 7:08;
H,SO,=M/363'8.

Min. .
66 38:19 0-053

157 69-65 0-069

283 90-05 0-064.

Exp. C. s-fribromoaniline, 0°02; acetic anhydride, 0:02 x 7:08;
11,80,=M/727°6.

Min.
40 17-25 0-032
87 28-55 0-026
142 40:3 0-025
240 61:3 0-028

Since in the presence of sulphuric acid the anhydride is immediately

4 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1902, 81, 490.
5 Thesis submitted to the University of Wales, 1914.
6 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1911, 99, 1181.
7 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1912, 101, 1716.
8 Loc. cit., and Analyst, 1912, 37, 303.

ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF AROMATIC NITROAMINES. 107

hydrolysed by water in the acetic acid medium, the initial concentration
was arrived at by deducting an amount equivalent to the water from
the anhydride used.

The experiments have led to some very interesting results :—

1. The reaction is of the second order; the value of the expression,
1 x
t ‘ (a—2)

2. The speed is approximately proportional to the concentration of
the catalyst when the concentrations of the aniline and anhydride are
kept constant.

3. A very remarkable effect was produced by variation of the
concentration of the aniline, when anhydride and catalyst are kept
constant. It would be expected that the speed of acetylation would fall
on decreasing the concentration of the aniline; on the contrary, how-
ever, the speed increases. A comparison of experiments A and B
shows that on halving the concentration of the aniline the speed is
roughly doubled. The most obvious explanation of the observation
is that the acid catalyst is partly combined with the aniline. Such a
balanced action would follow the equation of equilibrium :—

[Aniline] [H,SO,] = K [anilinium salt}.
[H,SO,]= K {anilinium salt]

[aniline ]

, is approximately halved by doubling the dilution.

Since the proportion of the acid, and therefore of the salt, is very
small in comparison with that of the aniline in these systems, the
concentration of the acid is roughly inversely proportional to that of
the aniline. The concentration of the free acid (or perhaps acid salt)
is the dominant factor in the reaction, and hence the effect (if there
be one) of the decrease of the aniline is completely concealed. This
suggestion 1s made more probable by the effect of simultaneous reduc-
tion of the concentration of both acid and aniline; the velocity of acety-
lation is scarcely changed (Exp. C). It appears, then, that the speed
of acetylation is independent (within certain limits) of the concentra-
tions of the acid and aniline, provided that these quantities remain in
the same ratio.

The action of the catalyst probably lies, as has been frequently
suggested, in producing an ‘ active modification’ of the acetic anhy-
dride, which alone reacts with the aniline. The evidence, so far as it
goes, points to the reaction of the anhydride and catalyst being momen-
tary, whilst that of the ‘ active ’ form and the aniline is a time reaction.
Too much stress cannot be put upon the fact that the reaction was of
the second order, for the excess of anhydride was considerable. The
combination of the acid with the aniline, moreover, obscures the issue,
and renders a decision difficult with an acid catalyst.

A complete account of this research will be published in one of
the usual chemical journals.

108 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE—1914.

The Study of Plant Enzymes, particularly with relation to
Oxidation.—Third Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. A. D. Hatut (Chairman), Dr. E. F. ARMSTRONG
(Secretary), Professor H. E. Armstronc, Professor F.
KEEBLE, and Dr. E. J. RUSSELL.

Work is being continued along the lines indicated in former reports.

The further investigation of the distribution of oxydases (per-
oxydase) in the flowers of Primula sinensis has led to the discovery
that in certain white-flowered races which breed true to whiteness
the peroxydase has a definite zonal distribution. Such white-flowered
races, when crossed with coloured forms, yield in the F, generation
a certain number of plants having flowers which exhibit a colour pattern
of a similar zonal character. Hence this pattern may be referred to
a lack of uniformity in distribution of the peroxydase constituent of
the colour-forming mechanism, not of the chromogen. This investiga-
tion has involved the study of a large number of plants of known
genetic constitution and of their progeny; it may be expected that
eventually it will throw light on the phenomena of flaking and colour
pattern in flowers.

Concurrently with the study of the distribution of oxydases in
plants, the occurrence of reductases has also been investigated, using
this term as a general expression for substances which exert a re-
ducing action. After many trials, partial success has been achieved
by the discovery of agents indicative of such compounds, and evidence
of the zonal distribution of reductases has been obtained.

A general summary of the bearing of chemical observations on
genetic constitution and the relation of enzymes to colour inheritance
in plants was given before the Linnean Society in March, when it
was particularly pointed out that, in life, interaction takes place
between substances in pairs, the one being oxidised and the other
reduced. Consequently the same interaction is often recorded whether
oxydase or reductase be indicated by the agent used. This conception
materially simplifies the study of the oxidative changes in plants.

The formation of red pigments from yellow flowers by reduction
and subsequent oxidation described in the last report has been further
studied during the year. To elucidate the precise nature of the change
by working with material of known structure, the experiments were
extended to quercetin, which has been reduced under a variety of
conditions. As a rule, colourless compounds are formed which become
red on exposure to the air or on the addition of hydrogen peroxide.
The problem has been investigated independently at Reading by
A. EK. Everest (‘The Production of Anthocyanins and Anthocyanidins,’
Proc. Roy. Society, 1914, 87 B. 144), who finds that the change from
yellow to red may be effected by reduction alone, and that reduction
takes place quite readily without the occurrence of hydrolysis. As
Willstatter has now directed his attention to the chemical structure
of the anthocyanic class of pigments, it is not proposed to continue
the research in this direction.

A study has been made of the rate at which various carbohydrate
solutions are able to decolourise methylene blue in alkaline solution,

ON THE STUDY OF PLANT ENZYMES. 109

as this method is of value in discriminating between glucose and
fructose (compare Muster and Woker, Pfliigers Archiv, 1913, 155, 92).
On adding a féw drops of methylene blue to a freshly prepared solution
containing one per cent. of the carbohydrate, together’ with half of one
per cent. of solution of sodium hydroxide, the blue color is almost
immediately discharged in presence of fructose, but only after a certain
interval—15 minutes—by glucose. After standing, the glucose solu-
tion acts much more rapidly, whereas the fructose is less active than
at first. Most probably the active agent is the enolic form common
to both sugars; as Lobry de Bruyn was the first to show, this is
formed from both by the action of alkali. |The possibility of the
formation of fructose from glucose and vice versa in this manner in
the plant must not be overlooked. The methylene blue test has been
applied to a number of carbohydrates, so as to compare their rela-
tive rates of enolisation. Indigo-blue solution, which changes from
green to red, and finally to yellow, as it is reduced, is an equally
sensitive agent. In all cases, agitation with air restores the colour;
the colour is not destroyed in faintly acid solution.

The behaviour of lipase has been further studied during the year.
It has been shown that synthesis takes place under the influence of
the enzyme to the greatest extent in the absence of all but traces
of water, and that the presence of even ‘a small proportion of water
greatly favours action in the reverse direction.!

In view of the presence of ammonia in the nodular growths appear-
ing on the roots of Leguminose, it appeared probable that
the enzyme urease would be found in these. It has been detected
in the nodules from Lupins and a number of other Leguminosae.
Attempts to detect the enzyme in organisms cultivated from the
nodules have thus far been attended with negative results.

Mr. Benjamin, working at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College,
near Sydney, Australia, has detected urease in nodules from several
Australian plants, including wattles; also on tubercles derived from
the Cycad Macrozamia spiralis. He has found urease also in the seeds
of Abrus precatorius.

Correlation of Crystalline Form with Molecular Structure.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. J. PoPr
(Chairman), Professor H. E. ARMsTRONG (Secretary), Mr.
W. BarLow and Professor W. P. WYNNE.

Tue following communications have been made to the Royal Society
during the year :—

Morphological Studies of Benzene Derivatives. WV. The Correlation
of Crystalline Form with Molecular Structure: A Verification of
the Barlow-Pope Conception of Valency-Volume. By Henry EF.

' Proc. Roy. Soc. 1914, Series B, ‘Studies on Enzyme Action,’ xxii., Lipase (iv.)
‘The Correlation of Hydrolytic and Synthetic Activity,’ by Henry E. Armstrong and
H. W. Gosney.

110 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

Armstronec, R. T. Coucats and E. H. Ropp. Proc. Roy, Soc.,
Series A, Vol. 90, pp. 111-173.

VI. Parasulphonic derivatives of Chloro-, Bromo-, Todo, and Cyano-
benzene. By C. 8. Mummery, B.Sc.

VII. The Correlation of the Forms of Crystals with their Molecular
Structure and Orientation in a Magnetic Field in the Case of Hydrated
Sulphonates of Dyad Metals. By Henry EH. Armstrona and EK. H.
Ropp.

In the first of these it is shown that the method of treatment
introduced by Barlow and Pope is applicable to a large number of
derivatives of benzenesulphochloride or bromide of the formula
C,H,R, . SO,Cl, R being an atom of halogen. When equivalence
parameters are calculated from the axial ratios and the valency volume,
in nearly thirty cases the values found of two of the parameters are
all but identical with those of the corresponding parameters of benzene,
the third parameter being increased by the same amount beyond the
benzene value by the introduction of the sulphonic radicle. Hence
it is to be supposed that the halogens have the same relative valency
volume as hydrogen in all the compounds considered. Numerous
other cases are quoted in support of the conception of valency introduced
by Barlow and Pope.

In the second communication data are given for various derivatives
of benzenesulphochloride containing but one atom of halogen. It is
shown fhat these fall into line with the di-derivatives.

In the third attention is called to crystallographic peculiarities
presented by substituted benzenesulphonates of dyad metals and a close
relationship to corresponding toluenemephonates is established. The
influence of water of crystallisation is considered.

Attention is specially directed also to the peculiar behaviour of
certain isomorphous salts of iron, cobalt and nickel in the magnetic
field. When suspended similarly in either of two axial directions,
corresponding isomorphous iron and cobalt salts always act along
crystallographic axes at right angles to each other. Nickel salts
behave like cobalt salts when suspended in the one axial direction,
like iron salts when suspended in the other. Apparently the difference
in the behaviour of the various salts is to be referred to magnetic
peculiarities in the metallic atoms.

Study of Solubility Phenomena.—Interim Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. E. ARMSTRONG (Chairman),
Dr. J. Varcas Eyre (Secretary), Dr. E. F. ARMSTRONG,
Professor A. Finpnay, Dr. T. M. Lowry, and Professor
‘W. J. POPE. Boxe

Mucu of the time since the ein of this Committee has been
devoted to setting up the required apparatus and getting it into working
order in a new laboratory. Materials have been purified and work
has been done to ascertain within what limits solubility determinations
were trustworthy under the new conditions.

————

ON THE STUDY OF SOLUBILITY PHENOMENA. 111

Preliminary trials have been made to ascertain the influence of
isomeric alcohols on the solubility of salts in water at 25°C. Small
differences have been observed in the precipitating effect of the butylic
alcohols, and work is now in progress to determine the variations in
solubility of the chlorides of potassium, sodium and ammonium brought
about by the addition of small quantities of the isomeric propylic,
butylic and amylic alcohols.

It is desired that the Committee be reappointed.

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles —Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. R. H. TippemMan (Chairman), Dr. A. R.
DWERRYHOUSE (Secretary), Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. F. W.
HapMer, Rev. S. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Mr, W.
Lower CARTER, Professor J. W. Souuas, and Messrs. W.
Hitt, J. W. StatuHer, and J. H. Mitton.

Tur Committee reports that owing, probably, to the early date of
the meeting no lists of erratics have been contributed during the year,
and in consequence no part of the grant has been expended.

The Committee seeks reappointment with a grant of dl.

The Preparation of a List of Characteristic Fossils.—Second
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor P.
F. KENDALL (Chairman), Mr. W. LOWER CARTER (Secretary),
Mr. H. A. ALLEN, Professor W. S. Bouuton, Professor G.
Cots, Dr. A. R. DwEeRRYHOUSE, Professors J. W. GREGORY,
Sir T. H. Hoxtuanp, G. A. Lepour, and §. H. REYNOLDs,
Dr. Mariz C. Stopes, Mr. Cosmo Jouns, Dr. J. E. Marr,
Dr. A. VAUGHAN, Professor W. W. Watts, Mr. H. Woops,
and Dr. A. SMITH WooDwaRD, appointed for the considera-
tion thereof.

No meeting of the Committee was held during the year, but numerous
suggestions for a list of fossils were received. From these a provisional
list was compiled by the Secretary, and uncorrected were printed and
circulated. This provisional list, when revised, will, it is hoped, form
the basis for the publication of an amended list of fossils next year.
The Committee ask for reappointment with a grant of £10.

Geology of Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire.—Final Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. A. SrRaHan (Chairman), Dr.
HERBERT H. THomas (Secretary), Mr. E. E. L. Drxon, Dr.
J. W. Evans, Mr. J. F. N. Green and Professor O. T. JoNES.

Tue Committee have to report that the grant made to them in 1913 to
aid Mr. J. Pringle in continuing his researches in the west of Pembroke-

112 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

shire has been spent. They have also to report that the detailed
mapping of the island has been completed. The examination of the
rocks and fossils which have been collected will be proceeded with.

For the purpose of description the island can be divided conveniently
into two areas—a northern area composed of Lingula Flags, Arenig
mudstones and shales, Lower Llanvirn, and the intrusive mass of Carn
Ysgubor; and a southern area of Lower Llanvirn shales with inter-
bedded tuffs and rhyolites, and a thick mass of intrusive quartz-
porphyry. To the latter area belongs the mass of rhyolitic and brecciated
tuffs of Carn Llundain.

Northern Area.

Lingula Flags.—The Lingula Flags consist of bluish-grey flaggy,
micaceous shales with ribs of hard grey close-grained sandstone, some
of which reach a thickness of two feet. They occupy the headland
of Trwyn Drain-du, and they extend eastwards to Bay Ogof Hén, while
on the eastern side of the island they form the cliffs from the north-
east corner to Road Uchaf. The Flags also occur in the headland to
the south of Abermawr. They are highly fossiliferous, and yield Lingu-
lella davisi in great abundance.

Arenig.—All the zones of the Arenig are present. The lowest beds
are bluish-grey sandy mudstones and shales with Ogygia selwyni, Orthis
proava, and O. menapi@. ‘They are confined to the north-east corner
of the island, and are faulted against the Lingula Flags. The mud-
stones are followed by bluish-black shales belonging to the Extensus
Zone, and are well displayed in the cliffs at Road Uchaf and Road Isaf.
Similar shales belonging to the Hirundo Zone are present in Abermawr.

Lower Llanvirn.—The base of the Lower Llanvirn is seen only in
the cliffs in Abermawr, where the shales of the Hirundo Zone are
succeeded by a thick series of hard dark- and light-coloured tuffs of fine
texture, which yield Didymograptus bifidus in their highest beds. The
tuffs are followed by fossiliferous blue-black shales, but their full
thickness is not seen in the northern area.

Intrusive Rocks.—Carn Ysgubor is formed of an intrusive mass of
quartz-albite-diabase, which has invaded the sediments of Lower Llan-
virn, Arenig, and Lingula Flags. A small intrusion occurs south of
Abermawr, where Lingula Flags are in contact with a quartz-kerato-
phyre.

Southern Area.

This area was described in the first report, in which it was shown to
be composed of D. bifidus shales which had been invaded by a thick
mass of quartz-porphyry. The shales, well displayed in the cliffs
of Porth Llauog and Foel Fawr, are highly fossiliferous, and a large
collection of graptolites has been made from them. They contain
layers of coarse agglomeratic tuff, and at Foel Fawr pass upwards
into thick beds of tuff which are conformably overlain by grey rhyolites.
The tuffs and conglomerate on Carn Llundain belong to the same period
of eruption.

ON GEOLOGY OF RAMSEY ISLAND, PEMBROKESHIRE. 113

The two points of interest, therefore, which were made the object
of mapping the island have been successfully solved. It has been found
that the so-called Tremadoc beds are Arenig sediments, and that they
do not pass downwards into the Lingula Flags, but are brought against
them by a fault; also that the rocks hitherto regarded as pre-Cambrian
belong to a period of igneous activity that occurred in Lower Llanvirn,
or even later, times.

It is hoped that the full description of the district will be completed
this year, and it is the present intention of Mr. J. Pringle to com-
municate the results of his investigations to the Geological Society of
London.

——— ——— SS

The Old Ked Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland.—Interim
Report of Committee, consisting of Professor GRENVILLE COLE
(Chairman), Professor T. JoHNSON (Secretary), Dr. J. W.
Evans, Dr. R. Kipston, and Dr. A. SMITH WooDWARD.,

Ow1ne to the early date at which this year’s Report is required, and
the absence of Professor Johnson at the Australian Meeting, it is im-
possible to utilise the funds available for field-work, which normally
is carried on during the long vacation.

Your Committee asks for its reappointment, and for the renewal of
the grant of 10]. not utilised in 1913-14, together with the unexpended
balance of 91. odd.

Two papers have been published during the past year: —T. Johnson:
1. Ginkgophyllum Kiltorkense sp. nov.; 2. Bothrodendron Kiltorkense
Haught. sp., its Stigmaria and Cone (‘ Sci. Proc., R. Dublin Society,’
vol. xiy.).

Stratigraphical Names.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. J. KE. Marr (Chatrman), Professor GRENVILLE
Cote, Mr. Bernard Hopson, Dr. J. Horne, Professor
Lepour, Dr. A. STRAHAN, Professor W. W. Watts, and
Dr. F. A. BatHer (Secretary), appointed to consider the pre-
paration of a List of Stratigraphical Names used in the British
Isles, in connection with the Lexicon of Stratigraphical
Names in course of preparation by the International Geological
Congress.

Ar its Meeting in Stockholm, 1910, the International Geological Con-
gress appointed a Committee to produce a ‘ Lexique international de
Stratigraphie.’ The convener of this International Committee is
Dr. Lukas Waagen, of Vienna, and the Secretary of the present Com-
mittee had the honour of being appointed representative of Great
Britain.

Before the Meeting of the International Geological Congress in
Toronto, 1918, various proposals were discussed by the members of

1914. I

114 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

the International Committee, and a provisional Report was laid before
the International Congress. Unfortunately neither Dr. Waagen nor
Dr. Bather were able to attend the Congress in Toronto, and up to the
date of writing they have received no official communication from the
officers of the Congress. It is, however, understood that the Congress
can grant no subyention to aid the work.

The situation, therefore, may be thus summarised:—The Inter-
national Congress has appointed a Committee to produce a laborious and
costly work of undoubted value to all interested in Geology and the
allied sciences. There are no funds for this purpose. The details
of the scheme, even if decided on at the Congress, are not yet known
to the present Committee of the Association.

Consequently your Committee has been unable to take any steps,
although some of its members have made note of stratigraphical names
observed in the course of their ordinary work, and are prepared to
continue this practice and eventually to place such material at the
disposal of the International Committee. Your Committee is, however,
well aware that the search for names must be conducted systematically,
and it considers that funds will be needed to pay searchers and com-
pilers. A grant is not asked for at present, merely because it is not yet
possible to draw up a plan of operations.

The fact that this Report will be presented to the Association when
meeting in Australia leads your Committee to point out that it has
been appointed to consider names used in the British Isles, and that
no provision has yet been made for the other constituents of the British
Empire. As regards India, indeed, the work has been accomplished by
Sir Thomas Holland and Mr, G. H. Tipper in their ‘ Indian Geological
Terminology.’+ But it is desirable that other Committees should be
formed, and the present occasion seems appropriate for the establish-
ment of one to deal with Australasia. Any such Committees would
communicate directly with Dr. L. Waagen (K.k. geolog. Reichsanstalt,
Wien).

Your Committee asks for its reappointment, for the present without
a grant.

Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the Western Midlands.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. Barrow (Chairman),
Mr. L. J. Witts (Secretary), Dr. J. HumpHreys, Mr. W.
CAMPBELL SMITH, Mr. D. M. 8. Watson, and Prof. W. W.
WATTS.

Tu1s Committee regrets that cwing to the early date at which the
report has to be submitted this year, very slight progress has been
made with the digging operations in Warwickshire and Worcestershire.
Some hundred and more specimens have been obtained from the
Arden Sandstone at Shelfield, near Alcester, and Hunt End, near

1 Mem. Geol. Surv, India, vol xliii., Part 1, 1913.

FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE WESTERN MIDLANDS. 115

Redditch, including the bones and teeth of Labyrinthodon, teeth of
Polyacrodus and Phebodus (?), plant remains, &c.

Permission has already been obtained to work in the famous Coton
End Quarry at Warwick, and arrangements made for further digging
at Shelfield should the grant be renewed. It is felt that the chief
difficulty is the discovery of productive fossiliferous horizons, and then
the arrangement for labour in scattered and often secluded localities.
The larger part of the money so far spent has been in travelling
expenses in this connection,

The Lower Paleozoic Rocks of England and Wales.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Prof. W. W. Warts (Chair-
man), Prof. W. G. FEARNSIDES (Secretary), Prof. W. 5.
Bourton, Mr. E. S. Copsonp, Mr. V. C. Innine, Dr. C. Lap-
worTH, and Dr. J. E. Marr, appointed to excavate Critical
Sections therein.

Nuneaton Area.—Mr. Y. C. Illing reports that during the winter of
1913-14 and the ensuing spring, systematic trenching was begun
across the outcrop of the Abbey Shale division of the Stockingford
Shales. By the kind permission of Mr. Phillips, of Ansley Hall, the
work was carried out in the Hartshill Hayes. A trench, thirty yards
long, two feet wide, and three feet deep, was made in the direction of
the dip of the shales, and cross trenches were cut along the strike
of nine of the beds richest in fossils. In some cases these latter
trenches were cut to a depth of ten feet. About thirty yards away,
in the direction of the strike, a second trench was cut across the out-
crop, and, in addition to the discovery of further types of fossils,
evidence was obtained of lateral changes in lithology. Some five
thousand specimens were obtained, chiefly of trilobites, ranging over
some fifty different species. These indicate a fauna corresponding to
that of the Upper Solva Beds and the Lower and Middle Menevian
Beds, i.e. the zones of Conocoryphe exsulans, Agnostus parvifrons,
Conocoryphe ‘equalis (?), and Paradoxides davidis, of Sweden, and the
zones of P. aurora, P. hicksti, and P. davidis, of South Wales. In
addition new links have been found between the fauna of this area
and that of the corresponding beds in Bohemia, three of the forms
being new to Britain. The fossils are being described and photo-
ened, and a paper on the subject will be presented to the Geological
ociety.

Comley Area, Shropshire.—Mr. E. S. Cobbold reports that exca-
‘vations have been begun in the Cambrian Rocks of the Comley area,
‘but no report of the results is yet possible.

The Committee asks for reappointment with a grant of 151., which
would include the unspent portion of this year’s grant.

116 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

The Upper Old Red Sandstone of Dura Den.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. J. Horne (Chairman), Dr.
T. J. JEHv (Secretary), Mr. H. Botron, Mr. A. W. R. Don,
Dr. J. S. Furrt, Dr. B. N. PeEacH, and Dr. A. SmitH Woop-
WARD, appointed to conduct the further exploration thereof ;
with a separate report by Dr. SmitH Woopwarp on the
Fish Remains.

Srvce the preliminary report was presented at the Birmingham
Meeting the excavations for fossil fishes at Dura Den have been com-
pleted and the ground has been levelled. The Committee desire
again to acknowledge the courtesy of Mr. Bayne-Meldrum, of
Balmungo, the proprietor, who gave great facilities for carrying out
the operations. They wish also to express their obligations to Mr. R.
Dunlop, from Dunfermline, who superintended the work on the spot
and who took a series of excellent photographs of the best specimens
of fossil fishes.

At the outset brief reference may be made to the geological struc-
ture of the ground near Dura Den. Strata of Upper Old Red Sand-
stone age underlie the long depression of the Howe of Fife, which
ranges westwards from St. Andrews Bay, between the slopes of the
Ochil Hills on the north and the heights of the Carboniferous
rocks with their intrusive masses on the south. The actual junction
with the Lower Old Red Sandstone volcanic series of the Ochils
is hidden everywhere by drift, but the line of contact is evidently an
unconformable one. For the sheets of andesite dip south-east
at angles of about 15°, and are overlapped at different horizons by
the more gently inclined members of the Upper Old Red Sandstone.

In Central Fife there is a conformable passage from the Upper Old
Red Sandstone into the Lower Carboniferous strata. But in Eastern
Fife the top of the Upper Old Red Sandstone is cut off by a fault
which crosses Dura Den in a north-easterly direction and brings down
the Carboniferous strata on the south-east side.

The ravine of Dura Den has been cut by the Ceres Burn since the
Ice Age. This rivulet is formed by the union of a number of smaller
streams which rise in the Carboniferous area of Fife. ‘The Den has
been excavated across the line of fracture and is about a mile and a
half in length (see Fig. 1).

Below the mouth of the Den the Ceres Burn enters the alluvial
plain of the Eden and joins that river about a mile above the village
of Dairsie. Dura Den is eroded in the Lower Carboniferous and Upper
Old Red Sandstone formations. For a distance of several hundred
yards the Upper Old Red Sandstone strata are laid bare in the channel
of the stream and in a range of picturesque cliffs on either side. The
section runs along the strike of nearly horizontal beds, so that only a
comparatively small thickness of rocks is exposed. These belong
to the upper part of the formation, but the actual top, as already

ON THE UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE OF DURA DEN. 117

- SITE OF
ES AXCAVATIONS,

0 ¥4, Yo % IMILE
2 SS eee

/ e qa
| Lower Carboniferous. U3 Lee oe
e
AO eee HUA Basalt and Dolerite.

— soe = Faults.

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Fig. 1.—Geological Sketch-map of the District surrounding Dura Den.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

118

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ON THE UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE OF DURA DEN. 119

indicated, is cut off by the fault, near which the Lower Carboniferous
‘strata are seen dipping at angles of 35° to 40° to the south-east. The
rocks consist of yellow, red, and greenish sandstones, with bands of
clay or marl, and are nearly horizontal. They are rather fine-grained,
somewhat fissile, and, in places, extremely false-bedded.

Remains of fishes in the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Fife were
first observed in 1831 at Drumdryan, near Cupar, by the Rev. John
Fleming. The scales detected by him were found to occur more
abundantly at Dura Den, a mile farther east, and entire fishes were
obtained there, preserved in the sandstone.

For years the Rev. Dr. Anderson worked at these beds and pub-
lished numerous papers descriptive of the region. The fish-remains
obtained from time to time at this famous locality were examined and
described by Agassiz, Huxley, and other investigators. The excava-
tions were carried on partly under the guidance of a Committee of
the British Association, which gave its first report in 1860.

The remains occur as carbonised impressions on the fine-grained
pale-yellow stone, and sometimes are to be found crowded together.
Sir A. Geikie has remarked that ‘ the Dura Den sandstone does not so
much mark a definite paleeontological subdivision as an exceptional
area where the organisms were rapidly killed and buried in great
numbers.’ ?

On the other hand, Dr. Traquair correlated the Dura Den fish fauna
with that of the highest subdivision of the Upper Old Red Sandstone
on the south side of the Moray Firth. Dr. Traquair’s list of fishes
found at Dura Den during the earlier excavations is given below :?

Bothriolepis hydrophila, Ag.
Phyllolepis concentrica, Ag.
Glyptopomus minor, Ag.
Glyptopomus kinnairdi, Hux).
Gyroptychius heddlei, Traq.
Holoptychius flemingi, Ag.
Phaneropleuron andersoni, Hux.

In the spring of 1912 the Dundee local Committee of the British
Association began excavations with the view of re-exposing the fish-bed
at Dura Den. The work was carried on under the supervision of
Mr. A. W. R. Don. The exact site of the previous diggings was un-
known, but, according to local tradition, many of the first specimens
had been obtained from the sandstone forming the bed of the stream
and from an excavation on the left side between the stream and the
mill-lade. After some trial explorations the fish-bed was eventually
struck, and part of the old workings was exposed. The latter lay
30 feet to the west of the stream, just opposite the north end of the
garden belonging to the house known as ‘ The Laurels,’ now in the oceu-
pation of Dr. Graham Campbell. A pit was opened from the base of
the old workings in the direction of the mill-lade, and the fish-bed
was found to lie at a depth of nine feet from the surface. Only a small

* ©The Geology of Eastern Fife’ (Mem. Geol. Surv.), 1902, p 59.
* <The Geology of Eastern Fife’ (Mem. Geol. Surv.), 1902, p. 58.

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

REPORTS

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ON THE UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE OF DURA DEN. 121

part of the fish-bed was then worked. A few good specimens were
obtained, and were on view when the locality was visited during one
of the excursions arranged in connection with the Geological Section of
the British Association Meeting at Dundee in 1912.

Work was resumed by our Committee on May 5, 1913, and pro-
ceeded more or less continuously to the end of August 19138. The
pit, opened in 1912, having been partly refilled, had to be cleared
again. As stated in the preliminary report issued last year, a definite
plan was followed in the excayations. The fish-bearing zone was un-
covered and removed in successive sections (fig. 3).

The sandstone layer, rich in fish-remains, is restricted to a zone
about two inches thick. It lies at an average depth of nine feet from
the surface, and is overlain by about four feet of comparatively barren
sandstone, capped by about four feet of loose superficial materials.
It was decided to work the fish-bed in the direction in which the fish-
remains appeared to be most abundant. As the operations extended
towards the mill-lade in the area marked A’ in fig. 3, the sandstone did
not yield fishes, as if the limit of the rich fish-bearing zone had been
reached in that direction. The arrangement was then made to carry
on the excavations towards the stream and just north of the face of the
old workings.

The finest specimens of fossil fishes and the largest number were
obtained in the middle section (area marked B in fig. 8) and in the
immediately adjoining parts of the other two sections (A and © in
fig. 3). The greater part of the area marked C in fig. 3 proved to be
somewhat disappointing, though one slab containing twenty specimens
was found there and a fine example of Phyllolepis quite close to the
stream. Good specimens, however, were scarce in section © outside
the limit of the rich fish-bearing zone. In the north-east corner of
it near the stream a sandstone layer with fragmentary fish-remains
was traced for a short distance.

It is worthy of note that large scales of H oloptychius were obtained
in the sandstone three feet above the fish-bed, and that fish-scales in a
fragmentary condition were found scattered throughout the sandstones
above that zone. No fish-scales were detected below that horizon,
although the excavations were continued downwards for nearly two
feet beneath that zone.

Fine examples of sun-cracks were seen in the sandstone at depths
varying from two to four inches below the fish-bed, and, at one
locality, one inch above that horizon. This feature is suggestive, and
probably points to desiccation as a cause of the death of the fishes
in a shoal at this locality.

In all forty-two slabs of stone with well-preserved fish-remains were
obtained. These were photographed by Mr. Dunlop, and the photo-
graphs were sent to Dr. Smith Woodward for determination. About
fifty fragmentary specimens were collected which were not photo-
graphed. The whole collection has been stored in an adjoining mill
under lock and key.

The expenses connected with these detailed investigations have
exceeded the British Association grant of 751. and the contribution of

122 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

121. from Mr. Bolton of the Bristol Museum. The Curator of Ichthy-
ology in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, has
offered a donation towards’ the expenses on condition that some of
the specimens be given to that Museum. The Committee have accepted
this offer.

On June 19 the Chairman, the Secretary, Dr. Smith Woodward,
and Mr. Dunlop visited Dura Den. Each specimen was then examined
by Dr. Smith Woodward, and a scheme of distributing the fish-remains
to various public institutions was adopted by the members of the
Committee who were then present. The distribution will be carried out
during this summer.

The report of Dr. Smith Woodward is appended :

Preliminary Report-on the Fossil Fishes from Dura Den.
By Dr. A. Smira Woopwarp.

The very large majority of the fishes found during the excavations
at» Dura Den are examples of Holoptychius flemingi, and most of
the slabs exhibif no other species, Specimens of Glyptopomus
kinnairdi, -Glyptopomus' minor, Phaneropleuron andersoni, and
Bothriolepis hydrophila occur-but rarely. All are nearly complete,
as usual, having keen suddenly buried; and it is probable that when
studied in detail the new collection will make some small additions to
our knowledge of the spéciés represented.

The only important novelty is a nearly complete specimen of
Phyllolepis, which shows for the first time the arrangement of the
dermal plates in this rare fish; and apparently determines its affinities.
The genus has already been recorded from Dura Den,’ but it is known
only by detached plates. The armoured portion of the fish is oval in
shape and depressed, so that the fossil is exposed from above or
below. The surface shown is covered chiefly with two large plates,
one behind the other, each irregularly hexagonal in shape and slightly
broader than long. The anterior plate 1s somewhat the smaller and
narrower; and the regularity of its concentric ridge-ornament is inter-
rupted by waviness in lines apparently of slime-canals which radiate
symmetrically from the centre to the periphery. The posterior plate
is ornamented exactly like the imperfect typical plate of Phillolepis
concentrica from Clashbennie.* Round the anterior plate are arranged
four pairs of small plates, which decrease in width forwards. Their
ridge-ornament is peculiar in being concentric only with two or three
of the margins of each plate and running out at right-angles to the
inner margin. The postero-lateral plate is long and narrow and much
the largest, extending along the posterior two-thirds of the anterior
median plate. The next plate forwards, also long and narrow, is
much less than half as large as the postero-lateral just described, and
the two pairs of anterior plates are comparatively small. This series
of plates on each side is continued behind by another still larger plate,
which flanks somewhat less than the anterior half of the posterior
median plate and ends postero-laterally in a produced angle or cornu.

° A, S.. Woodward, Catal. Foss. Fishes Brit. Mus.,.Pt; IT. (1891), p. 314.
4 L. Agassiz, Poiss. Foss. Vieux Grés Rouge (1844), p. 67, pl. xxiv. fig. 1.

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.} [Puate II,

»)

Fie. 4.—Phyllolepis concentrica, Ag.; ventral or dorsal aspect of dermal armour,
showing arrangement of plates, two-thirds natural size.

Illustrating the Report on the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Dura Den.

[To face page 122.

ON THE UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE OF DURA DEN. 123

The ornamental ridges here radiate chiefly from the posterior cornu and
the outer margin and are most widely spaced on the postero-internal
part of the plate. No vacuities are observable in any of the plates,
but all of the anterior pairs are crossed by slime-canals in continuation
of the radiating canals on the anterior median plate. The total
length of the fossil is 12.5 cm.

The ornamentation of the posterior median plate of the specimen
just described seems to justify its reference to the typical species,
Phyllolepis concentrica, already known by imperfect plates from
Clashbennie, Perthshire. It is also interesting to add that some of the
other plates agree well with specimens found in association with
P. concentrica in the Upper Devonian of Belgium.> The ornament of
the anterior median plate corresponds with that of the so-called
P. corneti,® while both the ornament and shape of some of the lateral
plates are essentially the same as those of the small plates named
Pentagonolepis." The plates forming the lateral cornua do not appear
to have been previously seen.

The whole fossil is most suggestive of the ventral aspect of the
curious Devonian Ostracoderms Drepanaspis* and Psammosteus.? It
agrees with Drepanaspis in showing two principal median plates one
behind the other, though in Phyllolepis they are more nearly equal
in size. It corresponds with Psammosteus in exhibiting a prominent
pair of lateral cornua at the hinder end of the series of small marginal
plates, opposite the middle of the posterior median plate. It differs
from both in lacking separate small tessellated plates. There is, there-
fore, not much doubt that Phyllolepis is a genus of Ostracoderms most
nearly allied to the Drepanaspide or Psammosteide.

Antarctic Whaling Industry.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. S. F. Harmer (Chairman), Dr. W. T. CALMAN
(Secretary), Dr. F. A. Baruser, Dr. W. S. Bruce, and Dr. P.
CHALMERS MITCHELL, appointed to provide assistance for
Major G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton’s Expedition to South
Georgia to investigate the position of the Antarctic Whaling
Industry.

By kind permission of the Trustees of the British Museum the Com-
mittee arranged for Mr. P. Stammwitz, a taxidermist employed at the
Natural History Museum, South Kensington, to accompany Major
Barrett-Hamilton to South Georgia; and the greater part of the grant

* M. Lohest, ‘Recherches sur les Poissons des Terrains Paléozoiques de
Belgique,’ Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg., vol. xv. (1888), Mém., pp. 155-167, pls. x., xi.

®° M. Lohest, loc. cit., p. 157, pl. x. fig. 6.

7 M. Lohest, loc. cit., P. 161, pl. xi. figs. 1-8.

‘R. H. Traquair, ‘Additional Note on Drepanaspis Gemiindenensis,
Schliiter, ’ Geol. Mag. [4] vol. ix. (1902), pp. 289-291.

7A. 8. Woodward, ‘On the Upper Devonian Ostracoderm, Psammosteus

taylori,’ Ann. ALag. Nat. Hist. [8] vol. viii. (1911), pp. 649-652, pl. ix.

124 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

placed at the disposal of the Committee has been expended in paying
his salary and in making certain preliminary payments. He sailed
with Major Barrett-Hamilton on October 6, 1913, and work was com-
menced at South Georgia immediately after their arrival on
November 10.

Early in the new year news was received that Major Barrett-
Hamilton had died suddenly at South Georgia on January 17, while
his inquiries were in full progress. ‘This unlooked-for event, which
the Committee record with profound sorrow, naturally altered the
entire prospects of the expedition. Mr. Stammwitz had no alternative
but to return at once, and after making arrangements for the despatch
of the specimens which had been collected, he took the first opportunity
of leaving South Georgia, bringing with him the notebooks containing
Major Barrett-Hamilton’s observations. At the request of the
Colonial Office, and with the approval of the Trustees of the British
Museum, these notebooks have been placed in the hands of Mr. Martin
A. C. Hinton for examination. It is hoped that the results of the
work which Major Barrett-Hamilton had done before his death will
thus not be entirely lost. The collections brought home comprise a
very valuable series of specimens—in particular, flippers, complete sets
of baleen, and other anatomical material from the blue whale, the
common rorqual, and the humpback whale. These specimens have
been presented to the Natural History Museum by Messrs. Chr.
Salvesen & Co., at whose whaling station they were obtained, and they
should be of service in helping to decide the much-debated question
whether these Antarctic whales are specifically identical with their
northern representatives.

A few birds were obtained at South Trinidad on the outward journey,
and a certain amount of dredging and shore-collecting was done at
South Georgia. The collection made includes marine invertebrates and
fishes, bird-skins, plants, and a few insects and rock-specimens. These
have been handed over to the Natural History Museum, where arrange-
ments are being made to have them determined, and if necessary reported
on, by specialists.

At the request of the Meteorological Office, Mr. Stammwitz took a
series of observations on sea-temperatures and ice-drift while at South
Georgia, and these are now being utilised by the Office.

The Committee wish to record their appreciation of the value of the
assistance which was given to the expedition by Mr. J. Innes Wilson,
Stipendiary Magistrate of South Georgia, Messrs. Chr. Salvesen & Co.,
and Mr. Henriksen, the manager of their Leith Harbour Whaling
Station, Messrs. Bryde & Dahl, the Ténsberg Whaling Company, and
other individuals and whaling companies connected with South Georgia.

The amount actually expended is less by 151. than the total (90I.)
allotted to the Committee, and it is not proposed to apply for this
balance.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 125

Belmullet Whaling Station.—Report of the Committee, consisting
: of Dr. A. E. Sureney (Chairman), Professor J. STANLEY
GARDINER (Secretary), Professor W. A. HERDMAN, Rey. W.
Sporswoop GREEN, Mr. EK. S. GoopricH, Professor H. W.
Marett Trims, and Mr. R. M. Barrineron, appointed to
investigate the Biological Problems incidental to the Belmullet
Whaling Station.

Tue Committee acting through Professor Herdman arranged with Mr.
J. Erik Hamilton and Mr. R. J. Daniel, two post-graduate research
students of the University of Liverpool, for the prosecution of their
researches in 19138. They proceeded to Belmullet on June 25 and Mr.
Hamilton remained until the end of the fishery. Mr. Daniel retired
from the investigations on August 26, having been appointed to a post
under the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. Mr. Hamilton’s Report
is appended.

The Committee desire to express their thanks to Mr. R. M.
Barrington for considerable financial assistance. They have been
enabled owing to his generosity to arrange with Mr. Hamilton for
the further prosecution of the work in 1914. They have now experi-
ence with three investigators—Mr. Lillie, Mr. Burfield, and Mr.
‘Hamilton—and they find that the annual expense is about 45]. They
attach great importance, both from the scientific and economic sides,
to the further continuation of these investigations, and beg to apply
for reappointment with a grant of 451. for the summer of 1915.

Report to the Committee by J. Ertk Hamiuron, B.Sc.

I.—Introduction.

In June 1913 Mr. R. J. Daniel and I proceeded to the Blacksod
Bay Whaling Station on Ardelly Point, Blacksod Bay, Co. Mayo,
Ireland, to continue the work carried on by Mr. S. T. Burfield, B.A.,
mm 1911.2

The flensing plane was clearly visible by telescope from the hotel,
and the whaling steamers are compelled to pass the Point whenever
they come in. In consequence no whale escaped notice, as might
otherwise have happened on account of the distance from the Station.

Our first whale was examined on the morning after our arrival,
i.e., on June 26, the last on September 9. As Mr. Daniel was
appointed to a post under the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, he
had to leave Blacksod on August 26 for his new duties. Consequently
the working up of the collections and the preparation of this Report
have been left in my hands.

T desire to express my heartiest thanks to Professor W. A. Herdman,

* British Association Report, 1912, p. 145.

126 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,—1914.

F.R.S., who has given advice and help of great value during the time
which was spent in his Laboratory in working up the materials obtained

To Captain Lorens Bruun and Mr. D. Bingham sincere thanks are
due from Mr. Daniel and myself for the way in which they assisted us
at the Station. We would also wish to mention that on many occasions
the men employed at the Station helped us in the most obliging manner.

Two steamers continue to be used, both fitted with wireless tele-
graphy, which is employed solely for communication between the boats.
As a result of the possession of this apparatus, if one boat finds whales
in numbers too great to be dealt with unaided, the other steamer may be
called up to assist in making the most of a fortunate find.

Burfield? has stated the disadvantages of work at a commercial
factory, and I wish to lay particular emphasis on the rarity with which
really fresh whales are brought in. It is exceptional for a whale to be
anything other than decomposing. Even in those sufficiently fresh to
be fit for food the carcase is quite hot in the deeper parts owing to
decomposition, while in the other cases carcases lying on the flensing
plane fizzle and splutter wherever a cut in the blubber permits the
internal gases to blow off.

Sperm Whales are particularly obnoxious, as they are brought from
considerable distances. They are frequently caught at Rockall, 240
miles away, and they smell strongly of cuttlefish. In two Sperm
Whales which we saw part of the intestine was blown out through
the back of the animal by pressure of gases produced by decomposition,
and from one specimen a great spout of blood and oil was projected
with considerable force over one of the investigators.

About thirty-eight Irishmen and fifteen Norwegians are employed
when work is in full swing. Of the Irishmen one is timekeeper and
another is second flenser, but all the other skilled workmen are
Norwegians.

The 1913 season was the best which the Blacksod Bay Whaling
Company has had up to the present. Sixty-four whales were brought
in. The whalemen state from their experience that in fine, calm
weather the whales go far out for food, and it is the case that during
the splendid weather of August very few were taken. But the largest
number of whales for a given number of days was brought in between
August 27 and September 9, when the weather was still fairly fine.
Nearly three thousand barrels of oil were shipped to Glasgow, to which
port all the produce of this Station is sent. There were also manu-
factured about fifteen hundred bags of guano.

All whale oils at present average 201. per ton (=54 barrels),
sperm oil and spermaceti having fallen considerably since 1911. The
oil is used for the manufacture of explosives, soap, &c., with the excep-
tion of the two sperm products. The oil of the Sperm Whale is used
for lubrication only, while spermaceti is largely utilised in the manu-
facture of church candles.

Whalebone from Balenoptera musculus and B. sibbaldii is now
651. per ton. The baleen of Megaptera is of very inferior quality,

7 Op. cit., p. 146.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 127

while B. borealis yields whalebone of considerably greater value,
although, since this is a small species, the plates are not of great
length.

The flesh of B. sibbaldii has an excellent flavour even when taken
from a large specimen. As it is full of oil it must be soaked in salt
water and vinegar for several hours before being used. If this pre-
caution is observed, it is almost impossible to distinguish whale-meat
from good quality of beef-steak. The flesh for food is generally cut
from the lateral post-anal region. On the Japanese Stations the
entire carcases of the whales taken are, or used to be, sold on the
market for food, it being more profitable to dispose of the animals in
this manner than to boil them down for oil and guano. In Norway
also a considerable amount of whale-meat is utilised by butchers. It
is usually salted as soon as the whales are flensed, and is seldom
placed on the market in the fresh condition. On account of the
extreme rapidity with which whales decompose very few of the
Blacksod Company’s whales could be used as food.

The attempts to recover the glue from the water resulting from
the various cooking processes applied to blubber, meat, &c., have
failed, The reason for the failure lies in the amount of steam which
is required to evaporate down the solution. This steam comsumption
necessitates the use of so much coal that the expenditure is not
covered by the price received for the glue which results from the
process of evaporation.

In whale-hunting the shot which is generally attempted is aimed at
a point behind the pectoral fin, as the animal here presents a large
target, and the cast-iron harpoon head, with its charge of blasting-
powder, is most likely to prove fatal when exploded in the thoracic
cavity. The shot, as a matter of fact, which explodes beside the
vertebral column in an anterior position is the most fatal. When this
happens the whale dies instantaneously. On the other hand, the
harpoon may fail to explode. In this case nothing can be done at the
moment except to let the harpoon line run out. The whale may
rush along the surface or descend almost vertically. If a surface run
is made the engines are put at full speed ahead in order to avoid
straining the harpoon rope, which is three-inch manilla cable. When
the whale dives down there is serious risk of the rope snapping.
One such case occurred to our knowledge during the 1913 season.
Only a few fathoms of cable were lost on this occasion, but at other
times whales have been known to take out the whole of the three or
four hundred fathoms attached to the harpoon, and then to break
the line at the bow of the boat. The whale is very much exhausted
after a deep dive such as this, and when it returns to the surface
another harpoon is fired into it, which almost invariably proves fatal.
Even if the rope is broken the animal is usually so fatigued that
it is readily approached and secured. We were informed by a very
experienced Norwegian whaler that it has happened that a steamer,
having become fast to a wounded whale, has ‘ played * it for as much
as thirty hours before the cowp de grace could be delivered.

128 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—-1914.

II.—Numbers and Species taken at the Blacksod Bay Station in 1913.

The number of whales taken in the 1913 season was sixty-four,
as has been stated. Of these fifteen were brought in previous to our
arrival; we therefore examined forty-nine. Five species came under
our notice, in the following numbers :—

Finners (Balenoptera musculus, LL.) . . «© »« «© « |. 387
Blue Whales (B. sibbaldti, Gray) . - . «© «© «© «© « 4
Sejhval (B. borealis, Lesson) . . sot, et Ae eras Gee
Humpback (Megaptera longimana, Rud. Dito: | See eet ea oe aE
Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus,L.). . . . . «. 6

Of the fifteen taken before June 26, eleven were Finners and
four Sperm Whales.

ILI.—Measurements and Proportions.
(See Tables at the end of this Report.)

In continuing the series of measurements adopted by Burfield,
who followed True,* we found that in some cases it was not easy to
determine the points from which measurements were taken, within
six inches or a foot. We therefore fixed on a series of standards
which enabled us to make measurements from corresponding points
on every whale. These points I attempt to define as follows :—

(1) Total length. Taken between a position opposite the end of
the upper jaw to a point opposite the notch between the flukes, in
a straight line. When, as in the case of our first two whales, and
in the cases of those taken before our arrival, we obtained the Norwegian
measurements, two points had to be observed: (a) that Norwegian
feet are equal to 12} English inches; (b) that the Norwegians measured
to the tip of the lower jaw, which projects beyond the rostrum, and
therefore an allowance must be made for this in reducing to “ total
length’ according to our standard. THighteen inches was the allow-
ance made, and this was probably erring on the side of taking off
too little rather than too much.

(2) Tip of snout to anterior end of the groove between the spiracles.
This line is quite sharply marked.

(3) Tip of snout to posterior insertion of pectoral fin, This
measurement and the next were taken on the dorsal side of the animal.

(4) Tip of snout to posterior imsertion of dorsal fin. This fin
slopes away behind as well as in front. The ‘ posterior insertion ’
was therefore found in the following manner—a line being dropped
from the apex of the dorsal fin, at right angles to the body, the
point where it cut the outline of the body was taken as the posterior
insertion of the dorsal fin. Apart from this method I do not think
that any point of equal value in every specimen could have been
found.

(5) Tip of snout to centre of eye.

(6) Centre of eye to anterior end of auditory slit.

(7) Notch of flukes to posterior end of anus.

(8) Notch of flukes to anterior margin of umbilicus, which was
the most definite border of that area.

3 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. xxx.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 129

Measurements of the Pectoral Fin.

(9) Length of anterior border. There is an eminence at the anterior,
proximal end of the pectoral fin. Immediately anterior to this is a
slight depression. The eminence marks approximately the position
of the head of the humerus. Our measurement was taken from the
tip of the flipper, along the anterior margin, to the centre of the
eminence.

(10) The posterior length was taken from the tip, along the
margin, to the axilla. This measurement was not easy to take, as
the flipper was almost always directed backwards and the axilla
compressed. When this was the case the exact point of proximal
measurement had to be found by judgment, as the size of the limb
and the rigidity of the muscles attached to it entirely prevented any
attempt at altering the attitude of the fin.

(11) The median length was taken from the tip in a straight line,
down the centre of the flipper, to a point on a line drawn through
the axilla in such a manner as to carry on the outline of the body.
In taking this measurement the idea was to estimate the extent to
which the limb projects from the body.

(12) The greatest breadth of the pectoral fin was generally found
to be about half-way between the tip and the insertion.

(13) The length of the dorsal fin was taken from the posterior
insertion as defined above, and the anterior insertion, which could
usually be found with moderate accuracy. This measurement cannot
be regarded as more than approximate.

The flukes had been cut off every whale before it was towed in, but
on B. musculus (No. 19) the right fluke had not been completely
severed. Measurement gave 7 ft. 5 in. as the distance between tip
of fluke and caudal notch. The spread of the flukes was therefore
14 ft, 10 in.

Total Length.

The following table shows the averages of total length of the five
species taken, and a more detailed analysis of the total measurements
of the Finners at different stages. I have taken as the minima for
adult males and females the dimensions adopted by Burfield,+ who
followed True :—

Finners (B. musculus, L.)

Ft. in.

Average length of all finners CO) RENT bar arian ote OO) Lr 9
Pi 4 », females (17) - : . ; ee GO, A 7

- oh > males (20) F A F i 3. 59e 10

co . », adult females (12) : ; : : . 64 O
Maximum for females. 4 4 5 5 5 ; . . 69 8
Minimum for females f A - ; ‘ A é , = (48 87
Average for adult males (16) . ‘ 6 4 5 , ; . 60 8
Maximum for males . 3 : : ar Pe ee ee . 66 O
Minimum for males... ae eee A 4 ieee A oe!

* Op. cit., p. 160.
1914. K

130 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

It may be useful to compare these results with those of Burfield,
who gives similar statistics for the year 1911:—

1911. 1913.

Ft. in Ft. in

Average for all specimens (63)! ee > 630) SAS apeaO iar S
rd » females (81) 60)... GLB aC

Ls » males (25) . : s HOt eD (20) 59 +O

= » mature females (20) . : «| M64 as (12) 64 0

Spi oe oe , tales (3)... . 63 2 16) coum
Maximum females ; : A F : Pee 72k be) 69 8
3 males . ; : ie - 2 6S eo 66 0
Minimum females . : d . ‘ «Oa eee 48 7
5 males . : 53.8 46 7

As all the figures for 1913 are epic smaller than the corre-
sponding figures of Burfield for 1911, it suggests the probability that
the larger whales are being killed off, although it would be useful
to have the figures for other years in ‘order to. verify the diminution
in size which appears to be taking place.

Blue Whales (B. sibbaldiit, Gray).
All the Blue Whales taken in the 1913 season were brought in
during our stay :—

Ft. in

July WOltemale..ter? Jee 1 teemee ey f> Vs, Stee
Aug 18s" 7, bse ehh oP sh MT re Sy Seyler eee
SIO: htt Asse oe? bas ahi iseaes als. [Ne dp ee ae
Sept. 9, , : . : : : eG 3 ; : 3 ~~ 68 0

Comparing these also with Burfield’s figures * for the same species
we have:—

1911 1913.
Ft. in Ft. in
Average forallfemales (4) . . . . . 75 4 (4) 71 3
Maximum for females . 3 ‘ 2 . 34 0 78
Minimum for females . ‘ : ‘ 7-64. 76 68 0

True gives 72 ft. as the minimum for mature females, but our
second specimen (70 ft. 7 in.) had a feetus 8 ft. long, and was
therefore an adult animal. (True’s figure was based upon two speci-
mens only.)

Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus, L.).

Ten Sperm Whales were taken in 1913; of these six were taken
after our arrival, and all the specimens were males.

Ft. in.

Average of all Sperm Whales oP males: 2:2L-3/) (65) £1e0e) Vos

Maximum, Sperm Whales. aS a zeae AOL

Minimum * 35 ; ; Fs : E ‘i i 5.) Onn
Sejhval (Balenoptera borealis, Lesson).

One specimen only taken in 1913,female . . . . 46ft. Tin

Humpback (Megaptera ae Rud.).
Only specimen taken, male . . . . . 45ft. 8in.
5 Op. cit., Table IV., p. 161.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 131

IV.—General Observations on the Various Species.

1. Finners (B. musculus, Gray).

(a) Colowration.—Noné of the specimens of the Finner examined
by us presented any remarkable colour variations. On very many
animals white marks occurred in the pigmented areas, as noted by
Burfiéld.* Some of these seemed to be the scars left after Penella has
dropped off. In many cases we found the sores which had been
produced by the parasite, although the latter was not present. These
sores presented the same appearance as the wounds in which the
parasites were still fixed.

Notes on individual specimens :—

No. 10.—There were a few white patches on the tongue, which
may have been the result of lesions, cr due to mere absence of
pigment.

No. 11.—A pale, grey line, about three-eighths of an inch broad,
but gradually widening, ran from the ear aperture upwards and
backwards to a point level with the anterior margin of the pectoral fin,
and about 9 in. above the level of the ear-hole. From here onwards
it broadened out and swept round in a semicircle to the anterior
margin of the pectoral. On the top of the head there was a triangular
grey patch, having as apices the angle of the jaw, the nape at the
level of the pectoral, and a point about half-way down the margin
of the rostrum.

No. 19.—The foetus of No. 19, 15 ft. in length, displayed the same
areas of colouration on the head as an adult. The dark colour of the
body was defined in front by the same line sweeping back from the eye,
through the ear, and down to the pectoral, while dorsally it was
limited by another line curving backwards, and dorsally, from the
eye.

No 24.—The black colour extended in flecks from the left as far
as the mid-ventral line, in the region of the ventral furrows.

No. 29.—The belly had a yellow tinge, but, as the animal was
very decomposed, this was probably not the case during life, as, when
they have been dead for some time, whales become very discoloured.
There were streaks of black on the left side of the belly.

There is always a certain amount of pigment in the more lateral
and posterior furrows. In Nos. 41 and 42 this was specially well
developed, extending almost to the mid-ventral line from the left
side. The furrow region of No. 42 had also a number of pale purple
staims in its pure white. These were due to the presence of blood
in the cutaneous vessels, which appeared to be gorged. They
resembled bruises, but the epidermis was undamaged. This whale
displayed a few of the ‘galvanised-iron’ markings which are charac-
teristic of the Blue Whale. These were in the post-anal region.
Tt had also several incised wounds in the belly, about 8 in. long,
partly healed, but stillraw. No. 45 had a large island of black pigment
on the posterior furrow region of the left side.

132 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

There are frequently extensive white patches on the dark area,
caused by the chafing of the whale against the side of the steamer
as it is being towed in. These, however, are easily distinguished from
the naturally unpigmented areas.

(b) Ventral Furrows.—In the Finner the number of pectoral furrows
is exceedingly variable. We found a maximum of eighty-four, and a
minimum of fifty-four. In nearly half of the cases a median furrow
could be distinguished, the presence of which appears to have escaped
notice up to the present. The number was estimated by finding the
median furrow, and counting all those between it and the pectoral
fin of the side which happened to lie uppermost. As the fin is
approached the furrows become less marked, and it is not easy to
discern the furrow nearest the fin. The skin in the axillary region
is much folded longitudinally, which further complicates matters.
By doubling the number of furrows thus counted and adding the
unpaired median an estimate of the total number was made. The
furrows in the smallest foetus (3 ft. 11 in.) were represented by
mere lines, and could not be counted with accuracy. The folds of
twenty-seven specimens were counted, of which twelve had no dis-
tinguishable median furrow. The average depth of these furrows
was about ‘68 in. (deduced from eight measurements), and the average
horizontal distance between points above the middle lines of the same
number of furrows was 1°85 in., varying from 1°37 in. to 1:96 in. These
measurements were taken from a portion of blubber lying on the
plane and not stretched in any way.

Tt is essential that the counting should always be made in the
same position, as some of the folds do not run the whole length of
the furrowed area. There does, however, appear to be a certain
amount of uniformity in the folding, the shorter folds corresponding
with each other in different whales, if not with absolute accuracy, at
any rate nearly so.

(c) Tongue.-—The colour of the tongue as a whole is dark §rey,
but the area which is the morphological upper surface, which is
distinguishable from the morphological lower surface, shades off into
pink towards the ‘ tip.’

2. Blue Whales (B. sibbaldii, Gray).

Colouration.—The only point to which I wish to draw attention is
that there are some curious markings on the skin, especially ven-
trally, but not confined to that aspect. These markings take the form
of curved, darker and lighter lines radiating from a common centre.
The area of such markings is about 8 in. long and 4 in. wide. Where
there is a number of markings crowded together, the appearance of
the skin forcibly reminds one of the pattern produced on the surface
of ‘ galvanised iron.” These markings occur in considerable abundance
on large areas of the skin.

3. Sejhval (B. borealis, Lesson).

Exlernal Characters.—The solitary example of this species taken
was a female. Although a small species (this specimen was only

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 133

46 ft. 7 in. long) it has a robust figure, and the dorsal fin is of great
height as compared with that of the Finner. This specimen had been
lying at the buoy from Thursday afternoon until it was hauled up
on Saturday morning, and was therefore considerably decomposed.
The dorsal surface was dark grey, as was also the post-anal area of
the ventral surface. The pre-anal region was for the most part of
white colour, asymmetrically arranged. There was a considerable
amount of black blotching towards the left side of this area, and on
this side the white area was continued backwards in a large patch.
There was no white patch corresponding with this on the right side.
The symphysis was pigmented, and here there was a whorled design
similar to that on the skin of the Blue Whale as described above.
The upper lips and the lower side of the anterior end of the rostrum
were nearly black, and were finely tuberculated. The inner (palmar)
surface of the pectoral fins was pale, streaky, greenish grey, with
black streaks intermingling with the less dark flecks. The right side
was a dark grey, nearly black. This may have been due to the fact
that the right side had been more exposed to the sun than the left side
as the animal lay at the buoy.

The ear aperture was small. The tongue presented an area which
could be more readily recognised as the dorsal surface than in the
case of the Finners. '

4. Humpback (Megaptera longimana, Rud.).

Katernal Characters.—The form of the single specimen taken was
robust, reminding one somewhat of the figure of the Sperm Whale.
The dorsal fin was placed far back and was much falcated, and of
moderate height. The colour was slate-chocolate, but very dark,
almost black. Pure white, splashed, ring-like marks occurred on the
lower jaw and on the dorsal side of the pectoral fin. The outer sides
of the right mandible and of the right upper jaw were white, but
on the left only the inner sides were unpigmented. The ventral
surface of the flukes was white. The ventral folds were few in
number (23), and wide; running up the centre of each groove was
a low ridge about °375 in. high, of triangular section. The folds
were about 4 in. wide and 5 in. apart. The median fold, with the
next on each side, also the fold next the right pectoral fin, were mere
narrow grooves.

There was a deep groove running from the angle of the jaw
downwards and backwards to a point about one-third of the width
of the pectoral fin from its anterior margin. Another groove ran
from a point a little above and in advance of the termination of this
groove to a point somewhat behind the posterior margin of the
pectoral, and a little above it. Unlike the small external auditory
aperture of the Balenopterids the opening in this specimen was
8 in. long. The upper surface of the snout had the characteristic
knobs of the species. In the mid-dorsal line there were five, the
first being 11 in. from the tip of the snout, and the last 13} in. from the
spiracle. The spaces between the knobs, running from the snout, were
103, 18, 123, 234 in. respectively. There were also two series of

134 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

lateral knobs, following the margins of the rostrum, nine on each side
in a consecutive row. Inside these rows, at their posterior ends,
was a second series of four knobs on each side. The knobs of the
inner, short row were set beside those of the outer row, forming
pairs with them. But the two sides were not symmetrical. Thus,
if the knobs of the outer row are numbered 1 to 9 from before back-
wards, on the left side 7, 8, and 9 were paired, and there was a
single knob of the inner row behind the termination of the outer
series. On the right side 6, 7, 8, and 9 were paired, and
there was no unpaired knob posteriorly. Several of the left-side
knobs had a hair on the summit, which suggests that the knobs may
be overgrown hair-papille, and their arrangement does correspond
fairly closely with the arrangement of the hairs of Balenoptera. On
the symphysis there were four knobs on the right side and five on
the left. In each case there was a vertical row of three. The knobs
varied in size, a large one being 2 in. high and 4 in. across the base.

The eye appears to be rather more movable than in Balenoptera.
The pectoral fin has an exceedingly irregular posterior margin. There
were seven conspicuous elevations on it, varying in length from
10 to 27 in.

5. Sperm Whale (P. macrocephalus, L.).

(a) Haternal Characters.—Six specimens were examined. The
general body-colour is pale greyish chocolate, rather more lead-like
ventrally. Between the genital aperture and the umbilicus there is
a splashed chevron-shaped mark of a pale grey colour. The apex
is on the umbilicus, and directed forwards, the ‘ arms’ being about
4 ft. apart at the tips. There are also irregular grey flecks all
over the ventral surface. In some specimens the front of the head
is barred horizontally with streaks which are almost white in colour.
They are broadest in the middle and taper towards the ends. The
whole of the head, and in particular the anterior, ventral, and lateral
areas, have numerous weals and sucker marks which have been pro-
duced by the arms and suckers of the cuttlefish, which are the main
food of this species. As might be expected from the fact that the
suckers of many of the molluscs are armed with chitinous teeth, the
sucker marks take the form of rings of minute pricks. One such
mark was 34 in. across. The fifth Sperm Whale had a large patch
of pure white on the umbilicus, and an extensive array of grey
streaks on the left side, in addition to the grey chevron.

(b) Spiracle.—In every case the left spiracle alone was functional.
On the right side, however, afterthe blubber has been removed, there is
a compressed cavity, approximately oval in shape, about 18 in. long
and 10 in. wide, in the position corresponding with that of the obliterated
right spiracle. The lining of this cavity is heavily pigmented with
the same colour as the outer surface of the animal. There can be
no doubt that this is the vestige of the right spiracle, although no
passage was observed running backwards from it in the direction of
the pharynx.

(c) Mouth.—The palate and floor of the mouth have a general
pale grey colour and have a large number of small grooves, about

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 135

an inch in length, running longitudinally. On the palate of the first
Sperm Whale there were two large dark blotches. That on the left
was about 8 in. long, that on the right 11 in.

(d) Tongue.—The tongue of Physeter affords a striking contrast
to that of a Mystacocete. It is an exceedingly hard, strong structure
of comparatively small size, and very nearly occludes the throat as the
animal lies on the plane with the jaw gaping open. The tongue
stands up from the jaw to a height of about 2 ft., and, as viewed
from the front, presents a smooth, round wall, like the side of a
section of wide tubing. The upper surface is wrinkled, and in front is
produced into a small projection, which appears to correspond with the
tip of the normal mammalian tongue. From its structure the tongue
would appear to be of use in preventing the ingress of water during
respiration, but in the dead animal, at any rate, this very fact of its
nearly closing the throat: gives the impression that the organ would be a
hindrance to the swallowing of large prey. That this cannot be the
case, however, is apparent from the size of the cuttlefish which we
found in the stomach of one specimen, as described in Section V.

(e) Teeth—Teeth occur in both jaws. Only those of the lower
jaw can, however, be of much practical value in the capture of food,
as the upper-jaw teeth are of small size, and often nearly covered
with soft tissue. The lower-jaw teeth are about twenty in number
on each side, and are arranged in pairs, but the two teeth of each
pair are not exactly opposite to one another.

Actual numbers of teeth in the different Sperm Whales examined :—

Number 15. . left side 21 right side 23
35 16" Sades 2 19 * 19
& 21 Z : a 20 plus 2 SG 21 plus 1
Sane Ae LPS :. eer
3 De. (ah: - 24 ae Riis
Pa ee Ms 20 + 21

The two most anterior teeth of each side project somewhat for-
ward, but the majority of the teeth are nearly vertical, being some-
what recurved in most cases and having a slight inclination outward.
The acuteness of the point is very variable, but this may be merely due
to differences in age of the animals. One tooth was seen which
had been broken off, but the stump did not appear to be at all decayed.
In the palate there is a hollow corresponding with each tooth of the
lower jaw, into which the latter fits when the mouth is shut.

The upper-jaw teeth are small, inclining backwards, and deeply
embedded in soft tissue, but they do have some little use, as is
demonstrated by the fact that in many cases they are much worn
down by contact with the lower-jaw teeth. The most posterior of
the latter are also very small, and of little use, occurring very far
back. There were no teeth in the upper jaw of Nos. 16 and 26.

Teeth in upper jaw—

Nomberlhy <9. . ., .. leftiside 5 right side 7
Pena MIR Ol, » oO » 0
os 21 8 a5 7
” 22 — 22 ps
7? 25 > 7 27 7
29 26 ”? 0 7 0

136 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

(f) Dorsal Fin.—The dorsal fin of the Sperm Whale consists of
a prominent elevation, which rises to a height of from 14 to 18 in.
above the line of the back. The fin is succeeded by a series of about
six much smaller prominences which decrease in size towards the
tail. None of these at all approaches the altitude of the dorsal fin.
They are, nevertheless, quite obvious. On the ventral surface the
keel of the caudal region is continued forwards towards the anus as
a much more definite ridge than in the Balenopterids.

(g) Flipper.—The shape of the flipper is somewhat variable. In
No. 21 the left pectoral appeared to have been damaged at some
period, as there was a large notch on the preaxial side of the tip.

(h) Spermaceti.—In every specimen the quantity of this substance
was large, usually constituting about one-third of the total oil yield
of a whale of this species. It occurs all over the body as well as in
the head, but no attention is paid to it except in the head, the rest
merely contributing to the general production of ‘sperm oil.’ In
the head there are three extensive cavities, an anterior single cavity
and two lateral cavities. They all occur in the interior of a huge
mass of exceedingly dense, fibrous connective tissue, which, when
drained of spermaceti, is of a snowy whiteness. This mass con-
stitutes the great bulk of the head, and rests upon the large cup-
like structure formed by the bones of the rostrum. The cavities
do not appear to possess definite linings, and when the oil runs out,
masses of light, spongy tissue filled with the liquid fat run out also,
as if they had been loosely attached to the walls of the cavity. They
are probably liberated by the instruments introduced through the wall
of the cavity in the process of tapping the spermaceti.

The following is the method of tapping. After the whale is flensed,
the body is cut off from the head, which is left lying on its side.
The whole head is covered by a thick coat of mixed muscle and
tendon running longitudinally. The tendons are conspicuous, and
may be removed in considerable lengths with little difficulty. The
cutting of the hole in this capsule is an arduous work, and may
occupy nearly an hour. A mid-dorsal and an anterior aperture are
made, and when the cavities have been penetrated, the spermaceti
runs out as if from a pipe. A movable wooden gutter is placed beneath
the hole, by means of which the oil is run into the two open boilers,
in which it is cooked.

Spermaceti is an almost colourless, transparent liquid, having a
pale yellow tinge. It has not any noticeable odour, and the flavour
is very faintly fishy, resembling that of a fresh duck ege. After
boiling, the oil has a dark yellow colour while liquid. When cold,
both before and after boiling, it sets stiff, but is not hard, the con-
sistency being about that of lard. The uses of this oil have been
indicated in the Introduction.

From the position of the spermaceti, and also of the blow-hole in
Physeter, the following function of the former may be suggested: The
food of the Sperm Whale is, in the main, composed of cuttlefish
such as Architeuthis. As these forms are bathypelagic, it follows
that the whales must descend to considerable depths to feed, and

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 137

remain submerged while feeding.? A very rapid ascent would be
exceedingly advantageous after a prolonged immersion, and the more
rapid the ascent which could be made the longer the immersion could
be continued. In order to be able to ascend as speedily as possible,
it would be of the greatest advantage to possess a large mass of some
material, having a lower specific gravity than that of water, which
would act as a float, and such a material spermaceti is. Moreover,
as the mass of the spermaceti is placed in the head, and as it is of
enormous size, even compared with the great mass of a Sperm Whale,
the animal will always ascend head first, and probably nearly verti-
cally, with the result that the first portion of the body to come
above the surface will be the upper edge of the snout, the precise
situation of the spiracle. It would appear, if this suggestion be
correct, that in order to descend and to maintain a submerged con-
dition, muscular exertion is necessary, whereas ascent is automatic,
and is merely accelerated by swimming movements. These two
points are in keeping with the habits of the whale as indicated above.
Tt is possible that the astounding feat which has been credited to
Physeter, that of hurling itself bodily out of the water, is really the
result of a hurried ascent from a considerable depth, which has been
so rapid that the animal has shot out of the water on reaching the
surface.

V.—Food of Different Species of Whale.

The stomachs of all the species of Mystacocetes examined con-
tained the remains of Meganyctiphanes norvegica (M. Sars), some-
times in immense quantities. Nothing else was ever seen, except
some fragments of flesh on one occasion, but there can be little doubt
that these had been driven into the stomach by the explosion of the
harpoon. No fish of any sort were seen in the stomachs of any of
these whales.®

The stomachs of the Sperm Whales invariably contained large
quantities of cuttlefish beaks, which might be readily divided into
large and small sizes, but, apart from size, there was nothing to
differentiate the two series of beaks (fig. 1). A practically complete
specimen of one of the molluscs was found in the stomach of No. 22
(the fourth Sperm Whale). The following measurements were taken
on this animal :—

Ft. in.
Meneth ofthe mantle! rs os.) 6 8 st a mt oe 2 2 6- 0
Circumference of mantle. . . . . . . . . 4 #0
Length of the eight shortarms . . . . . . . 6 O
“ qed HOME ClES fet 0 et ee tLe rt oer Made Olt 1 O
Length of tail . ‘ : ‘ ‘ q ‘ 3 5 ‘ Ae 7
Wadthrobesudalifinn. 5° sss ae ace ee: ee ol LOE
iDiameter/of largest. sucker’ =. 1.) 5 NS eR Oe

In addition to this specimen, we saw fragments of others of
approximately the same size. The following specimens were pre-
served: tip of tentacle, beak and radula in liquid, and a quantity of
beaks and part of an internal shell in the dry state. An examination

" Vide Burfleld, op. cit., p. 155 * Vide Burfield, op. cit., p. 178.

138 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

of these remains leaves little doubt that the species is Architewthis
harveyi, Verrill °—the caudal fin was too much digested to indicate
whether it had been sagittate or not. The distal series of small, smooth
suckers are not now on the tentacle tip, but these again may have been

Fig, 1.—Architeuthis harveyi. Beak. Cire. +.

lost owing to the same cause. No soft parts of any of the smaller
cuttlefish were found.

The molluscs appear to be quite lively when swallowed, as there
are scars on the heads of the whales right up to the angle of the mouth.
These have been produced by the vain efforts of the molluscs to save
themselyes. Sucker-marks were seen on the inside of one of the whales’
stomachs. ‘Two or three jawbones of some species of predaceous fish
were found in the stomach of one Sperm Whale, but, except for these,
nothing but cuttlefish remains were ever noticed.

VI.—Notes ona Few Miscellaneous Specimens Preserved.

_ (a) One of the Norwegians gave us an object, taken from whale
No. 5 (Finner), which was stated to have been ‘ inside the ribs.’
This appears to be a pathological structure. It is a flattened, oblong
object about 24 in. long, and 2 in. wide, and about 2 in. thick. At
one point there seems to have been a peduncle. The entire specimen
has a very hard capsule of fibrous connective tissue, and is filled with
a more or less reticulate mass, containing what may have been a coagul-
able fluid. There is a certain amount of calcification in the outer layers
just beneath the capsule, and a little fat is visible on treatment with
Sudan III. The conclusion to which the structures observed point is
that this is a region of connective tissue, which has become infiltrated
with some pathological product, and has acquired the thick capsule in
consequence of its abnormal condition. The infiltrating material is very
varied, in some parts it takes magenta brilliantly, while in others it
stains in a very faint manner. The more brilliantly coloured tissue
appears more homogeneous than that which refuses to take the stain.
The colour of the capsule is dark brownish-grey, that of the contents
a deep cream (fig. 2, No. 1).

(b) There are numerous roundish glandular objects embedded in
the fat which lies in the mid-dorsal region of the body cavity of the
Finner and surrounds the great vessels. These are lymphatic glands.
One such specimen preserved is of very irregular shape. It is 14 in.
in greatest length and 14 in. in greatest breadth (fig. 2, No. 2).

* Trans, Coun. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 5, Pt. 1, p. 197 (1880).

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 139

(c) A number of greenish bodies were taken from a similar position
in the Sperm Whale. The specimens are about 2} in. long, about
2 in. wide, and # in. thick, at the thickest part. The histological
condition is exceedingly bad, as was to be expected from the general
state of all the Sperm Whales which we saw. ‘There is a connective-
tissue capsule, and a great mass of the body is composed of the
same tissue. There are two or three objects which may be sections
of medullated nerves, and a number of rather thick-walled blood-
vessels. No other structures can be recognised.

(d) The rectum of Physeter has an exceedingly well-developed
cuticular lining for the last four or six feet of its length. In the

Vig. 2.—1. Calcified Body, from Finner No. 5. 2. Lymphatic Gland, Finner.
3. Cysticercus, from Physeter. (All natural size.)

first specimen in which it was observed the lining was detached owing
to decomposition, but in a later example it was found to be attached
to the remainder of the intestinal wall. This lining is about 4 in.
thick. It has a pale yellow colour, and is of a consistency somewhat
resembling that of a very hard-boiled egg. It is laminated, and can
be readily split into layers. At irregular distances on the surface
are hollows, penetrating partly or completely through the lining. The
edges of these hollows have a puckered appearance. The line of
junction of this lining with the mucosa of the intestine is perfectly
sharp. The lining thins out very much just prior to its cessation,
and the edges of successive lamine are readily observed. The actual
thickness of the lining where it comes to an end is ts in. The colour
of the mucous membrane, which is fairly tough, is a dull pink, very
much stained with sepia. Longitudinal sections of this region at
the point of junction clearly show that this is a cuticle derived from
the stratified epithelium of the rectum. The cuticle comes to a
very abrupt termination, where it joins the mucosa, the line of

140 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

junction being very obvious in the slides. The epithelial layer is
about half as thick as the cuticular.

VII.—Parasites.
1. External.

(a) Balenophilus wniselus (Aurivillius). We have nothing to add
to Burfield’s remarks on this species.?°

(b) Penella (Kov. and Dan.). This parasite was observed on few
of the whales examined, and only on the Finner. Three specimens
were preserved, which vary in length from 53 in. to 10 in. No
males were found as a result of the examination of these females.
We frequently found white scars upon the skin of B. musculus, which
were apparently healed wounds caused by Penella. The scars took the
form of small oval marks about 8, in. long and + in. wide. Beneath
the white area the epidermis is more firmly adherent than in other
parts of a preserved specimen, which supports the view that these
are healed wounds. We often found open wounds on the whales,
which had evidently been produced by this parasite.

All the Penella which we saw occurred at the beginning of the
season, and in the latter part of it only wounds from which the
Copepods had fallen were observed. It may therefore be suggested
that the period of attachment of the parasite to the whale is less
than a year.

(c) Coronula diadema (L.), &c. On the Humpback there were
large quantities of this species on the tips and especially on the
posterior margins of the flippers. They were also found on the
ventral furrows, and some small specimens were adhering behind
the penis.

A number of specimens of Conchoderma aurita (L.) occurred among
the Coronula, as well as a good number of small specimens of Cyamus,
which last parasite was also generally scattered over the head region.
On Physeter No. 15 four specimens of Cyamus were also found on
the throat region, where there are a few short wrinkles. On the tip
of the lower jaw of Sperm Whale No. 16 there was a small colony
of Conchoderma aurita, while another specimen of the same species
was taken from the second tooth of the left side of the lower jaw of
Sperm Whale No. 25.

2. Internal.

(a) Trematodes.—Monostomum plicatum (Creplin) was found in the
intestines of the following Finners: 1, 3, 19, 23, 24, 27, 30.

(b) Nematodes.—We found nematodes, which appear to be of the
genus Ascaris, in the stomachs of every Sperm Whale examined.
They are generally very abundant. In the renal vein of the Megaptera
the mass of nematodes described later was found, and in the posterior
vena cava of B. sibbaldti, No. 33, a solitary, incomplete specimen of
another nematode was taken. These worms all appear to belong to
the Strongylide. As mentioned later, in the digitate structure observed
in the veins of B. musculus nematode eggs were found, as was also

10 Op. cit., p. 179.

+
e

sae ats

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.] [Puate IIT,

2
4°

wae

YY Wall of Vena cave.

Fic. 3.—Digitate form of Pathological Structure caused by Nematode Worms.

Direction of blood stream.

~<-

Illustrating the Report on Belmullet Whaling Station.
[To face page 141.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 14]

the case in the neighbourhood of the mass of the worms found in the
Humpback.

B. musculus, Echinorhynchus porrigens (Rudolphi), new host.

B. sibbaldit 2 porrigens in small intestine, new host.
- e. brevicollis (Malm).
M. longimana ‘5 porrigens, large intestine.
P. macrocephalus Pr capitatus (von Linstow), new host.
: “3 Ks brevicollis (Malm).

(d) Cestodes—One of the Norwegians drew our attention to a
large number of soft white bodies embedded in the blubber of one
of the Sperm Whales. They occurred in a more or less irregular
manner at a depth of from 13 to 6 in. from the outer surface. Hach
body is enclosed in a cyst with fibrous walls from which it is readily
detached. The accompanying figure (fig. 2, No. 3) is taken from a
specimen in good condition and undistorted. Sections of these bodies
clearly demonstrate that they are the cysticercus stage of some Cestode.
The proscolex occurs at one of the poles of the long axis. The
Prince of Monaco’s account of the capture of a Sperm Whale off the
Azores in 1895 mentions numerous cysticerci in the blubber of that
animal, which are probably identical with those here described.”

(e) Structure found in the renal veins and posterior vena cava
(see figs. 3 and 4),

In whale No. 8 3, while searching for the suprarenal, we came
across a series of short, digitate processes, hanging into the lumen
of the vena cava at the point of entrance of the renal vein. A similar
structure occurred in whales Nos. 12 3, 13d, 27 3, 302, 324, all
Finners. In two of the Blue Whales, Nos. 17 2 and 33 2, it was
also present, as well as in Megaptera, No. 28 ¢, but in the last in
a somewhat different form. In some specimens, owing to the manner
in which the kidney was cut away from the body in removing the
entrails, it was impossible to say whether the structure had been
present or not. No trace of it was found in any of the Sperm Whales

examined.
; The specimens preserved are four in number, all differing from
one another. The accompanying figures show the two larger speci-
mens. Fig. 3 is an example of the most digitate form. This
specimen is not actually in the renal vein, but projects from the wall
of the vena cava close to the point of entrance of the renal vein.
The digitate processes are not actually tubular, but contain cavities,
- which in the free ends are nearly continuous, so that the whole
process is here practically a blind sac. The diameter of the processes
increases from the free end towards the wall of the vena cava. The
digitations unite at the point of attachment, and the structure thus
formed is continued beyond the wall of the vein towards the kidney.
Tt is most unfortunate that we were unable to preserve a specimen

™ Vide A. E. Shipley, Archives de Parasitologie, If., No. 2, p. 262, 1899.
* Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist., Paris, t. 1, p. 308, 1895.

142 BEPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

sufficiently large to show whether there is an actual connection with
the kidney itself. But from notes taken at the Station, I find that
in one of the Blue Whales this structure was followed up, and that
branches of the renal vein were found blocked by it in the proximal
region of the kidney. This was also the case in the Humpback,
No. 28.

The interior of the digitations shows the cavities above mentioned,
separated from each other by walls of connective tissue continuous
with the tissue of the walls of the tube. In section the wall is seen
to be composed of fibrous connective tissue very dense externally,
but more open in the inner layers, where there are also some nodules
of lymphoid tissue. The partitions between adjacent cavities come
off from the inner layers of the outer wall. There are a few blood-
vessels in these structures. The cavities are filled with material which
varies in consistency from that of a rather stiff pulp to a stony hard-
ness. In the latter case the material contains a varying amount of
inorganic salts, chiefly calcium phosphate, of which there may be as
much as 80 per cent. present. These concretions are very hard in
the fully calcified condition, and are rounded in form in the Finners,
but more rod-like in specimens taken from a Blue Whale and the
Humpback. The soft material varies in its composition. In its
softest state it is easily teased out in water, and is then seen to be
composed of a mass of nematode eggs. Although the shells are
very thick, and resist the action of pure nitric acid and of strong
alkali, they are very transparent, and embryos may be seen in their
interiors in stages of development varying from morula-like masses
to small coiled worms. In the partially calcified material it is still
possible to separate by teasing numbers of these ova, which are
here covered with the calcium deposit. On the application of mineral
acid the inorganic material dissolves away, leaving the ova distinctly
recognisable as such.

Fig. 4 shows a specimen which is confined to the renal vein, and
has no digitations hanging into the vena cava. There is a single
cylindrical body about 6 in. long attached to the wall of the
renal vein by strap-like bands of varying breadth tapering somewhat
towards their junctions with the body. Sections of this body show
the thick wall, partitions, and congregations of ova, as described above.
The ova appear to be embedded in a matrix nearly homogeneous, but
containing numerous small rounded bodies, which stain daxkly with
Ehrlich’s hematoxylin. They may be nuclei, and in that case indicate
that the matrix is probably cellular. In the renal vein of Megaptera a
mass of tissue was found of an elongated form, and containing hard
calcareous material together with a number of tangled nematode worms,
which appear to belong to the family Strongylide. The worms were
mostly enveloped in sheathing tissue attached to the wall of the vein, but
the sheath was not always complete.

There can be little doubt that the presence of these worms affords
the key to the formation of the growths described above. It is known
that the presence in a vein of any object the surface of which is
not smooth, or of lesions of the intima of a blood-vessel, produces

[Prater LY.

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.)

“SLNIWHIVLLY

—

THNLINULS

‘FOIK) “pouaqoysoroy ATYSYG ‘sopozvwmoyy Aq posnvo simyonayg posopug Surmoys ‘pouado ura, [euay—F

VAWI WN3A OL

OLE

Illustrating the Report on Belmullet Whaling Station.

[To face page 142,

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 143

a thrombus, which may in the course of time become organised.’
The organisation takes the form of a proliferation of the fibrous tissue
of the blood-vessel wall, which in the course of time entirely replaces
the thrombus. This tissue may be supplied with blood-vessels.
Thrombi may become calcified, and the deposition of calcium salts
is one of the striking features of the structures under consideration.
Again, metazoan parasites have been known to cause thrombi,’* and
in the cases before us it is highly probable that the nematodes have
produced vascular lesion, or the mere presence of the eggs may have
been sufficient to excite coagulation of the blood. From either of
these causes the thrombi may have been formed, becoming subse-
quently organised. It is interesting to note in this connection that
pedunculated, if not digitated, thrombi have occurred in the human
subject. The thrombus in Megaptera appears to have actually enclosed
the worms which caused it, and they have been retained by the
subsequent organisation.
VIII.—F eiuses.

B. musculus.—None of the foetuses examined by us were sutti-
ciently small to be of use for embryological purposes. They were all
perfectly formed, and even in the smallest (3 ft. 11 in.) the ventral
furrows of the adult were represented by mere lines.

Table VI. contains a list of the foetuses, and a detailed list of
measurements will be found in Table XII. It may be noted that
the 8 ft. foetus of No. 80 was mutilated by some of the workers
before we arrived on the scene, while that of No. 31 was destroyed
before the female was opened, apparently by the harpoon explosion.
The sizes of both of these are therefore estimates only. The fcetus
of No. 47 (9 ft. 4 in.) was in a hopeless state of decomposition, and
very few measurements could be taken upon it.

(a) Body form.—In all the fcetuses which we saw the form was
_the same as in the adult, but in the smallest it was noticeably more
robust.

(b) Colouration.—This character does not differ from that of the
adult animals. The dark tint is found in the same situations. The
smaller foetuses are very much less pigmented. In the 3 ft. 11 in.
foetus the whole skin was gorged with blood, and the black colour
was confined to the following localities: back, tip of dorsal fin, tip
of flippers, tips of flukes, tip of rostrum, and symphysis.

B. sibbaldii.—One specimen, 7 ft. 7 in. in length, was seen. The
upper surface was pale grey, the distal part of the dorsal fin and
the external mouth parts were stained with black.

IX.—Breeding Season of the Balenopterids.

A factor which may be used in attempting to ascertain the probable
breeding season of the large whales is the sizes of the foetuses observed
at different times. Leaving for this purpose the Blue Whale out of

** Macfarlane, Text Book of Pathology, 1904 ed. . 107-8. Green, Manual
of Pathology, 1th ed., p. pe ii sii :
“* Green, op. cit., p. 389.

144 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

account, because very few of this species have been seen in the pregnant
condition, the six foetuses which we saw have the following dimensions :

Ft. in.

July 15 15 0

Aug. 7 Sv

eee aC 4. 40

acl 7 10

Sept. 4 3 11
9 &4 =

Burfield’s table of foetuses observed in 1911 is as follows :—

Ft. in.

July 12 8 ll
» 16 4 11
» 20 8 5
» 24 6 0
Aug. 7 5 6
sr L 9° 0
Sept. 10 S0
» 18 9° 33

The young whale appears to be about 20 ft. long when born.
If the size of the fcetus is proportional to the length of gestation
which has elapsed since pairing until the time when the fcetus is
measured, and if the period of gestation is ten months,’® then the
foetuses found must have been the result of pairings at approximately
the times given opposite each in the table which follows :—

Ft. in.
July 15 . 15 0 age 74 months, pairing took place December—January.
At lipase) Ole san 55 5 = April (beginning).
» 7 4 0) '),-2 » 9 » June.
en 7 10 S74 a 3 sf April (end).
Sept. 4 Sl. Si2 $3 M » duly (beginning).
2 9 4 ” 5 ” ” ” May.

Pursuing the same idea with the 1911 fcetuses, we have :—

It. in.

July 12 8 11 age 4} months, pairing took place March (beginning).
5, 16 4 AL. ys 2k a5 55 BS May (beginning).
pees) 8 5 ,, 4% A ¥ at March (beginning).
ae A Ge Ores ss 3 mr April (end).

Aug. 7 DRO ats bs 5 May.
ape! OPO as BD fs # = March-April.

Sept. 10 95°20 5 2 58 “s re May (beginning).
ls OS to sae #5 =p 6 May.

These times can only be regarded as approximate, even if the
premises upon which they are based be correct. It is, howeyer,
suggested by this table that pairing may take place at any time
between the end of December (the first in the 1913 series) and the
beginning of July (fifth in the 1913 table), at intervals of roughly
two months. This would indicate that the Balenopterids are, at any
rate, polycestrous, and in season in December (February ?), April, and
June. All females would not be fit for breeding actually simultane-
ously, but the precise time would vary for different individuals, and

*% Burfield, op. cit., p. 155.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 145

this would account for some pairings occurring at such times as the
beginning of July or the beginning of May.

Such cases would belong to the June and April cestra respectively.
It is probable that such an arrangement would be advantageous.
As the whale is a pelagic animal and individuals are widely separated,
a frequently recurring breeding condition would be of great advantage to
an animal in which pairing is to a greater or less extent casual. The
above suggestion, which was originated by Mr. Daniel, appears to afford
a possible explanation of the extraordinary variability in the sizes of the
foetuses, apparently without regard to the season, a circumstance which
the idea of a definite moncestrous cundition does not elucidate. (It is
interesting to note that on June 18, 1918, at the Inishkea Station a
feetus only 5 in. long was found, which must have been but a week or
two old, i.e., of the June pairing, according to the preceding method
of reckoning the pairing times. It was, most unfortunately, not possible
to preserve it.)

X.—Additional Notes.

(a) Hatinction.—The whalemen state that of the whales which
they see they are able to take only about one in ten. The animals
are therefore perhaps not in immediate danger of being actually killed
out. The most serious risk lies in the fact that the largest, and-
therefore the adult, whales are being exterminated. True gives as the
minimum length of adult animals 55 ft. 7 in., as no pregnant females of
less dimensions have been recorded. Now the whalers will take any-
thing over 40 ft., with the result that the animals which have attained
sexual maturity are in the gravest*danger of being killed out. That the
largest whales are being exterminated, the fall in general size at Blacksod
between 1911 and 1913 may indicate. This means that the whales
which are capable of reproduction are being destroyed. By the time
that it is no longer profitable to hunt whales,'® it appears likely that the
adults will have been so thinned out that they will no longer be able to
reproduce with sufficient profusion to compensate for natural casualties.
When this occurs the whales will be well within sight of extinction.

(b) Capture of Blue Whales.—Of all the species which it is profit-
able to pursue the whalers state that the Blue Whale is the wildest,
and they will not hunt this species if other game is to be had. A
Blue Whale on perceiving the pulsations of the propeller of the
approaching steamer is usually startled, and, if alarmed, at once
rushes off at full speed. Since this represents something like twenty
miles per hour, it is quite useless for the boat to pursue the fleeing
animal, the speed of the steamer being only ten or twelve miles per
hour. When the whalers are bent on catching a Blue Whale, it is
- sometimes necessary to accompany the animal for three or four days,

until it becomes accustomed to the presence of the steamer, which can
then approach within range, and the whale is speedily disillusioned as
to the harmlessness of the now familiar object.

(c) Migration Movements.—During the earlier part of the season
the Mystacocetes are stated to travel in a north-easterly direction,

* Burfield, op. cit., p. 153.

1914. L

146 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

during the later part in a south-westerly. If this be so, it may be
concluded that the latter is the return journey of those whales which
have passed north in the beginning of the season.

_ The solitary Humpback, taken on July 25, was moving in a direc-
tion the reverse of that which the Finners and Blue Whales were
pursuing at the same time.

The only Sejhval which was captured was brought in on Septem-
ber 6, a fact which is to be noted in connection with the whalers’
statement to Burfield,!’? that the Sejhval disappears by the end of June.

The following is the explanation which the whalers give of
the occurrence of Sperm Whales in these Northern waters. In the
Southern seas each adult male is the leader of a herd of females, and
as the young bulls approach maturity they are driven off by the old
leader. These young bulls do not become leaders of herds, as they are
inferior in strength and size to the fully adult males. But when fully
grown they seek out herds, and contend with the leaders for the
possession of the females. If the old males are then driven off, they
become solitary wanderers, and frequently travel up into the North
Atlantic. In connection with this theory it may be mentioned that
the Sperm Whales taken at Blacksod and Inishkea are all males, and
of great size for Sperm Whales, which seldom exceed 60 ft., the
‘average for the ten Blacksod specimens being 57 {t. 34 in., while
the smallest was 53 ft.

TaBLE I.—B. musculus. ‘Table of Specimens Taken.

Number | Date when Sox Total Kwumber Date when Sox Total
of Whale] Measured ; Length || of Whale] Measured Length
Ft. in, Ft. in.
— May 16 — 59 6) 14 July 5 12) 54 7
= “P28 — 62 6] 18 5- il fe) 59 4
— » ol — 59 6 | 19 Ae! 15) oe) 67 63
== June 14 — 61 6|| 20 53 LS 3 59 3
= » 19 — 6L 0 || 4.22 » 20 9 48 7
— > 20 — 53 0} 24 Pree’) 2 SBI ay
= sue — 68 6 || 27 97 ~25 3 66 «0 |
<== Py — 61 6) 29 Aug. 5 2 57. 5
= me — 64 6 30 re 7 oe) 69 #8
— seu ae — 64 6 | 31 ae oad Q 65 60
— ~ eee) — 64 6 32 <5 OG 3 yi a
1 » 26 Q 69 4 35 7 BT Q 63 3
2 > 26 fe) 50 (67 36 BwiBsLhp. se 58 «5
3 3 28 3 64 1] 387 55 29 Q 62° 3
4 Paes) é 63 «1 38 a 29 Q Dar 2
5 oO é 64 O 39 » 30 3 58 3
6 9 30 ce) 66 9) £40 » 30 | 2 60 8
7 July 2 3 61 0O 41 Sept. 1 | 3 56 2
8 eee: & 62 0 42 Sh Acoiaass 61 6
9 wie 3 60 0 43 ere! fe) 59 10
10 es é Stay Ps 44 a 3 52 10
11 ten) 3 58 1 45 x OD 3 58 0
12 »» ont 3 55 =O 47 pes a Sl ce) 62 8
13 » «4 é 46 7 48 vias 3 638 5

1” Op. cit., p. 154.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 147

Tasie II.—B. sibbaldii. List of Specimens.

Number | Date when

| Se Total | Number | Date when | S Total
of Whale} Measured 4 Length | of Whale) Measured | he Length
| Ft. in. | | Ft. in.

17 July10 | Q@ |78 2 34 Aug. 20 2 68 6

33 Aug. 18.0) / OF | 10-7 49 Sept. 9 Q | 68 0

TaBuE IIT.—B. borealis. One Specimen.

ae Date when Measured Sex De gets

46 Sept. 6 is) 46 7

Taste [V.—WM. longimana. One Specimen.

Number of Total Length

Whale Date when Measured Sex His! in
28 July 25 3 45 8
TaBLE V.—Physeter macrocephalus. List of Specimens Taken.
Number | Date when Sox Total r Nuinber | Date when S Total
of Whale, Measured . Length || of Whale} Measured ‘be Length
| Ft. in. | Ft. in.
a May26 | ¢ 57 9 16 July 9 guy nee ts
— See Net 6l 4 21 »! 16 6 |60 6
— Pier) El rs 62 6 22 a 8 é by fae BS:
— June 14 re 60 5 25 fy eB 3} 53 OOO
HOA | duly 8.5) 57 5) 26 2D 3 56 2

Taste VI.—Feetuses. B. musculus.

No. of Date when ae Total
Parent Measured Length
Ft. in.

19 July 15 | 3 15 0

30 PATO a) | 2? 8 0 (cire.)

31 BSS ea — 4 0 (cire.)

35 per al Q 7 #10

43 | Sept. 4 3 a Uf

47 | Bye. 3 9 4

TasLe VII.—B. sibbaldti. One fcetus.
Total Length

No. of Parent Date when Measured Sex Ft. in.
33 Aug. 18 3 S770

1914.

STATE OF SCIENCE.

ON THE

REPORTS

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PEON | SE ‘ON | LION
Pa —eeneon

SMOIIN [VIZUGA FO TOQUINNT

qys1oy [woIEA “uy [esto
yysusy ‘uy pestoq
Yproiq ysozveris ‘uy [e10jooq
uy [eqoqoed jo YASue] URIpoy

: UOT}AasUr TOTIA}S0d 07 diy ‘uy [e1oyoed Jo yASuET

* UWOj1E8UT IolIEqUR 04 diy ‘uy [eIojo0d Jo YASuUET
* + ~SNOI[IGUIN JO UISIVUT IOTIOZUe 07 sOYNH JO YOON
snue Jo uIsivUt 1orseqsod 09 sayxNny Jo YORON

ainjiade iva Jo puo JoT1eyUR 07 oA Jo or} UAX)

- + + + + 9f9 Fo erqueo 03 mel fo stshyqdutg
7 + + + + gf@ Jo a13Ue0 04 Jnous Fo dry,
> + Ul [esiop Jo UoTYAesuT Io1103s0d 07 ynous jo dry,
* ul yetoqgoad jo worosut 1011eysod 09 qnous jo dry,

ajovatds 03 ynous jo dry,
yQsuey [e4O 7,

* gTRYM JO zaquinyy

153

BELMULLET WHALING STATION.

¢- 38 ke Fe — See
§ 6 I 8 = 11 OLoes|
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£ 2 2 2
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9% ‘ON c% ON Zo ‘ON 1Z ‘ON

pal
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suownqum

07 snue

+s] UeMIoINsevop—"snpoydao0s00U sajashygJ— TIX

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* yjnour purgeq qsnf ‘eouerepuMoato ITV HY
[esiop ‘prey jo Wy5u0T
qysioy [VoIyIEA ‘uy [es10q

yysuoy ‘uy pesiog

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uy [etoqjood jo ASU] WeIpey

* UoTZAasUT IoT19}s0d 03 diy ‘ug [eroyoed Jo YZSUET

+ WOTJasUT IolIezUR 07 diy ‘uy [erojoed Jo YAZUET

“SHOTGUN JO UISIVU IOLI0}UB 07 SoYNY JO YOON

snue JO UIsIeU Io110}s0d 0} soyxn JO YOON

Yynow jo [sue 07 mel rtoMor yo dry,

Yynour jo ofsue 07 wel rzoddn jo dry,

* [esiop I0110qs0d 03 ynous jo yuOTT

[etoqoed ro11aqysod 03 ynous jo quo4y

* - ygBuay [eq07,

gTRYM Jo <oqunyy

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

154

colt oth colt
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dy 09 diy ‘soyny Jo yIPIA
qystey [voy10A ‘uy [es10g

yysue] ‘uy pesiog
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uy [v1ojood jo yySue] UeIpoy
uosesur ror1eysod 03 diy ‘uy peroqood yo y4Su0ry
UOT}IOSUT IOTIEzUR 07 dry ‘uy perojoed yo yySuET
SNOTIGUN JO ULHTVUL IOLIE{U 07 SOYNG Jo YORON

snue JO UIs1VUI IOTIO4SOd 09 soyNG Jo YON

oinyiede ro Jo puo r0r10,uUv 0} ofo Jo om4UED

* eho Jo oagueo 07 Mel go sishydurhg

* oef@ JO e1guUd0 07 ynous Jo dry,
uy [Bs1op JO UoMIOSUr 1OL10}80d 09 ynous jo dry,

uy perogoed jo uorresur 10110}s0d 07 nous jo dry,

ejovards 09 ynous jo diy,

qysue] [VO],

snje,T JO xog

queried JO Joqunyy

155

BELMULLET WHALING STATION.

‘TIJSUS] 1890} JO sosvquooisd 07 paonper sjuotMeaNsvom = suolyJodorg x

19 | = OL 9L
Shs | OSS | 89S | BES
69-F 08-9 ZL-9 FOF
— | LES = BES
|
066 | 00-01 | 69-IT 19-6
68:4 198 00-6 LPS
PESZL | SSL | OST | OBIT
CO-Sh | 90-8F | 9S8F | F9-ZF
86-93 | LF8Z | F982 | 36-93
6cr | scp | 99 | BLP
€9-F% | 91-FS | 892 | FOS
80:61 SF8I | 99:06 | €0-8T
LOLL | SGLL | SPSL | LL-SL
szie | eee | osee | 1-62
OSS | seeT | 6GOT | IGFI
% | % % %
IT 8¢/0 09/0 %/|0 19
URS | OT | OAT | Uy oc
2 | P 2) e
Ol ‘ON 6 ‘ON | 8 “ON | 14 ON

|
89 tS Te = = pre 6 : * SMOIING [VIZUOA JO JOquIN\y
| LE&<S S6-T LEG LUG = 1 "5 ss qysrey [worse “uy [eso
3-9 66-L 00:4 £9-9 = Bey | ee Spe aet Sc TeeOKE
| PLS 16-3 OLS 80° ai igen Hence tote PRU DEELEY qsoqvois “uy [e10}00q
| £6 — —_— CL-6 = — 94 | + ‘ug pesoqood Jo yySu0] werpey
| ISL 06:8 Ti. air ak Tepe IP ee ee ee ee ee a wWorzAOsuUr
Joroysod 04 dy ‘ug yerojood jo yySuery
9€-I1 9F IT a €6-GI = om ‘to A aT aeipedaeas se UWOT41OSUr
Jowoyue 03 dy ‘uy yeroyood jo yQsueT
| 69:SP CS: FF FL‘8E 16:7 68° EP is Takeo) tO "pastry sate Shears are Se.
jo ulsi1eu JOTejUe 03 seXNY jo YOON
EL:FG ZG:SS PP LI GZ61 61:92 — * snue jo puso Ioj104s0d 04 soynp jo Yoon
$2-G 9¢-F 8z-S 9-2 — — eingiede 1vo Jo pus 10110q,Ue 09 949 Jo 9199)
SL-FZ a = oo — — (+ + eka Jo e1qu00 07 wef Jo stshydusg
CE-0Z — 19-02 19-06 — Ae |b ‘ * 9X9 Fo 1390 04 ynous Jo dry,
= LT-L9 9€:-69 69:L9 = = iy Ute NE ie AP eta ae Ae
[esiop Jo uoMsesuI 10110}80d 04 ynous jo dry,
| 12-GE 89:GE. | 9E-9G G¥6E ca ar tohtida "SY hi Thi ei oe
jo uoldsosut ro11aysod 0} ynous jo dry,
8P-9T €S-F1 = = = = *olesieod’ or ejovads 0} ynous jo dry,
% % % % % Yok. |
62 G9 )|:0 OL | T-eo:/: Tee P90" | Lie 08 | PS COL) +.) Se firetien th AMSBe Tee
UL Qt UL 9 Ur gt fOr ga Ur a | Or
é £ £ 2 a) Ga A
DicONT, STON ie ON | Gea aie, ONL iT Sie | eee e rir POM AT CCU
x SuoyIodorg “snpgnosnw ‘qg—"AX ATAV,

be tee, ee ieee ee id

—

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

156

69 LL 9¢ €L 89 6¢ a g9 IL 69 - ‘ i * SMOLINF [VIZUOA FO oq UN NY
LG-S IL'T 18-3 €8:1 6G 8&6 86-1 FL GPG 96-G e : : * 4ystoy [eorys0A ‘uy [es10q,
6L:P 99-F SF-¢ 80°¢ ILS FEL €6-P =a F6'8 L8:F ; . : A : * Wysug] ‘uy [es10q
$G-1 8L°G FL:G 89°S GL:G 68°§ FL:G €6-T GL:G 99°% ; : * —- yprerq 4soqvors “uy [e10j;00q
9F-8 88-01 OL IT GO IT 668 IL-O1 = 86 IIT GF OL ; E uy [eroqood Jo YySu9y. werpoy]
LOL €¢-8 £8 82:8 (1) i) 8¢'8 = 8¢°8 ¥6°8 19:8 ; e , : : : 3 UOT}IOSUT

Joweqysod 074 diy ‘ug jeroqood jo yQsueT
68°6 9OF-FL GLE1 L8:II F0°6 66:61 = 10-IT SLT $9-:0I | ° ; A 3 j ( 5 U01}.198UL
Jomoque 0, dy ‘ug yeroyood jo ySueT
LG-6€ 08-LE GO-€F =< LO-8P 86:GP OF-6F 90°LF 6-67 OL-Sh | * ; ‘ 4 ; ? “ snoiiqun
jO UISIVUL IOTIOJUe 0} SOYNY Jo yoRoN
86°86 9F-8S 19-1€ = 6F-86 EF LL-T€ 6L-LE $9-8Z 6¢-9Z | * snuB Jo pus JoL1e4s0d 03 soyny Jo YOON
6L:F €L's FG ¢9-G 8o-F ¢c0-¢ 68'F FS-G €¢-F L8:¥ einqjiede rea Jo pua ro11ezUe 07 aXe Jo 17MIN)
FE1S | FI-6L — zo-ez | e¢te | 1668 | Goes | Toss | OLEs | 9E%s | ° * Mo Jo omquso 04 Mef jo stsdqdudg
€6°LT 89:06 L881 6F-61 €8-61 FE1S — SL8I 98-61 60:06 | ° 4 a aXe Jo o13ue0 07 ynous jo dry,
€8:18 1G:9L 98-TL 18°8L 0€-8L 8-LL LG-LL 8&-9L EG:LL 8G-9L . . 3 : : - é * ug
[esiop JO UOTZAesUT 101104s0d 04 ynous jo dry,
89:66 €L-€€ 8L-0€ 6°€€ 0G-F€ L-€€ €8°GE &1E €L°GE PLE | * ‘ f 3 ; : * ug [e10z0ed
jO UwWonsosut 10110ys0d 03 gnous jo dry,
OFFI FEST 08°81 6:ST 66:ST 90-LT 99-F1 €@-§1 G6:ST ¢9-9T x . A ‘ apoertds 07 qnous jo dry,
% % % % % % % % % %
0 99\|L 8/14 8F/0 68/8 L9\F% O6S\/L lL O9F/O GG)s sg] - Y e . i * ygsuey (e407,
Ul UT UL a U9 Or a Oa UU aU

2 3} 5 2 rs) 3} 3b nz £ £
LG ‘ON | #6 ON | 8G “ON | 02 ‘ON | GI ON | ST ON | FT ON | ET ON | ZL ON | IT “ON | * s 4 i 3 * 9[84M JO toquin yy

(panuajuoo) suosodorg | ‘snjnosnu ‘g— AX AAV],

157

BELMULLET WHALING STATION.

| |

9 ey ee oe | = 6¢ — #8 19 L9 "+ + = gmoraing [eIyUeA JO IoquINyT
LEG 98-T 96-1 L8T | 66-1 916 | 1&6 18-1 66'S — | * + + gysrey [eorjt0A “uy [esto
£6-F Ie-€ 799 | —-88-E | 66°¢ LLL | 840-9 FOF | STS SS wn |e A ee eee eee a SU] | enOLTT
96° 19° IL-3 | sg | we | 6e | — LG | 8IS-G 69-1 "+ + Yypeerq 48078013 “Uy TeI0}00q
£6°8 89-6 L801 | L6-01 | 92-6 10-or | — G6-L 80°61 FL6 ‘+ + ug Teroqood Jo 4ySuey Uerpey]

€8-L S18 906 | €%6 | 1¢8 92-8 = 60-6 cL8 0&-6 "en. a isc) a ee OT IGSE
| Jomeysod 04 diy ‘uy yeroyood jo y4sueT

Lol €L-I eG-CL | S881 PL&I €L-11 Fai L8°6 F011 OCT Fe eee CO osy
| qomaque oy dy ‘uy yeroqoad jo yQsue'T

FE-6F IG-8h | Go-9F | 8I-9F |= 69:2h- | NSG:LF. | \PSSP| OS ne GC:SP. nna Om Maine an eee goes
jO UIsIvUt IOTIAZUe 0} SOYN JO YOON
z0-8z | so6z | cOLe | 9623 | — | BSS | SLLB | OBS | FELZ | — _ | SUE Jo ULsreUT JOL1e}s0d 07 soYNG Jo YOHON
LO-F LOE 89-F | CEC 86| OFF Lae CO:F Fo:F EtF CLF ainjiede 19 JO puo IOT1oyUe OF EY) JO 919 9/)
08-33 | SL-F% = WGeEe” |) Mes 96:1 = LL-ES | 29-83 — |* + eke yo exqueo 07 wef zo siskyduikg
IGG | GL-06 = ee S6:61 | — | Il6T | S@-6I 6€:06 | OL-8I ZVIZ | ° °° efa Jo equa 04 qnous Jo dry,

ST-SL 86-91 89-9L ITLL | G&8L | ST-8L | S892 | 98-28 I¥-82 166k: | wiark fo, abr seeieod ne eee
[esdop JO UOTAesUT 10110}80d 0} ynous jo dry,

R : : . 5 . . * ug peroyood
| JO UoTtosut roTIe3s0d 03 gnous jo dry,

G 1)" 7”. Arle) Sapa TERE

~
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fur ag (UE Re UE a UE a Ur a UT a Ua U9 a |

é 2 6) é £ ONe ise 6 é é

aTey A jo Jeq TaN Ny

‘(panwyjuos) suoyaodorg 9 ‘snjnosnu “"g—"AX ATAVL,

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

— cg 19 cL yt tes SMOTINE [eIgZUOA JO IOqUINNT

1-3 8-3 80% | 0% BBG st ts ss qystoy yeort0a ‘uy pesroq
68-9 81-9 6S BG FES See ee ere fs Rea 6 LAC
ELS 8-6 She | SLs L8-G ys 5 ss + ayprerq ysoyeors “uy [e10j00q
90-11 06-11 98-01 | 69:01 LoIT oo *° 7 7 tay perogoad yo qySue] werpayy
$08 = 608-8 €9°8 GL:8 i uorresur Ior1eysod 04 diy ‘uy yeroyood yo qySuorT
02-21 0€-ZI1 C6-FI 6L-ZI 0Z-ST f * UOT}AOSUT IOTIOzUL 04 diy ‘uy [eroqood Jo YAQSUET
S-9F 9€-9F 6F-LF 0€-9F CSIP * —* SNOTIG WIN Jo UISrevt Jo}LoyUL 04 soYNY JO TION
BOLE | O9LE L9-6% 18-08 96:08 °° — shue Jo upsreur Jol1oysod 0} soyny Jo YOION
gepeul| og@ >| eEp | 0z-¢ FOE * + gangtode rv Jo pus JoI1ezUe 07 oo Jo o17U9/)
Lo-bZ | | LO-ES 6983 | 9L-9% | 2oF °° * + * eka Jo axzua0 07 avel Jo sisMyduidg
OF-0% 3L-61 SL6I | 69-61 LLO’ = Tt * 0K FO OIZMIOD 09 Yous Jo dry,
oF-6L OL-8L 6£-6L 89°8L OF9L |" * Uy [es1Op Jo UOLJesUT Io;1eys0d 04 4nous Jo dry,
F0-kE 6G-£E £6-08 OF-ZE SFE ' * uy [erojoed yo uosesur 1O110}s0d 04 ynous jo dry,
6-91 99-91 ep | ee LL OT pov Pe pas se 8 888 9 “eroerids" oy a Home rere I,
70 (0) | (0) 70 |
gem hor ee Son: 6s CTO. Anpheyeel ees | et SMe aed Nei Sore Rei eT
am Os eS Oe a

CF ON | FP ON €F ON | GF ON Ty FON |e coe ee ee em OUNCE nub CLL

158

*(panurjuoo) suowiodoig ‘snynosnu "¢—' AK WAV],

159

- BELMULLET WHALING STATION.

€G | LY | £9 09 bd | 69 c > s ; : Y SMOTING [eajyuoA jo 19q Tin Ny
Or’ | LEP || FET L6: 88° GOT |" * * * * * — gystey peorzea ‘uy peso,
GS-01 / 80-9 6-E CGF OS 108i | sy Pa ye ee a oe st ene
08h } 89-3 F6-€ 10-F moe | ove | °° °° + + Ugpeerq qsoqeor8 “ug perojoeg
B6-L3 ! FE-81 66-3I | €@FL | SLZI | 8OTT |* * * * * * Uy peroq0ed Jo yySuez Werpeyy
CEES Z0-0T aoe GE 89-II OL-II 6-6 5 uoT4208UT IoTIB{S0d 03 diy ‘uy peroyood Jo yASUET
8-18 | 1e-F1 | LE6L | 6GLLT | BELT | €6€T | °° wososur sorseyUe 07 diy ‘uy [eroqoed Jo WySu0T
69-0F | 10-LF | 1¢-9F | esr | coor | FOGR * —~ snomquin yo U1SseUT soproyUE 07 soYNG Jo YOON
16-83 1-93 | 9986 | 48S | EBLZ | 9T8Z | *° ° — snue Jo uIs1eUT JoT10ys0d 04 soyNy Jo Yo}ON
G69:G | 8I-g 06°F CLF 09:F _— : : ainqaade eo jO puso IoT1eqUe OF ako JO 1,9)
92-6 £8-F3 FL#Z | GO93 | 1963 | soe |* * * * + ofa Jo argued 09 mel zo sishydurhg
60-9 88-08 98-61 | 9:16 | 6FIZ | 9F0G |* * * * * * @fe Jo caged 09 qnous jo dry,
T¢-L9 } 9F-OL GLéL | €LLL | I@LL | S#SS | * * UY [esIOp Jo UOIyJo8UT JOTIe4s0d 04 ynous Jo dry,
F6-€8 8-88 OLE | SBS | OOFE | ELSE | * Uy [erozood yo uorresuT so110}sod 0} ynous jo dry,
) a1 9F-9T LT-6L | ILSt | 9821 ae Al sr oe Spoends Oy qriome yorunn,
| /O | /O /O 40 {Oo oO
/ 8 oF Lt Ok O° 89/9 “SOL 1 OL PO Shi. ot) Mien Dees marg mpnemeeneg,
‘Ul VA | ur ag ur ME UL Wa Ur ag Ur
= [see Bienes 22 = = = = —— \ = — or ez
2 | é é é é |
8% ‘ON : OF ‘ON GF ON | PEON | SEONG ATOM | tt te | orem go aeq UIT NT
‘nununrbuo) vsajgdoba py *S810a.L0q “{ “apqnqgqus “_ —suonrodorg

THIAX @T4V,L

‘TITAX 21av

TAX DTIavyE

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF scieNcH.—1914.

160

9:8 19-8 —— +16 . . . . A 5 * qnous Jo [3PIM
So-ST F081 = GF-LI * + -Yynoul Jo pus IoT1ej,Ue 4e “pay Jo WYSIO]
€9-9E OT-9§ — = ‘5 5 ss Tesdop ‘prey jo yysue'T
1S-f 60:E 10:3 €0:3 lg i ie ee qYSIoY [Voya0A ‘uy [esI0d
bL-9 0€-L 68°8 PSL "ee Meera m MF anne ee Yysuel ‘uy [es1oq.
GS-7 IL? TEP SL:F ; 2 f oa * YYpeeiq 4ysozeors ‘uy [v10j0eg
09-9 90:9 Sob LG-8 ‘+ + + + ug Jeroqgood Jo W4Sus, UBIpeTT
FL 8L-S LLG 96:9 * UOTjAesUT Io11e}s0d 03 diy ‘uy [erojood jo y45UeT
FS-L 89-L £0-6 ¥1L6 * UOT}IesUT IOTIO}Ue 07 diy ‘uy [eroqoed Jo yySUET
GE-EE CPSP 1S-97 = “SHOTIQUN JO UISIVU IOTIO}Ue 07 SoYNG JO YoION
89:°&6 FE-66 FE-EE = : snue JO UTSIvUE 101103s0d 0} sayNy JO YOON
(2)LT-3% GS-LT FELT C8-LT "+ + ygnour Jo apsue 07 Mel romor Jo dry,
PSG F0:81 SL-LI — * + + -yqnout jo efsuv 074 Mel roddn jo dry,
PP69 68:89 LL-69 F9-69 - + + + ‘Tesrop Ior1eyzsod 07 ynous Jo QUOT,
€0:1F FLIP 96°GP 08: 1F : : * _ ,eroqoed rIot1eysod 07 ynous Jo yuo
% % % %
0 & 9 09 € 9g ¢ ug "SD FREE NE ROSS I ee ee er a Ree
ea nL Ur "4 ‘Ur “44 ‘Ur “AT
‘3 2 e £
GG “ON 16 “ON 91 “ON ST “ON : ; ; ; ; * 9[eTM JO toqumn yy
‘suoijiodorg § *(""J) snzoydas0101. um Lagasiyg—X1X TIAVI,

161

BELMULLET WHALING STATION.

(gurez) | |

€8 — ze 6F Le ee :
80-82 _ PL-61 ee a ea Co
60°1 Z1-2 Z1-3 Cre. se = eee
L9-F GZ-9 &S-€ BE | 999 | *
3L-F are 18-2 {Gaal = eae 2
ZO-F1 19-11 ¥9-01 £9-01 — | oger |:
I8-T1 Z8-6 o8-6 F0°6 — Matis as:
8¢-LI 19°31 9L-Z1 Z8-€1 _ rect | °
88:09 — 10-9F coor |. — oo-sr | *
18-18 ~ FE-8Z FO-LZ _ 19-83 | °
98-9 -— 16-9 CL ee :
88-02 ~ FL-0Z 10-12 — | scos |°
89-81 — 9] eet seat | = red
6F LL — | Lem 991 [0 = we, |°
LO-LE — | sree | seo8 oo esez |.
PLEL Sr el) eet Hg 4S Rl See

/0 /O /0 /0 | /0 /O
pai > 6 in Nie hs a ee: ame
UL “UE ce i a CE

re) £ . 2 3} ra) 2
£€ ‘ON LON | Gh ON | SEN | OF ON | GI oN: fe:

7 5s Fs sMOTING [eIQUAA JO TAaqUIN|y |

Se ORT as a Ree eer Oc ING
ce eS or qyS1ey peors0a ‘uy es10qy

. . . . . . . q3ue] ‘uy [es10q |

‘5 5 + + -Gyprarq ysezReIs ‘uy [eI0jQ00g
‘5 5 + + uy [erojoed Jo YASue], UeIpey,
* uoTyJesur 1oT1e3s0d 04 diy ‘uy [e1ojood jo YAousT
* UolZ1osUT JoleyUR 07 diy ‘uy [eIoyood Jo YASUI]
* SNOTIQUIN JO UISIVUI IOTIEzUe 07 SeXNG JO TOON

snue JO UIHIVUL IOT10}s0d 04 sayny JO YOON

* gangaade ive Jo pue Iol1eyue 04 940 Jo 91980,

- + + + 9f9 Jo aaqueo 09 mel Jo stsAydutg |

- + + + + 99 Jo a13U90 0} ynous jo dry,
* uy [esiop Jo Uordesut 1o11e}s0d 04 ynous jo dry,
uy [e1oyoed yo uoAesut IoTIays0d 04 ynous jo dry, |
a c : > C * gjovards 03 ynous jo dry,

. . . . . . . . Liptsiic)| [e107],

z é c ¢ - m - quoaeg jo ‘ON |

“pyoqgqs °F
TXX T1avL,

*SNINISNUL "J

xx A geen SON som ae I

sH
ional
lop)
Ll

162 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.--1914.

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. 8. GoopRIcH
(Chairman), Dr. J. H. AsHworrs (Secretary), Sir EK. Ray
LANKESTER, Professor W. C. McIntosu, Dr. 8. F. HARMER,
Professor §. J. Hickson, Mr. G. P. Brpper, Dr. W. B.
Harpy, and Dr. A. D. WALLER.

Tue British Association table at Naples has been occupied since the
beginning of October 1913 by the Hon. Mary EH. Palk, and trom
March 17 to April 15, 1914, by Mrs. H. L. M. Pixell-Goodrich. An
application for the use of the table in September and October has been
received from Mr. J. Mangan, M.A., Government School of Medicine,
Cairo.

The following reports have been received :—

The Hon. Mary E. Palk reports: ‘ I have occupied the Naples table
of the British Association since October last. I have been engaged on
a revision of Professor Anton Dohrn’s monograph of the Pycnogonida
of the Bay of Naples. The work is slow because of the difficulty of
preparing these animals, and the modifications I have made to Dr.
Dohrn’s work are chiefly histological. I have been unsuccessful in
my attempts to study the habits of the living animal. I do not yet feel
justified in publishing the results of my researches, as most of my
conjectures require further proof, which it is not always easy to obtain.’

Mrs. H. L. M. Pixell-Goodrich reports: From March 17 to April 15,
1914, I occupied the British Association table at the Stazione Zoologica,
Naples. During this time I searched for parasitic Protozoa in various
marine invertebrates, and investigated chiefly stages in the development
and sporogony of Lithocystis and Urospora of Hchinocardium cordatum
and Gonospora of Glycera siphonostoma. The results of these researches
I hope shortly to publish.’

The Committee being wishful to encourage zoologists and physi-
ologists to apply for the use of the table, and believing they are often
deterred from applying by an exaggerated idea of the expense involved,
prepared a statement giving an estimate of the cost of going to and
living in Naples. A copy of this statement was sent to every zoological
laboratory and most of the physiological laboratories in the United
Kingdom. It is hoped that increased use will be made of the excellent
facilities which the table offers for the prosecution of researches in
Zoology and in the Physiology (including the chemistry) of marine
organisms.

In the report for last year attention was drawn to the sum of 50I.
remaining in the hands of the Committee. Professor Hickson, on
retiring from the.Chairmanship of the Committee, transferred this sum
to the present Chairman. The Committee have therefore required only
501. from the Association this year to complete the sum due for the
upkeep of the table. ;

The Committee ask to be reappointed with a grant of 1001.

MARINE LABORATORY, PLYMOUTH. 163

Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor A. DENDy (Chairman and Secretary), Sir
E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor SyDNEY H. Vinss, Mr. E. S.
GoopricH, and Professor J. P. HILu, appointed to nominate
competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at
the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.

Since the date of the last report the use of the table has been granted
to Mr. J. S. Dunkerly for one month for the purpose of investigating
Protozoa, especially those parasitic in fish.

Experiments in Inheritance.—Final Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN (Chairman), Mr. R.
Dovanas Laurie (Secretary), Professor R. C. PUNNETT, and
Dr. H. W. Marerr Tims, appointed to enable Mr. Laurie
to conduct such Experiments. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE experiments were commenced in December 1907 with the object
set forth in the first interim report presented to the Dublin Meeting of
the Association in 1908. They were brought to an end in 1911, and
some of the results summarised in the report to the Portsmouth
Meeting that year. A more detailed account is now given in ‘this
final report.

The data concern in the main two matters: (A) the inheritance of
yellow coat colour in mice, and (B) the inheritance of dense and
dilute colourations in mice.

The following dense colours have come under my notice during
the experiments: yellow, golden-agouti, cinnamon-agouti, black, and
chocolate. On the presence and absence hypothesis,

homozygous golden- -agouti may be represented by zygotic formula yy GG BB Ch Ch.

33 cinnamon-agouti es 5 ‘ yy GG bb Ch Ch.

a black A E pa yy gg BB Ch Ch.

oF chocolate 35 pe oP yy gg bb Ch Ch,
where Y factor for yellow colour (not barred).

G a », barred arrangement of yellow colour found in hairs of
agouti (grey) mice.

B PP ;, black colour.

Ch 5 », chocolate colour.

Yellow appears to be always heterozygous, and zygotic formule representing
various kinds of yellow mice may be arrived at by rep'acing yy of the above series
by Yy.

Each of the above colours may occur in a dense form, in which the

pigment is densely deposited, or in a dilute form; these dense and
M2 |

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

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166 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

dilute conditions are allelomorphic, and may be represented by
presence or absence of the factor D.

Further, any of the above conditions may be present potentially,
but remain undeveloped in absence of some colour-activating material
which may be represented by factor C; in the absence of this factor
the animal is an albino.

A. The Inheritance of Yellow Coat Colour in Mice.

In the first place, all my yellow mice appear to be heterozygous in
respect of their yellow coat colour; none which have been fairly tested
breeding true to yellowness, but on the other hand giving offspring
which include, in addition to yellows, a proportion of individuals
whose colour is other than yellow. Yellow is incompletely epistatic
to black and chocolate. I find that, as Durham points out, black
pigment may be present in the hairs of yellows throwing blacks, and
chocolate pigment in the hairs of yellows throwing chocolates.
Moreover, the degree of development of these other pigments in the
hairs varies a good deal during the life of the animal.

The tendency to abnormal fattening of yellow mice pointed out by
Durham was also evident in the mice used by me.

I arrange the matings which concern yellow mice in two tables:
yellow x yellow, and yellowxother colour. The abbreviations in
brackets indicate the immediate parentage of the mice concerned.
Where the heterozygous nature of a yellow mouse is not shown in
the table by its offspring a note is added of some additional mating
showing it to be heterozygous (see tables on pp. 164, 165, and 168,
169).

I. In regard to the matings yellow x yellow given in the table
on pp. 164 and 165 certain points may be noted:

(2) Twenty-six of the mice used were derived from the cross
yellow x yellow, and expectation was that at least one-third of
these would prove to be true-breeding yellows. There are only two,
however (marked with asterisk), which could possibly answer to this
condition, and there is no evidence about them beyond that given in the
table. It will be seen that they produced only two and three young
respectively. Matings with other mice designed to test them
gametically proved sterile. It would evidently be inappropriate to
quote these as examples of mice homozygous in yellow.

(b) The total number of offspring is 72 yellow and 41 other
colour. On the theory that yellow-bearing gametes do not conjugate,
one would expect the ratio 3 : 1, from which the calculated result of
the above matings would be 84°75:28'°25, a very poor approximation
indeed. On the alternative theory that the yellow-bearing gametes do
actually conjugate but that the zygotes so produced perish before
birth, one would expect the ratio 2:1, from which the calculated
result would be 75°3:37'6, a very close approximation to the experi-
mental figures. The latter suggestion, moreover, harmonises with the

EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE. 167

combined results of Cuénot, Castle, and Durham. Adding my own
results to those of the other observers named, we find :—

Yellow. Other pala:

WucnOtge amie huss ey ht oes sad: aoe Ss 263 100
Gastley (1910) y ef as 4) cers a) a py a fe 800 435
Durham(lOl)- tee Be) ele 448 232
LDDUDGIE ence Sy Wee Ole ao poeta Cem Oe area 72 _ 41
Experimental Be ae: eaystaliry Bane Ws fae Serge Fat 1583 808
Calculated: 2s:) teeth. me eee) 1594 Tell

It is of interest to find this anomalous result confirmed from
experiments with an additional independent strain of mice.

(c) The number of young in a litter from yellow x yellow which
survive to an age at which their colour is determinable is small,
averaging only 3°64, as against 4°58 among mice of other colours. It
is possible that this is associated with the hypothetical abortion of
zygotes homozygous in yellow. Cuénot and Castle find a similar
though smaller difference in size of family; but, on the other hand,
Durham does not. (See Appendix A.).

II. The table on pp. 168 and 169 shows a list of matings of yellow
x other colour. One notes:

(a) The 54 matings of yellow x other colour give 131 yellow:
125 other coloured young, expectation being, on the supposition that
all the yellows were heterozygous, 128: 128.

(b) There were 36 yellow mice involved in the matings, of which
11 were known from their parentage to be heterozygous. The
remaining 25 were derived from yellow xX yellow, and one-third at least
of these should have been gametically pure to yellow and have given
only yellow young when mated to mice of any other colour. But all
save one, and this had a couple of youngsters only, threw some other
colour in addition to yellow.

(c) Of the 25 yellow mice ex yellow x yellow 14 are recorded also
in the list of matings of yellow X yellow, so that 11 remain to be added
to the 26 of the other list, making 37 yellow mice of which both
parents were yellow, and of which none, on being tested adequately,
proved to be homozygous, though about a dozen should have been so,
even assuming both the yellow parents to have been in each case
heterozygous.

(d) The number of young in a litter from yellow X other colour
which survived to an age at which their colour was determinable
averages 4°74, much the same as in the case of matings in which both
parents are some colour other than yellow, where the average is 4°58.
There is no reason associated with the theory of abortion of zygotes
Y Y why this should be otherwise. There is, of course, no opportunity
for the formation of such zygotes in-the mating of yellow x other
colour.

168

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

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EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE.

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170 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

_ Some of the yellow mice were mated with albinos, as I wished to
discover and eliminate strains carrying albinism. These matings were
thus incidental, but may nevertheless be put on record as follows :—

: Choco- | Silver-
Black, |Blue, 2.e., . 5
Yellow X Albino | Yellow |7.e.,dense} dilute tie BiG foveee Albino Total
| black black chocolate |chocolate

é x — 2 — — — 2 4
ee OL — 1 — — — 1 2
aN qe 1 2 — —- | — 4 7
Ge aX ace 2 — ee er 5 7
De mS, — | 1 — —- | — 1 2
O ex) a i ee 2 1 Fe Fi ore 1 6

3 10 1 — — 14 28
ou x he 2 2 = 2 — — 6
Oo axe 2 4 2 == — — — 6
Grex = — a 2 — — | 2
an exis? 1 1 = 3 —_ — | 5
Bee ae. 3 2 — 2 -—— — | 7
Bex. AO 1 1 1 _ — | 3
Cox, <2 1 4 — — — — | 5
ox Se 4 1 — — — — | 5
oo xe 2 —- |; — 2 — — 4
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er oer & 4 ); — | = 1 — — | 5
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oe = _ a 1 — — | 1
Ps gues ig 5 =p — —- | — } 5
OE AG 2 is | 1 — 1 el 6
Oars == aa 1 2 = eee
OFESS ac | 4 3 — — = Sl i
Oy deh 3 2 — oo — — | 5
OSE) eh 2 1 — — — aa 3
Observed | 45 33 3 19: sey 14, 21, ee

SS |
56 |

Calculated 50:5 50:5

It does not appear necessary to discuss the above matings
individually, but one notes :—

(a) In those litters where albinos are present the proportions of
coloured and albino young agree with expectation. Equality is ex-
pected, the numbers are 14:14.

(b) Among the coloured offspring 45 are yellow and 56 other colour,
expectation being equality since all the yellow parents are known to be
heterozygous either from their parentage or from some other mating.

General Resiulls of the Present Experiments on the Heredily of Yellow
Coat Colour in Mice.

Firstly, to confirm in a different strain of mice the evidence that
yellow mice occur only in the heterozygous condition; and secondly,
to support the view that in the mating yellow x yellow, zygotes of the
formula Y Y are actually formed, but are abortive.

EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE. 171

B. Dense and Dilute Colourations.

Each colour in the epistatic series has its dense and dilute form,
density and dilution forming an allelomorphic pair. Density may be
thought of as due to the presence of a factor D and dilution as due to
the absence of this factor. My investigations concern the dense and
dilute forms of black and chocolate.

I was led to investigate this matter through the appearance,
recorded in my 1908 report, of black, blue, and chocolate young in a
litter from the mating of two blacks, and the fact that a particular
yellow mouse threw blacks when mated with chocolate, and blues
when mated with blue. While working the matter out, Miss Durham’s
account (1908) of similar experiments appeared. The details I now
publish confirm her work, while showing that Cuénot’s suggestion that
chocolate is the dilute form of black is untenable. I am able to add
some further types of crosses to those recorded by Durham, which give
the expected results.

Evidence against Cuénot’s suggestion that chocolate is the dilute
form of black and in favour of the view :—

a. That chocolate carries the factor for dense deposition of pigment,
and that silver-fawn is the condition of chocolate in which this factor
is absent ;

b. Thal black carries the factor for dense deposition of pigment,
and that blue is the condition of black in which this factor is absent.

Black and chocolate are the two lowest terms in the epistatic
colour series.

Chocolate homozygous (DD bb) x blue homozygous (dd BB).
F, black (Dd Bb).

F, 15 black : 4 blue : 3 choc. ; 1 sil.-fawn
1 1 1 0 ex pair blacks of unknown
parentage.
16 5 4 1
44 17 17 8 Durham.
60 22 21 9 observed.
63 21 21 7 calculated 9.3.3.1 ratio.

Black homozygous (DD BB) x silver-fawn (dd bb).

F, black (Dd Bb).
F, 5 black : 2 blue : 3 choc. : 1 sil.-fawn

67 21 20 5 Durham.
72 23 23 6 observed.
69°75 23°25 23°25 775 calculated 9.3.3. 1 ratio.

The above two types of di-hybrid matings substantiate the view above
stated. Further matings, all in harmony with this view, are:

Black carrying silver-fawn (Dd Bb) x silver-fawn (dd bb).

F, 2 black : 1 blue : 0 choc. + 2-sil.-fawn observed.
1:25 1-25 1:25 1:25 calculated 1.1.1.1 ratio

1%2 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Black carrying blue (Dd BB) x silver-fawn (dd bb).

F, 1 black : 4 blue observed.
2-5 2°5 calculated 1.1 ratio.

Black carrying chocolate (DD Bb) x silver-fawn (dd bb).

F, 14 black : 10 chocolate observed.
12 12 calculated 1 . 1 ratio.

Black carrying blue (Dd BB) x black carrying silver-fawn (Dd Bb).

F, 2 black : 1 blue observed.
2-25 0:75 calculated 3. 1 ratio.

Black carrying blue (Dd BB) x black carrying chocolate (DD Bb).

F, 4 blacks observed.
4 calculated.

Black x chocolate.

Black homozygous (DD BB) x chocolate homozygous (DD bb).
F, black (DD Bb).
F, 16 black : 7 chocolate

42 17 Durham.
58 24 observed.
61:5 20:5 calculated 3-1 ratio.

Black homozygous (DD BB) x black carrying chocolate (DD Bb).
F, black. Four matings gave 16 black young.

Black carrying chocolate (DD Bb) x chocolate homozygous (DD bb).
F, 4 black : 4 chocolate observed.
4 4 calculated 1 . 1 ratio.

Black x blue.

No matings DD BB x dd BB, but F, from black (DD BB) x black carrying
blue (Dd BB) gave 16 black young as the result of three matings.

F,. None of the F, generation were mated, but the following results of matings
between blacks unconnected with the above are such as would be expected if both
blacks carried blue (Dd BB).

Dd BB Dd BB

33 ¢ x 35 9 gave 5 black : 2 blue.

33g x 3852 4, 8 1

She Kade. 44-7 2

26°16 x 2a 2) 1
16 6
50 13 Durham, F, from black x blue.
66 19 observed.

63-75 21-25 calculated 3. 1 ratio.

Chocolate x silver-fawn.

Chocolate homozygous (DD bb) x silver-fawn (dd bb).

F, chocolate (Dd bb).

F, 14 chocolate : 7 silver-fawn.
1 ex pair chocs. of unknown parentage.

17 8 observed.
18-75 6:25 calculated 3.1 ratio.

OO —

EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE. 173

Durham did not carry any mating of the above type into the F, generation.

Chocolate carrying silver-fawn (Dd bb) x silver-fawn (dd bb).
F, 7 chocolate : 10 silver-fawn observed.
8:5 8:5 calculated 1 . 1 ratio,

Blue x_ silver-fawn.

No matings dd BB x dd bb. But, as above recorded, a black carrying blue
(Dd BB) x silver-fawn (dd bb) gave black and blue in F,.
F, from these F, blues (dd Bb):
2 blues : 2 silver-fawns.
4 1 ex pair blues of unknown parentage.

6 3
46 17 Durham.
52 20 observed.
54 18 calculated 3. 1 ratio.

Silver-fawn x silver-fawn.

Silver-fawns should breed true, since they represent the lowest term of the epistatic
colour series associated with absence of factor for dense deposition of pigment.
Zygotic formula dd bb.

Five matings between silver-fawns gave 28 silver-fawn young.

APPENDIX A.
Average Number of Young in Latter.

Durham’s data are included for comparison; each of her averages
is based on at least 75 litters.

Average per litter
Laurie Durham

Yellow x yellow . . . . . . . +. 8:64 (81 litters) 3-90
Yellow x other colour : 4 : é : . 474(54 ,, ) 3-97
Agouti SChACOULINE SAM Aire svi xo) Hotel so) Poaet We. 3-47
Agouti x other colour (not yellow). . . . 3:32
Black x<Gablack. jal ) «57 wruw ss teks 4:83 (23 ,, ) 4-60
Black x other colour (not yellow) . 4:29 (14 ,, ) 3-99
Blue <Vipliews 24) se ae, Pace 4:24(21 ,, )
Blue x other colour (not yellow) . 5-12 (26 ,, )
Chocolate x chocolate . . . . 4:32(25 ,, ) 3:96
Chocolate x other colour (not yellow) . 4-71(34 ,, ) 3-93
Silver-fawn x silver-ffawn . . . . 560(5 ,, )
Silver-fawn x other colour (not yellow) . 4:79 (14 ,, )
Albino x albino a ee 5-18 (17 ,,_ +)
Albino x yollow. . «..-! 4:60(25 ,, )
Albino x colour (not yellow) 4:19 (41 ,, ) 4:27

In the above records, both Miss Durham’s and my own, only
those mice are counted which lived long enough for their colours’ to
be determined.

The strikingly smaller size in my experiments of the average litter
ex yellow x yellow, as compared with the other matings, is commented
on above. A lesser difference was observed by Cuénot also (yellow x
yellow 3°38; yellow x other colour 3°74) and Castle (yellow x yellow
4°71; yellow x other colour 5°57). On the other hand, Durham’s
figures warn one to be cautious as to one’s inferences.

174 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF sCIENCE.—1914.

The data from which the above averages are calculated are as
follows :—

Yellow x yellow. See list.

Yellow x other colour. See list.

Black x black gave 7, 5, 3, 6, 7, 9, 4, 2, 8, 4, 2, 5, 4, 4, 4, 3, 2, 6, 5, 7, 7, 3, 4.
Black x blue gave 3.

Black x chocolate gave 2, 2, 4, 2.

Black x silver-fawn gave 5, 6, 6, 8, 4, 6, 2, 5, 5.
Blue x blue gave 7, 4, 4, 7, 2, 4, 3, 6, 3, 2, 3, 5, 4, 6, 5, 4, 3, 8, 2, 2, 5
ae x chocolate gave 5, 7, 5, 2, 7, 5, 6, 5, 4, 4, 7, 8, 7, 4, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6, 7, 4, 7,

3, 6,
Mics x black. See black x blue.
Phocalete sx: chocolatey; Steer Sree earthy BENE ee eee

*Snouelsle x silver-fawn gave 5, 3, 1, 7, 4.

Chocolate x blue. See blue x chocolate.

Chocolate x black. See black x chocolate.
Silver-fawn x silver-fawn gave 7, 3, 6, 6, 6.
Silver-fawn x black. See black x silver-fawn.
Silver-fawn x chocolate. See chocolate x silver-fawn.
Albino x albino gave 5, 2, 4, 6, 6, 5, 6, 4, 5, 6, 5, 4, 6,

Albino x colour other than yellow gave 4, 3) ‘4, ‘1, 7
6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 1, 2, 2, 2, 4, 8, 4, 2, 5, 6, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 2 AL

APPENDIX B.
Albino Mice.

I crossed many of my mice with albinos in the process of testing
their genetic behaviour. There appears to be no need to set out the
results in detail, but the following points may be noted :—

The size of litter in the three types of mating—albino x albino,
albino x yellow, and albinox colour other than yellow—is given in
Appendix A.

The colour composition of the litters from albino x colour con-
formed to the rules now well established for the heredity of albinism
in mice.

Fourteen of the matings albino x colour yielded some albino young;
the total young from these matings numbered 37 albino: 30 coloured,
expectation being equality.

APPENDIX C.
Piebald Mice.

_ A piebald chocolate-and-white mouse appeared in a litter born to a
chocolate mouse bought in kindle from a dealer. I bred from it to the
F, generation in order to assure myself that it acted as a recessive to
self-colour.

References.
BATESON . 1903 . ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ London.
————— . 1909 . *Mendel’s Principles of Heredity’ (coloured illus-

trations of mice).
Baur . . 1907 . ‘Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges.,’ vol. xxv.

EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE. 175

CastLE . .. 1906 . ‘Science,’ N.S., vol. xxiv.
. 1910 . ‘Science,’ N.S., vol. xxx.

CufnoT . . . ‘Arch. Zool. Exp. Gen.,’ vols. 1., ., II., VI.

DaRBISHIRE . 1903 . ‘ Biometrika,’ vol. 1.

DurHAM . 1908 . ‘Rept. IV. Evolution Com., Royal Society.’

—_—_—_ . 1911 : ‘Jour. Genetics,’ vol. I.

Haqgepoorn . 1909 (1) . ‘Arch. Entwickelungsmechanik,’ vol. xxvii.

——— . 1909 (2) . ‘Univ. California Pub. Physiol.,’ vol. m1.

LAURIE . 1909 . ‘Rept. Com. Brit. Ass.’ in ‘ Rept. Brit, Ass.,’ Dublin
1908.

— - 1912 . ‘Rept. Com. Brit. Ass.’ in ‘ Rept. Brit. Ass.,’ Plymouth
1911.

Morcan . 1905 . ‘Science,’ N.S., vol, xxm.

Witson . 1906 . ‘Science,’ N.S., vol. xxmr.

The Question of Fatigue from the Economic Standpoint.—
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
J. H. Muirgeap (Chairman), Miss B. L. Hurcuins (Secre-
tary), Miss A. M. ANpbgERSON, Professor BAINBRIDGE,
Mr. EK. Capsury, Mr. P. SARGANT FLORENCE, Professor
STANLEY Kent, Mr. W. T. Layton, Dr. T. G. Marrnanp,
Miss M. C. Marueson, Dr. C. §. Myers, Mr. J. W. Rams-
BOTTOM, and Dr, J. JENKINS Ross. In addition, help has
been kindly afforded by the following: Miss MABEL ATKIN-
son, Dr. Wm. Brown, Mr. ARTHUR GREENWOOD, and Dr.
Upney YULE.

Tue Committee has met four times, and has made a preliminary
survey of the subject of investigation, and has discussed the matter
at some length.

An extensive Bibliography of Fatigue has been prepared for the
use of the Committee by Miss B. L. Hutchins.

A short report has been drawn up on industrial experiments in
shortening hours, also by Miss Hutchins.

Some notes have been kindly contributed by Dr. William Brown
on the existing state of psychological knowledge in regard to fatigue.

A Memorandum on the provisional aims and methods of the inquiry
has been drawn up by Mr. Ramsbottom, and adopted by the Com-
mittee as a basis of its future work.

As a result of our preliminary survey, we have become aware that
a considerable amount of work on the subject has been done in America
and on the Continent of Europe, and, so far, comparatively little in
this country.

We consider, however, that but little definite information exists,
and detailed scientific investigation is badly needed, especially in
view of the rapid development of the factory industry and the pro-
gressive urbanisation of the working class in this country.

_ We propose, if reappointed, to adopt the following method of
investigation :—

Mr. Ramsbottom has defined the object of inquiry as being ‘ to

176 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

ascertain the effect on physique, accident occurrence, production and
general social well-being of present conditions relating to fatigue
occurrence in industrial work, and to discuss possible improvements
therein, and the best methods of obtaining them.’ We concur with
this definition.

We hope that Dr. Maitland, being a member of our Committee,
will prepare a short résumé of existing knowledge on the effects of
muscular and mental fatigue respectively. We shall also endeavour
to ascertain what are the main subjective and objective determinants
of fatigue; e.g., what is the relative importance of muscular work,
mental strain, monotony, atmospheric wet-bulb temperature (kata-
thermometric condition), noise, light, etc.; and to discover some
reliable physiological quantitative index of fatigue, and the chief
physiological effects of over-fatigue.

We shall consider the questions what increase, if any, has occurred
in general morbidity in recent years, and to what extent this can be
ascribed to industrial fatigue ; and what difference can be traced between
the morbidity cases of workers in various age groups from fifteen
upwards engaged in occupations involving long hours of work or
specially fatiguing conditions, and those for all workers or workers in
fairly easy occupations.

We shall also consider the incidence of industrial accidents in
relation to hours of work; and the variation in the output of work
per hour during the day, and the output per day with various lengths
of working-day.

We propose to give special attention to the speeding-up of
machinery, and to inquire how far this has been accompanied by a
reduction of hours.

We shall also consider the probable social reactions of over-
fatigue, and what general remedies, if any, may seem most promising
and hopeful.

The Committee has made a preliminary division of the work, as
so sketched, among the following sub-committees :—

Physiological and Psychological. Industrial. Statistical.
Dr. Maitland (Convener). Miss Anderson. Mr. Layton (Convener).
Prof. Muirhead. Mr. Cadbury. Miss Hutchins.
Dr. Myers. Mr. Florence (Convener). Mr. Ramsbottom.
Dr. Bainbridge. Miss Hutchins. Dr. Yule.
Dr. Legge. Miss Matheson.

Mr. Ramsbottom.

And we have appointed Mr. Ramsbottom as hon. organising secretary.
For purposes of the foregoing inquiries we think it will be essential
to obtain the services of expert and paid assistants.
The Committee ask to be reappointed, with the addition of the
words ‘ social and ’ before ‘ economic,’ in their terms of reference, and
to be allotted a grant.

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. Wit

Gaseous Hxplosions.—Seventh Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. DuGALD CLERK (Chairman), Professor DALBY
(Secretary), and Professors W. A. Bonz, F. W. BURSTALL,
H. L. CALLenpaR, E. G. Coker, H. B. Dixon, Drs. R. T.
GLAZEBROOK and J. A, Harker, Colonel H. C. L. HoLpEn,
Professors B. Hopkinson and J, EK, Preraven, Captain H.
RiALL SANKEY, Professors A. SMITHELLS and W. WATSON,
Mr. D. L. CHapman and Mr. H. E. WIMPERIS.

Tue decease of the Chairman, Sir William Preece, was reported to the
Committee in December last, when a letter of condolence was sent to
the family.

Sir William Preece had associated himself intimately with the
investigations carried out by the Committee, and contributed an interest-
ing Note on the Kinetic Theory of Gases. As Chairman he did much
to help forward the important work on which the Committee is
engaged both by his valuable suggestions and by his tactfulness and
resource. His loss is not only deeply deplored, but felt to be a
personal one by every member of the Committee.

The Vice-Chairman, Dr. DucaupD CLERK, was unanimously elected
Chairman.

The Committee met three times during the session 1913-14 at the
City and Guilds (Engineering) College, Exhibition Road, London, S.W.
The following Notes were presented and discussed :—

Note 82 by Professor Datpy on Suction Temperatures directly
measured and deductions therefrom, together with a summary of a
series of seventeen experiments made at the City and Guilds (Engineer-
ing) College on a Crossley gas-engine with a cylinder seven inches in
diameter, stroke fourteen inches, and with a compression ratio at 4’8.

Note 33 by Mr. H. E. Wimpsris on Thermal Efficiency.

Note 34 by Professor EK. G. Coker and Mr. W. A. ScosLE on
Temperature Distribution in the Cylinder of a Gas-engine.

Note 35 by Professor W. Warson on the Spectroscopic Study of
the Combustion of Air-petrol Mixtures.

The object of Note 32 was to show how the suction temperature
varied with the speed, with the jacket temperature, and with the
mixture. The records given in the Note relate to trials Nos. 72 to 90.
The data were obtained by a research student of the City and Guilds
(Engineering) College, Mr. Limbourne, working under the supervision
of Professor Dalby. A table included in the Note shows the variation
in the suction temperatures, and a set of curves, also included, gives
the temperatures of the working mixture; these indicate how the direct
knowledge of the suction temperature can be applied to determine the
temperatures at other parts of the cycle.

In Note 33 Mr. Wimperis discusses the thermal efficiency of an
‘engine using as the working agent a standard gas referred to in the first

1914. N

178 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

report of the Committee, and using in his calculations the values of
the internal energy defined by the curve in fig. 6 of that report.

In Note 84 Professor Coker describes the method of measuring
the cyclical temperature in a gas-engine cylinder used by him at the
Technical College, Finsbury, and gives the results of some recent
experiments. Curves are included showing the temperature of the
explosive charge, together with tables of the actual temperatures at
various points in the cycle. A full description of the thermo-couple
used in these experiments is given in the Note.

In connexion with Note 35 Professor Watson showed a series of
photographs of the spectrum of the light given by the burning charge
in the cylinder of a petrol engine. The results show that the gases
in the cylinder continue to emit light giving a line spectrum for a
considerable time after the chemical changes are generally assumed to
have been completed.

Before proceeding to consider the work carried out during the
current session it has been thought advisable to give a brief summary
of the previous reports of the Committee. a.

Summary of Previous Reports.

The first report is- devoted mainly to the subject of the specific
heats of gases at high temperatures. The constant-pressure experi-
ments of Wiedemann, Regnault, Holborn, and Henning are analysed
and discussed, and a curve is given showing the energy of CO,, steam,
and air in terms of the temperature Centigrade. The experiments of
Dr. Dugald Clerk are described, and the results obtained compared
with the constant-pressure experiments mentioned above. ‘The closed
vessel experiments of Mallard, Le Chatelier, and Langen are analysed
and the results plotted and discussed.

The report ends with the discussion of thermal equilibrium, chemical
equilibrium, the motion of a gas, and the measurement of temperature.
A curve is given showing the internal energy of a gas-engine mixture
in terms of the temperature. _

There is an appendix by Professor Callendar on ‘ The Deviation of
Actual Gases from the Ideal State,’ and on ‘ Experimental Errors in
the Determination of their Specific Heats.’ .

The second report is mainly devoted to the subject of the specific
heat of gases at high ‘temperatures... Regnault’s results at low tem-
peratures “are discussed-in the light of Mr. Swann’s experiments,
which were conimunicated to. the Committee by Professor Callendar.
The Committee definitely adopted Mr, Swann’s values for air and for
CO, as given below... -

Volumetric heat of air at 100° C. is 19-8 lbs. per cubic foot,

ce = CO, at 20° C. is 27-4 Ibs. per cubic foot, and
at 100° C. is 30-7 lbs. per cubic foot.

The results of the experiments made by Dr. Dugald Clerk with the
object of determining the volumetric heat of air at high temperature
are given in the report, together with a description. of Professor

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 179

Hopkinson’s experiments on the compression of air in a gas-engine
cylinder.

Dr. Watson’s researches on the efficiency of a petrol motor are
included in the report. Dr. Watson made a simultaneous measure-
ment of the quantities of air and petrol taken into the engine and of
the chemical composition of the exhaust gas. The point brought out
was that the ratio of hydrogen to carbon in the exhaust gas was greater
than the ratio of hydrogen to carbon in the petrol used. Additional
evidence of this discrepancy is furnished by some experiments of
Professor Hopkinson, and the experiments of Hopkinson and Watson
are in agreement.

The report concludes with an account of the experiments on radia-
tion carried out by Professor Hopkinson.

There are two appendices: one relating to Regnault’s corrections in
connection with the determination of the specific heat of air, and the
other relating to Deville’s experiments on the dissociation of gases by
Dr. Harker.

The third report is devoted mainly to the consideration of the
subject of radiation from gases. A brief general history of the subject
is given, together with a record of the experiments of Professor
Hopkinson and of Professor Callendar. The report discusses the direct
effect of radiation on the efficiency of internal-combustion motors, the
amount of radiation from flames, and the molecular theory of radiation
from gases as well as the question of the transparency of flames to
their own radiation. There is an appendix on the radiation of flames
by Professor Callendar, giving some account of experiments made with
a Méker burner; a second appendix on the radiation in a gaseous
explosion by Professor Hopkinson; and a third appendix which
contains abstracts from various papers relating to the application of
heat radiation from luminous flames to Siemens’ Regenerating
Furnaces.

The fourth report merely notes the number of meetings held during
the year, and states that, partly owing to the breakdown of apparatus
and partly to the demands made upon the time of the various investi-
gators, only two notes were read; consequently it was decided that
the work then on hand should be included in the report for the
following year.

The fifth report continues the discussion of the effect of radiation,
and is devoted mainly to the consideration of the factors which deter-
mine the heat flow from the gas to the walls of the cylinder. The
remarkable effect of turbulence on the rate of combustion is first
mentioned in this report. Particulars of Dr. Dugald Clerk’s experi-
ments are given, and these experiments definitely establish the fact
that but for turbulence the speed at which modern internal-combustion
engines are run would be impossible. Professor Hopkinson’s experi-
ments, in which a fan was placed inside a closed vessel and the rates
of combustion observed with the fan at rest and in motion, are recorded
in the report, and confirm Dr. Clerk’s results.

In the sixth report the resignation of Dr. Dugald Clerk and
Professor Hopkinson from the Joint Secretaryship of the Committee is

N 2

180 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

reported. Dr, Clerk consented, however, to act as Vice-Chairman,
and Professor Dalby was appointed Secretary.

The Committee allocated the whole of the grant to the Secretary
for the purpose of providing him with a permanent research assistant
to carry on the work. It was stated that Professor Dalby and Dr.
Clerk were engaged on the design of an experimental plant to be
placed in the new laboratory of the City and Guilds (Engineering)
College.

Six notes, relating chiefly to heat flow, temperature, and leakage,
are briefly summarised.

Object of Present Report.

The following report is devoted partly to the special consideration
of temperature measurements and subjects arising therefrom, and partly
to the illustration of the use which can be made of the data obtained by
the Committee.

Methods of Measuring Temperature of the Charge in a Gas-engine
Cylinder under working conditions.

One of the problems requiring solution was the direct measurement
of the temperature of the working agent in the cylinder while the
engine was running under ordinary working conditions. The difficulty
of making this measurement arises from the fact that during the

explosion of the charge in the engine cylinder the temperature is
sometimes higher than that of the melting-point of platinum or of the
couples which can be put in the cylinder to make the measurement.
In Note 32 is described a method devised by Professors Callendar
and Dalby,’ which for the first time enabled direct observation of the

1 Proc. Roy. Soc., A., vol. 80, 1907.

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 181

suction temperature to be made while the engine was working not
only under normal conditions but under special conditions, during
which the richest possible mixture was used and the temperature
reached at explosion was considerably higher than that occurring in
practice. The thermometer itself consisted of a piece of platinum
wire about 0°7 inch long and ,1,, of an inch in diameter, arranged
with compensating leads. It is placed in a thermometer-valve, which
is inserted through the spindle of the admission-valve in the manner
shown in fig. 1, in which P is the platinum thermometer, and T is
the head of the thermometer-valve, which is inserted centrally in the

A G

\
B N
Lae | Sos
(ft ¢

\ E
Tp LAY SHAFT OF

GAS ENGINE.

Fic. 2.

admission-valve A. The spring S serves to close the admission-
valve, and the spring U serves to close the thermometer-valve. The
main casting, C, carrying these valves is bolted to the engine in the
ordinary way. A separate cam is mounted on the half-time shaft to
operate the central thermometer-valve, and the complete arrangement
is shown in fig. 2, where E is the cam; / and L are levers keyed to the
supplementary shaft Q, which is carried on the casting F'; the spring
S maintains contact between the end of the lever / and the cam. The
end of the thermometer with the leads projecting is shown at B.
The lever L is in contact with the nut N on the thermometer-valve.
The cam is so designed that during the explosion period the valve

182 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

is closed, and the thermometer therefore screened from the action
of the gas. In this way the thermometer is withdrawn just before
the end of compression, so that at this critical period of the cycle
there is nothing in the shape of a protuberance to cause preignition.
When the platinum thermometer is exposed in the cylinder and
connected to the Wheatstone bridge and galvanometer on which the
indications are received, the circuit is made by a contact-maker on the
crank-shaft when the crank passes through an assigned crank-angle, and
is broken by the contact-maker when the crank passes through a second
assigned crank-angle a little greater than the first, so that the electrical

ll fe
MY

INSULATION®

i=eT

OF AAMFPING
Sczew Ste tie 4.

Fig. 3.

measuring device is in operation during 5°, 10°, or 15° as the case
may be.

This contact-maker is a very important part of the electrical equip-
ment used in connexion with these temperature measurements, as it
enables a definite make and a definite break to be made in the electrical
circuit, and, in addition, enables the time between the make and break
to be adjusted with accuracy.

The contact-maker (fig. 3). consists of a brass bush B, keyed to a
lay shaft of the engine, and carrying two fibre washers or cains W, and
W:, which can be clamped in any relative angular position against the
flange of the bush by the nut N. A radial step, as w, is made in
each washer, and the surface gradually rises from the bottom of the
step to the normal circular surface of the washer. The reflexed ends

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 183

of the stiff springs S, and S, rest on the fibre cams. A projection 7,
carrying a platinum-pointed screw p is riveted to one of the springs,
and the-screw p is adjusted so that its point is just clear of the platinum
rivet in the other spring when both springs are riding on the circular
surfaces of their respective cams. Contact is made when the rotation
of the lay shaft in the direction of the arrow brings the radial step
w, of the cam W, under the spring S., thereby allowing it to fall down
the step, thus bringing p and r together. Contact is broken when the
radial step w. of the cam W; reaches the spring S:, thereby allowing
the second spring to fall down the step w.. The epoch and duration
of contact are readily adjusted by adjusting the angular positions of
the cams relatively to the bush and also with regard to one another.
The distances between the springs and the platinum contacts and the
steps w are exaggerated in the diagram in order to make the principle
of the apparatus clear. The percussion form of contact with platinum
points is found to give definite and certain results. The contacts keep

fi 4) t

“CLAMPING Screw
FIKREO PLATE
Fia. 4.

clean, and no trouble of any kind is experienced with them. The general
arrangement of the electrical connections are shown in fig. 4. In this
figure PS, QS are the equal ratio arms of the Wheatstone bridge.
The galvanometer G is connected to the point § and to the sliding
contact on the bridge-wire BW. The thermometer and its leads P
are connected on one side of the bridge-wire, and the compensator C
and the balancing resistance R on the other. The battery circuit
includes a mercury reversing key K, an adjustable resistance r, and
a storage cell V; and the battery is connected to the bridge at the
points P and Q, and to the brushes of the periodic contact-maker at E.
The brushes E are carried by an insulated arm A bolted to a divided
dise O riding loosely on the lay shaft of the engine, and capable of
being clamped in any position by the screw L. The index I shows
the crank-angle corresponding to the middle point of the contact when
the insulated copper strip D carried in thé fibre bush F passes under
the brushes,

184 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

The temperature is measured, therefore, during a particular crank-
angle determined by the setting of the contact-maker. This can
be set, while the engine is running, to determine the make and
break at any assigned crank-angle in the revolution. It was usually
set so that the interval between the make and break was 5° or 109.
In this manner the mean temperature over a small crank-angle can
be measured at any point in the cycle, except only during the period
of the explosions when the thermometer is withdrawn from the cylinder.
But although there is this possibility with the method it is desirable
to measure the temperature at a point on the cycle where the rate
of change of temperature is at a minimum. ‘This point occurs just
after the closing of the suction-valve. The great advantage of making
the measurement at this point is that the thermometer is exposed to
the incoming charge during the whole of the suction-stroke and
therefore the thermometer-valve tends to assume the temperature of
the charge; consequently the temperature which the small wire is set
to measure does not differ greatly from the temperature of the metal
in which it is mounted. This condition tends to minimise the errors
of measurement. At any other point in the cycle the rate of change
of temperature is greater; and the error of the measurements, there-
fore, is likely to be greater owing to the lag of the thermometer.
On the expansion-stroke, for example, the temperature may vary as
much as 150° during the movement of the piston through ;4, of the
stroke. Just after the closing of the suction-valve the variation of
temperature during the movement of the piston through ;4, of the
stroke is only about 20°.

Having found the temperature at one point in the cycle, the tem-
perature at any other point can be calculated by using the charge itself
as the thermometric agent. The characteristic equation of the charge is

oa constant. If, therefore, from the indicator diagram taken at

the time the temperature was measured, the corresponding pressure
and volume are measured, then the temperature at any other point of
the cycle can be calculated by the aid of this constant and the pressure
and volume scaled from the indicator diagram, allowance being made
for chemical contraction of the charge after explosion. It is necessary
to have accurate indicator diagrams from which to measure the
pressure and volume for this purpose, and this has led to the develop-
ment of an optical indicator.

Ezample of the Application of the Method to an Engine Trial
(72) at the City and Guilds (Engineering) College.

The general procedure in making temperature measurements by
this method, and with an improved optical indicator devised by Pro-
fessor Dalby and Dr. Watson, may be illustrated by data obtained
during a trial made at the City and Guilds (Engineering) College by
Professor Dalby last year, a full report of which will be found in
Note 32 communicated to the Committee.

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 185

Indicator Diagrams.

In each trial two indicator diagrams were taken—namely, a com-
plete diagram showing the pressure and volume during the. whole
cycle, and a diagram taken with a thin dise stopped down so as to
give on a large scale the portion of the diagram during the pumping-
stroke. The diagrams are in general calibrated in situ.

°
°
+
°
N
-
°
=
3
3
° 3 ss
oa g e
¢ ta
matin
° oO
a 3

+ 249-75 lbs O”

Fra, 5.

+ 199:75

+ 149-75

+t 99-75

+ 49°75

Ats

Fia. 6.

In carrying out a series of experiments, however, it was found that
the scale was so constant that it was unnecessary to calibrate each
diagram separately. The scale was therefore made for the two discs
used, and was checked from time to-time. A pair of typical diagrams

186 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

taken during trial No. 72, together with the scales, are shown in
figs. 5, 6, 7, 8. The following data relate to trial No. 72:—

Mixture 6'88 air to 1 gas by volume.

Jacket temperature 29°5.

Temperature measured at crank-angle 200°; 77° C.

Pressure measured from the diagram at 200° crank-angle; 147
per square inch.

Volume measured at this point, 0°38872 cubic feet.

peter ee NB (NEE 10) |
10
aad = Ath 2073 eae
" 10
zi A+19 75
10
ot ee ALL 9: 75)
Z A + 4-75
475 aad

Fira. 8.

Speed 106 revolutions per minute.
The gas constant for the charge is therefore = 0'01616.

This constant may now be used to calculate the temperature at any
point along the compression-curve, since at a point where the pressure
is P and the volume V, the temperature is:
eee
01616"

187

_ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS.

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188 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Fig. 9 shows temperature-curves for the compression stroke calcu-
lated in this way, both for trials 72 and 73. Trial 73 was run at about
200 r.p.m.

The constant, however, cannot be applied during the whole eycle,
because, although the weight of the charge remains the same, assum-
ing that there is no leak, yet the volume corresponding to this weight
is slightly different after the explosion has taken place owing to the
contraction due to the chemical rearrangement of the constituents.
The chemical contraction is calculated from the analyses of the gases.
In the gas used in the experiments referred to the contraction
amounted to 3°14 per cent. The effect of this is to change the gas
constant for all points along the expansion-curve from 0°01616 to
0°01565. moot

The curve, fig. 10, shows the temperatures calculated along the
expansion-curves for trials 72 and 73. Ly:

When applying this method of taking the temperatures the governor
should be put out of action, so that there shall be no change in the
rate of the supply of gas which will produce a disturbance of the
temperature in the cycle. Any disturbance produced in a particular
cycle causes a temperature wave through a long series of succeeding
cycles. In practice the gas-engine can be run without any difficulty
without the governor if the engine is coupled to a generator, because
the generator automatically settles down to the speed corresponding
to the power applied to it, and by regulating the resistance of the
armature or the fields, or both, the desired speed can be maintained
for long periods. A special switch-board and a resistance-board have
been designed for the engine at the City and Guilds (Engineering)
College for the purpose of controlling the generator.

Method of Measuring the Temperature of the Charge by means of a
Thermo-couple.

The second method of measuring the temperature of the charge
in the cylinder is by means of a couple. This method has been
developed by Dr. Coker and Mr. Scoble at the Technical College, Fins-
bury. It was found that alloys of platinum with rhodium and iridium
respectively were able to withstand the temperature of explosion
near the walls of the cylinder for some hours or even days when
made into thermo-couples ;5355 to z5859 1 an inch thick, provided

The general relation between electromotive force and temperature
found for one of the couples used is

E (microvolts)= —174 + 7.60757 — 0.001673T?.

The general arrangement of the apparatus is shown in fig. 11.
The battery B and resistances R, and R, are arranged in circuit
so that the fall of potential between the extreme points of a bridge-

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 189

0:6

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190 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

wire, BW, can be adjusted to 1 millivolt. This is tested by the
electromotive force of a cadmium cell, C, which can be opposed to the
battery electromotive force by means of the upper key, K,, an allowance
for the known temperature variation of the electromotive force of the
standard cell used being made by an adjustable contact-maker, D.
The thermo-electric couple, H, has one lead connected to the lower
key, K2, and the other set to a set of resistances, S, in the main circuit,
each of which gives a difference of potential of 1 millivolt when the

Lo Contact-Haker

Fie. 11.—Thermo-Electric Bridge.

adjustments are correct. During an observation, therefore, the battery
electromotive force opposes that of the couple and the readings of
the bridge-wire and step resistance taken together measure the electro-
motive force of the couple when the galvanometer, G, shows a
balance. The scale of the bridge-wire is graduated to read to 10 micro-
volts, and single microvolts may be read by estimation. The majority
of the observations were taken when using a D’Arsonyal galvanometer,
giving, on a scale distant 110 centimetres, a deflection of 560 milli-

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 191

eee) i

eect Sausuaeae
BES
oa cE

AIR INLET TEMP. 21°C.
VOLUME

JACKET TEMP. 30°C.

SUCTION TEMP. & MIXTURE
BY

i
f

NT LEAF)

AGE meh
MARI I
mm

y |
| | hao
B
a

Rez wea
MIXTURE AIR TO GAS

Z|
pee Pty ee
Mile Yok ob bf ok]
eee

a a
re) ® ae re)
"Os BUNLVYAdWaa

Fie. 12.

192 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

metres for 1 microvolt. The contact-maker used with this apparatus
is one devised by Professors Callendar and Dalby, which has already
been described and illustrated in fig. 3.

Suction Temperature.

Direct measurements of the suction temperature were made at the
City and Guilds (Engineering) College during the session 1912-13 on
a Crossley gas-engine with a cylinder 7 inches in diameter, stroke
14 inches, and with a compression ratio of 4°8. The object of the
experiment was to show how the suction temperature varied with the
speed, with the jacket temperature, and with the mixture.

The apparatus with which the measurement was made has been
already described (see pages 180, 181, 182, and 183). The results of the
experiments are shown by the curves fig. 12. It is proposed to repeat
these experiments on engines of more modern type and with higher
compression ratios as soon as the development of the new laboratories
at the College render it possible to do so.

The Cyclical Variation of the Temperature of the Charge in a
Gas-engine Cylinder,

An example has already been given of the method of determining
the cyclical variation of the temperature of the charge in a par-
ticular experiment, deducing it from the temperature measured at a
point on the compression curve in combination with accurate indicator
diagrams. The experiment was made at the City and Guilds (Engineer-
ing) College on the gas-engine already referred to. The engine
is not of recent construction and therefore the compression ratio, viz.
4°8, is low compared with the ratios of gas-engines of more modern
construction. Dr. Coker and Mr. Scoble have measured the cyclical
variation of temperature on a more modern engine constructed by
the National Gas-Engine Company in 1907. This engine has a
cylinder 7 inches in diameter and a stroke of 15 inches. The maxi-
mum volume occupied by the charge is 5'8 times the minimum volume.
The method adopted was to measure directly by means of a platinum
couple the temperature at various points along the compression-curve
and along part of the expansion-curve, but the highest temperature
had still to be measured by using the charge itself as a gas-thermometer.

A value of = is selected from a point on the expansion-stroke, and

the constant so found is used to calculate the higher temperatures. In
this method it is unnecessary to make any calculation regarding the
chemical contraction before and after explosion because the temperature
is measured after the explosion, but the rate of change of temperature at
the point where the temperature is measured is very great, and there-
fore, in comparing the two methods, it is necessary to choose between
a temperature measured when the rate of change is great with a
corresponding lag and no correction for chemical contraction, as against
a method of measuring the temperature when the rate of change is a
minimum, viz. just after the closing of the suction-valve, and allowing

193

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS.

AOVHYOILNAO

a ee

BARE
eRe

360

180

360

COMPRESSION EXPANSION EXHAUST

SUCTION

Fig, 13.

1914.

194 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

for chemical contraction. With suitable precautions both methods can
be made to give consistent results.

The curve in fig. 13 shows the temperature cycle in a gas-engine
cylinder determined by Dr. Coker and Mr. Scoble when the ratio of
air to gas was 735 to 1. The jacket-temperature was 35°6° C., and
the highest temperature calculated was 1836° C.

TEMPERATURE CYCLE OF GAS CHARGE.—CONDITIONS.

Curve Number I.H.P. Bens cee “ Tey dene
1. 10-24 7:35/1 35:6
2. 9-96 7:08/1 37-2
3. 10-11 7-13/1 81-4
4. 10:36 6-71/1 40-6
5. 10:36 5-66/1 52°8
6. 9-74 6-64/1 43-7

Application of the Work of the Committee to Practical Problems.

The application of the work of the Committee to practical problems
can be illustrated in connection with the calculation of the heat ex-
changed between the working agent and the walls of a gas-engine
cylinder.

First Law of Thermodynanucs and the quantities necessary to apply
it to determine heat lost or gained by the working charge during a
change of state.

Let A (fig. 14) be a point on the pressure volume diagram repre-
senting the state of a working agent with regard to its pressure and
volume. Let the state change along the path A, B, so that B repre-
sents the state after the change. Then

The heat received by the’ The work’
: t The change
ee ea ee ef Maes 08) Sd anit ae Paes |=
a silos ei be ag oe of ~ | charge J nal energy (+) ‘he agent (1)
uring the change o per pound on its en-
state from A to B=Q vironment

That is, reckoning in thermal units,

Q=M(Hs—Ey) +4. wt! soc em

In which Q is measured in pound calories.
M is the mass of the charge in pounds.
Ez is the internal energy of the charge in its final state.
Ea is the internal energy of the charge in its initial state.
Z is the work done by the agent on its environment measured in foot-
pounds.
J = 1,400.

Earlier it was assumed that the specific heat of the gas used in the
gas-engine cylinder was constant, and that the change of internal energy
was determined by the change of temperature only. With this as-
sumption the first term on the right-hand side of the equation was

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 195

reckoned by merely multiplying the specific heat into the change of
temperature corresponding to the change of state from A to B, the
mass of the charge M being calculated from the general relation,
PV
M=7 ees a exe 48)
corresponding values of P, V, and T being taken from any point
on the path where they could be determined. It is known, however,

that the specific heat is variable, and the Committee began their work
by reviewing all the available experimental data in connexion with the
subject. Several members of the Committee were themselves carry-
ing out researches in relation to this problem at the same time.

Data found to enable this Determination to be made.

The aim of the Committee was to ascertain the true value of the
specific heat at constant volume, Ky, or, to put it in another way, to
ascertain the relation between the internal energy of the gas and its
temperature. In dealing with gas-engine problems it is more
convenient to combine equations (1) and (2) into a single expression in
which the specific heat is given not in terms of the unit of mass, but
in terms of the unit of volume at standard pressure and temperature.
Substituting in equation (3) for the standard pressure, 1 atmosphere,
for the standard temperature, 273° C. absolute, and for the gas con-
stant, c=96, it will be found that the weight of a cubic foot of the
working agent at standard temperature and pressure is ‘081 lb., and
therefore in terms of foot-pounds, and still assuming that the specific
heat at constant volume is constant, equation (2) becomes,

JQ = 081 JK, (change of temperature) + Z.
02

196 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

The quantity 0°081 JK, represents the change of internal energy
in foot-pounds per degree change of temperature per cubic foot as
measured at standard temperature and pressure. When K, is variable
and is a known function of T, say #(T), the term becomes

T,
0-081 J @ (T) aT.
1

Values of this expression in which the lower limit T, is 0 degrees
Centigrade can be read off the curve given in fig. 10, which is taken
from the first Report.

HOLBORN & HENNING.
CLERK CE es

LANGEN! Po eg
MALLARD & LE CHATEUER__._ 9

ENERGY, FOOT-LBS. PER CUBIC FOOT

TEMPERATURE 7 CENTIGRADE
Fig. 15.

To use this curve to find the internal energy corresponding to a
given state-point it is necessary to measure the pressure P and
volume V from a PV diagram, and also to determine the absolute
temperature T. The corresponding volume at standard temperature
and pressure is then calculated from the equation,

peer A
ea P,

This calculated value of V, when multiplied by the internal energy
as given by the curve for the temperature T gives the internal
energy of the gas corresponding to the given state-point.

Symbolically let

E, = internal energy corresponding to the position of a state-point A.

Va, = the corresponding volume measured at A reduced to standard temperature
and pressure, and

Y; = the ordinate of the curve measured at the temperature corresponding to
the temperature of the state-point, then

Ea = Va, Yz

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 197

The position of the points A and B on the PV diagram gives no
indication of the temperature at A or B. If the temperature at one
of the points, however, is known, then the temperature at the second
point can be calculated from the relation

Se ee a ee te)

This relation expresses the characteristic equation for gases, and is
quite independent of the specific heat of the gases concerned. It
applies to all positions of the state-point in the PV diagram provided
that the following two conditions are satisfied :—

Condition 1. That there is no change in density of the gas such as may be
produced by some change in its chemical constitution. ’
’ x 2. That the weight of the working agent during the change of state
from A to B is constant.

It is fundamentally important, therefore, to be able to measure
by direct observation the temperature corresponding to at least one
position of the state-point in the diagram, because by means of this
temperature and the relation expressed in equation (4) the temperature
corresponding to any other position of the state-point in the diagram
can be calculated, providing always that the conditions 1 and 2 are not
violated during the change of state. If the first condition is violated
there is a small change of volume caused by chemical action as the
state-point moves from A to B, and in order to calculate the magnitude
of this change it is necessary to have a chemical analysis of the
gas before and after chemical action. When these analyses are known
a correction can be made and equation (4) can still be applied to calcu-
late the temperature. This kind of action has to be reckoned with,
for example, if the state-point A is on the compression-curve of a gas-
engine and the state-point B is on the expansion-curve.

The earlier part of this report shows that the Committee have given
a good deal of consideration to the subject of the direct measurement
of temperature, and that individual members have worked at the
problem successfully. Examples have been given earlier in the report
of methods which have been applied and are being used in the
researches which are now being carried out. This example shows how
the equation (4) is used to calculate the temperature for different
positions of the state-point B from observations of a single tempera-
ture. The single temperature which it is most useful to know is the
suction-temperature, and this may be defined as the temperature of the
charge in the cylinder just after the admission valve is closed. There
is then a definite weight of charge in the cylinder at a definite
pressure and volume, and at a definite temperature. Allowing for
the chemical contraction, equation (4) can be applied along the expan-
sion-curve.

The Committee have examined into the question of leak of charge,
and have come to the conclusion that in most cases in a modern
engine it is a negligible amount when proper precautions are taken.

198 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

These considerations show how important the suction temperature is
in combination with the indicator diagram, as from this temperature
and the pressure and volume given by the diagram the state of the
working agent all through the cycle can be determined, at least
approximately.

The values of the suction temperature for a particular engine are
exhibited in fig. 12 above, and a diagram of the kind would be useful
in connexion with any internal-combustion motor.

To resume, it can now be assumed that it is possible to fix a
temperature for one particular position of the state-point A, and then
the temperature at the end of the change of state B, if not observed,
can be calculated. With a knowledge of those temperatures the
internal energy of the working agent can be read off from the curve
(fig. 15), and then the first term on the right side of the equation, viz.

Hs — Ea = change of internal energy

is determined.

The value of the second term on the right side of equation (1) is
merely the value of the shaded area under the path AB expressed in
foot-pounds. Consequently, from a pressure-volume diagram giving the
initial and final conditions of the working agent and the path of the
state-point in between, together with the temperature corresponding to
one position of the state-point, the right side of the equation can be
determined and the heat gained or lost by the working agent during
the change can therefore be computed. If there is no gain or loss
of heat the work done is done at the expense of the internal energy
of the working agent itself. One of the main objects of the Committee
has been to extend our knowledge of the physical constants of the
gases by the careful examination of methods, apparatus, and results of
various investigators, including members of the Committee, and change
of state of the working charge in a gas-engine can now be followed
with a degree of accuracy which hitherto has been impossible.

A diagram from an actual gas-engine shows the PV changes during
the whole of the four-stroke cycle, but the method explained above
can only be applied to determine the heat exchanges during that part
of the cycle when the weight of charge enclosed in the cylinder is
constant—t.e. during the period between the closing of the suction-
valve and the opening of the exhaust-valve. There is no difficulty
in applying the method practically to a change of state along the com-
pression-curve because the conditions 1 and 2 above are fulfilled.
There is no chemical change and the weight of charge is constant.
Applying the method to the analysis of the expansion-curve, however,
there is difficulty. The left side of equation (1), Q, gives the heat
gained or lost by the gas during a change of state. Q includes the heat
gained by combustion as well as the heat gained or lost from outside, so
that it must be written

Q=04C

where O represents the heat gained or lost to the outside, and C repre-

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 199

sents the heat produced by combustion during the change. The diff-
culty is to separate these two during a change of state along the.
expansion-line. It is probable that combustion is not quite com-
plete at the point of maximum pressure; in fact some combustion may
be going on right up to the point at which the exhaust-valve opens.
If, therefore, two points are taken on the expansion-curve and this
method of analysis is applied, neglecting O, the heat loss determined
will obviously be too great.

An analysis of the diagram by this method will be found in Dr.
Clerk’s Gustave Canet lecture, and need not, therefore, be further
pursued. 5

Attention may be specially drawn to the curves in fig. 12, which
show the results of trials made for the purpose of ascertaining the
relationship between the suction temperature and the strength of the
mixture used and on the speed. When the mixture is 9 parts of air and
1 part of gas by volume the suction-temperature is about 70° C. at
a speed of 100 revs. per minute. At 200 revs. per minute the suction
temperature is increased to 783° C. At the constant speed of 200 revs.
per minute the temperature gradually increases as the mixture becomes
richer; with a 10 to 1 mixture the temperature is 75° C., and this
increases to 964° C. with a 6 to 1 mixture. Af the lower speed the
change in temperature is almost as great for a corresponding change
in the mixture, namely from 673° C. to 82° C. With a modern engine
using a higher compression it is probable that the temperatures would
be generally higher. Fig. 13 shows the cyclical variation of tempera-
ture aS determined by Dr. Coker on a more modern engine, and the
suction temperatures given by him are of the order of 200° C. Dr.
Coker explains this high suction temperature as being partly due to the
retention of hot gas and partly due to the long exhaust-pipe which was
used.

Dalby and Callendar’s experiments have shown that when using
rich mixtures the maximum temperature in the cylinder is probably
about 2000° C., and these results have been confirmed by Coker and
Scoble. For the mixtures used in ordinary working conditions the
experiments of Dalby, Callendar, Coker, and Scoble show that the
temperature is about 18009 C. It is hoped to continue the experiments
on temperature measurements when engines of more modern construc-
tion have been installed in the new engine laboratory of the City and
Guilds (Engineering) College.

The concentration of research on the accurate measurement of
temperature is a necessary step towards a more certain knowledge of
the specific heat of gases at high temperatures; and the vital import-
ance of this subject is indicated by the brief explanation given above of
the method by which the determination of heat exchange between the
working charge and the walls of the cylinder can be made. So far the
Committee have only been able to present the curves given in fig. 15
as representing the most reliable data available. The practical use to
which the curve can be put is illustrated by using the data given
by it to find the efficiency of an engine working on the Otto
cycle without loss of heat assuming that the mixture used is that

200 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

specified near the curve in fig. 15, this mixture being very much
nearer the actual mixture used in a gas-engine than air.

Thermal Efficiency.

Efficiency calculated from Efficiency of the

2 the curve and for the ae :
oF mixture given in fig. 13 air standard
2 “187 242

3 273 +356

+ ‘337 -426

3 “384 475

The Committee are of opinion that they can usefully continue their
work by organising research on the lines which have been foreshadowed
in this report. The Committee recommend, therefore, that they be
again re-appointed, and that, in view of the expensive nature of the
research and the organisation involved, the sum of 100/. be granted
to them.

Stress Distributions in Engineering Materials.—Report cf the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. PERRY (Chairman),
Professors E. G. Coxer and J. E. PETAvEL (Secretaries),
Professor A. Barr, Dr. C. CHREE, Mr. GILBERT CooK, Pro-
fessor W. E. Datpy, Sir J. A. Ewine, Professor L. N. G.
Firion, Messrs. A. R. Furron and J. J. Guest, Professors
J. B. Henperson and A. EK. H. Love, Mr. W. Mason, Sir
ANDREW NosLeE, Messrs. F. Rocrers and W. A. ScoBueE, Dr.
T. EK. Sranton, and Mr. J. S. Wimson, to report on Certain
of the More Complex Stress Distributions in Engineering
Materials.

THE reports presented at the Birmingham Meeting of the Association
led the Committee to the view that the co-ordination of the results of
various researches was rendered difficult by the diversity of the materials
used in the tests. It was therefore thought desirable to obtain complete
and systematic data with regard to three definite materials, namely,
a mild steel, a ‘3 per cent. carbon steel, and a steel alloy.

In accordance with a resolution passed at the meeting of December 19,
1913, a stock of three tons standard steel has been obtained for the Com-
mittee by Dr. F. Rogers. This consists of :—(1) Dead mild steel (carbon
‘12 per cent.) ; (2) Axle steel (carbon ‘3 per cent.) ; (3) Nickel steel.

Some of the steel has already been sent to various members of the
Committee, and in due course full information will be available with
regard to the behaviour of the three materials under a large number of
different tests.

The mild steel was kindly presented to the Committee by Messrs.
Steel, Peech, and Tozer, and the axle steel by Messrs. Taylor Bros.

Information with regard to the manufacture of the standard steels
is given in an Appendix.

A report on the ‘ Experimental Determination of the Distribution
of Stress and Strain in Solids’ has been presented by Professors Coker
and Filon.

A paper on the ‘ Internal Stresses in a Built-up Steel Compression

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 201

Member,’ by Mr. H. Delépine, has been communicated by Professor
Petavel, and will be read at the meeting.

A number of members of the Committee have, during the past year,
been engaged on subjects dealt with in last year’s report, but in most
cases the experimental work is not yet completed.

The subjects under investigation are the following :—

Professor Coker and Mr. Scoble: Shear Tests.

Mr. Cook: Tests of the Physical Constants of the Standard Steels.

Messrs. Cook and Robertson: Further Work on the Strength of Thick
Cylinders.

Mr. Fulton: Alternating Stress at Low Frequencies.

Mr. Guest and Professors Dixon and Lea: Combined Stresses.

Mr. Mason: Repeated Combined Stresses.

Dr. Rogers: Alternating Stress, Heat Treatment, and Microscopical
Examination.

Mr. Scoble: Repeated Combined Stresses.

Dr. Stanton: Repeated Shear Tests.

Mr. Mason has installed, in the Engineering Laboratory at the Uni-
versity of Liverpool, a machine specially designed for experimental work
on alternating bending, alternating torsion, and simultaneous alternating
bending and torsion. He has also constructed an apparatus for measure-
ment of hysteresis.

Dr. Stanton has made arrangements to test the standard steels, firstly
by reversals of simple shearing stress, then by superimposing bending
and direct stresses.

Mr. Guest and Professors Dixon and Lea have completed the erection
of their apparatus, and are engaged in preliminary experimental work.

The Committee ask to be re-appointed with a grant of 1001.

APPENDIX.

Outline of Manufacture of the Standard Steels.
By Dr. F. Rocers.

No. 1 Steel. (-12 per cent. Carbon.)

The materials used in the manufacture of this steel are hematite pig
iron, steel scrap and ore of the purest descriptions, melted very carefully
in the acid open hearth furnace.

The composition is adjusted by the addition of ferro-manganese,
after which the metal is cast into ingot-moulds. The ingots are then
rolled, with several heatings, into bars, which are reeled when black-hot,
giving a straightening and burnishing effect without injuring the steel.

This metal is suitable for high-class mild steel.

The bars supplied to the Committee are the whole usable portion of
two ingots, and weigh nearly 224 cwts.

No. 2 steel (‘3 per cent. carbon).

Report not yet received.

No. 3 steel (34 per cent. nickel).

Report not yet received.

Experimental Determination of the Distribution of Stress and Strain
in Solids. By Professors Frton and Coxer.
Very little has been done hitherto in the way of determining directly the
distribution of stresses and strains in the interior of an elastic solid. The

202 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

investigations which have been made deal almost exclusively with the
more restricted case of two-dimensional stress and strain, or of stress and
strain in a thin plate parallel to the faces of the plate itself, a problem
known to elasticians as that of ‘ generalised plane stress.’ !

In these cases two methods have proved available. The first method
consists in measuring directly the deformations of the body studied,
by observing the actual distortion of a face of the solid parallel to the
plane of strain. In practice this may be done by ruling this face into
squares and observing, with a kathetometer or micrometer, the relative
shifts of various parts of the network. From these, the extent by which
the angle at a node of the network has been changed from a right angle
can easily be found, and this quantity, as is well known, measures the
shearing strain (or ‘slide,’ according to a terminology followed by many
writers on elasticity, who reserve the word ‘ shear ’ to denote the shearing-
stress).

In this way values of the shearing-strain are obtained at the various
nodes of the network. Again, the changes of distance between adjacent

E
E. h
E

alas

Fra. 1.

nodes can be found, and from these, if the squares of the network are
sufficiently small, the extensions at the various nodes, parallel to the
lines of the net, can be obtained.

The plane-strain can, therefore, be mapped out over the whole face of
the solid which is under observation. If this method is to give satis-
factory results it must be applied to materials where the strains are
comparatively large. It has been applied with considerable success by
Professor Karl Pearson (1) and various workers associated with him to
models of dams constructed of gelatine-glycerine jelly, and in this way
various results of interest in the theory of masonry dams have been
obtained, although it cannot be said that the complete system of stresses
in such dams is yet known with any certainty. In other cases measure-
ments of the distortions produced in circles described on the face of a
model have been used to determine the principal strains and their direc-
tions, as in the experiments of Messrs. Wilson and Gore (2).

Dr. H. N. da C. Andrade (3) has also employed a block of jelly to
investigate the distribution of slide in such a block when two of its opposite

} Love, Theory of Hlastictty, p. 135,

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 203

faces AB, CD (Fig. 1) constrained to remain plane and parallel and un-
disturbed are given a translatory displacement relative to each other,
parallel to their plane.

Dr. Andrade found that along the middle plane EF of the block (half-
way, that is, between the two faces whose displacement was prescribed)
the distribution of slide gave two maxima at points H, K distant about
one-sixth of the length from the unstressed faces perpendicular to the
plane of strain, the slide falling gradually to a minimum at O.

For a section E’ F’ near the middle plane an effect of the same type
occurred, but was less marked. For a section EK” EF” near the face CD
where the constraint was applied the slide remained fairly uniform over
the greater part of the length of the section, going down rapidly at the
ends to the value zero at CD.

The problem attacked experimentally by Dr. Andrade is one of which
no exact theoretical solution is known. Dr. Andrade himself attempted
to fit his conditions by an approximate solution, but either through the
failure of the approximation, or from some other cause, the results of
observation and calculation agreed only qualitatively.

The second method used for the investigation of the distribution of
stresses inside a plate subjected to stress in its own plane depends on the
property, discovered by Sir David Brewster in 1816, and independently
by Fresnel, that glass and other isotropic transparent substances become
doubly refracting under stress.

Since then this effect has been studied by a number of observers (4).
It may be taken as fairly well established that when a ray of polarised
light traverses a plate stressed in its own plane, it is broken up into two
components, polarised along the two lines of principal stress at the point
where the ray crosses the plate, and the relative retardation of these two
rays on emergence in air is

C7(P—Q),

where rt = thickness of the plate, P and Q are the two principal mean
stresses in the plane of the plate, and C is a co-efficient depending upon
the material and the wave-length of the light (5).

Clerk Maxwell (6) was the first to go fairly fully into the theory of the
appearances presented when a plate under varying stress in its own plane
is placed between crossed Nicols. He showed that the light is restored
at all points except those for which :

(a) The lines of principal stress are parallel to the axes of the Nicols.

Since the condition for extinction of the light is here independent of
the wave-length, these lines will be quite black. These may be called the
lines of equal inclination or isoclinic lines.

(6) The principal stress-difference has such a value that Cr(P—Q) is an
exact multiple of the wave-length.

These will be lines of equal principal stress-difference, and will give
a different set of lines for different wave-lengths. They are thus, in
general, brilliantly coloured, the same stress-difference corresponding
tothesame tint. The only exception is the line corresponding to P—Q=0.

These may be called (following Maxwell) the zsochromatic lines, the
black line corresponding to P—Q=0 being called the neutral line.

Observations of the isoclinic lines have the advantage that these lines
are exhibited under comparatively small stress and are independent of
the co-efficient C. Their use does not, therefore, require straining the

204 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

material to an extent likely to produce permanent set, and they can be
shown by comparatively thin specimens. Also they do not require any
previous investigation of the co-efficient C for the given material, or of its
dependence upon the wave-length.

In theory observation of the isoclinic lines is sufficient to determine
the stress system, provided we have information as to the actual stresses
at a very limited number of points (7). Such information is generally
available from the known boundary conditions. -

On the other hand, the calculations required to actually deduce the
stresses from the isoclinic lines are complicated, and are very difficult
to apply to cases where the data are expressed by purely empirical curves.

The isoclinic lines are, therefore, better suited to experimental verifica-
tion of stress distribution already known from theory, and for which the
theoretical isoclinic lines can be calculated beforehand and compared
with observation. They have been so used by M. Corbino and Trabacchi
(8) using rings of gelatine to verify Volterra’s (9) theory of internal strains
in a multiply connected elastic solid; and also by Filon (10), who used
glass beams to verify the ordinary theory of stresses in a beam at a distance
from points of isolated loading, and also his own theory of the distribution
of stress in a beam near a point of isolated loading. Both Corbino and
Trabacchi, and Filon found that their experimental results confirmed the
predictions of the theory of elasticity (11). Carus Wilson (12), who used
in his investigation both the isoclinic and the isochromatic lines, was the
first to apply the optical method to discover the laws of stress distribution
in a glass beam, doubly supported and centrally loaded.

He gives a drawing of the lines of principal stress in such a beam, but
does not use them further, and restricts his comparison of theory with
experiment, to the stresses in the cross-section immediately under the load ;
the theory with which he compares his results was originally given by
Boussinesq (13), and treats the height of the beam as infinitely thick. Sir
G. G. Stokes gave, in a note to Carus Wilson’s paper, an empirical correc-
tion to Boussinesq’s theory. An exact theory of this problem has since
been given by Filon (14).

The use of the isochromatic lines and generally of experiments de-
pending upon tint has this advantage, that it yields directly the value
of the stress-difference P—Q. If this be combined with a determination
of the direction of principal stress at each point, then considerable direct
information is given at once, and some cases of practical importance have
been examined by Hénigsberg and Dimmer (15).

The determination both of P—Q and of the directions of principal
stress may be combined in one measurement, which is very simply made
by means of an apparatus due to Coker (16). Coker uses a thin celluloid
plate, cut to represent an engineering structure in which it is desired to
investigate the stresses. This is a more easily worked material than glass,
and a lesser thickness is required, as its stress-optical co-efficient is con-
siderable. To obtain a measure of the stress-difference at any point a
tension member is placed in front of the strained model, in a direction
corresponding to one of the principal axes of stress, and the colour effect
produced in the loaded model is neutralised by applying a sufficient load
to this calibrating member. The tensional stress T affords a measure of
the difference of the principal stresses (P—Q) subject to a small correction
when (P—Q) and T have different signs.

An improved way of doing this, which saves these repeated adjust-

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 205

ments of T,is to use a test-piece under pure flexure (without shear) in its
own plane. This can be readily produced in a straining frame as in the
accompanying diagram. The stress will then vary linearly from P to Q
and may be read off along a scale PQ, which can be previously calibrated
against a specimen under known tension.

A little sideways shift of the test-plate is then all that is required to
compensate the stress-difference at any given point, provided that the
direction of principal stress had been found previously.

Coker has used a calibration tension member to determine the distribu-
tion of stress in plates of various shapes—for example, in tension specimens

pierced with circular holes, decks of ships with various openings, cement
briquettes, &c. (17). He has also (18) investigated Andrade’s problem
of the block whose opposite faces slide with regard to one another re-
maining undistorted, and he obtains by this optical method a distribution
of shear very similar to that obtained by Andrade from direct measure-
ments of the slide. Mr. Scoble and he have also applied this method to
determine the distribution of stress due to a rivet in a plate (19).

The photo-elastic determination of stress carried out in this way does
not, however, determine the stress in the plate completely. It will be
noticed that all the method gives is the principal stress-difference at any
point. If each principal stress at a given point be increased by any
arbitrary quantity, the appearances are in no wise altered. To obviate
this, Coker has used the stretch-squeeze effect in the plate to measure
the sum P—Q of the principal stresses, a suggestion due originally to
Mesnager (20). For clearly, if r be the thickness of the plate, 1 Poisson’s
ratio, the plate, at the point where the principal stresses are P, Q, will
become thinner by an amount 77(P+Q) an amount which is small,
but with delicate instruments not impossible to measure.

It will be noticed that this provides yet a third method for exploring
the field of stress in a plate.

There is, however, no necessity for doing this, as the information
derived from the known values of the stress-difference and the direction
of the lines of principal stress can be readily applied to find the complete
system of stresses.

Let the axes of x and y be taken in the plane of the plate. Let P and
Q now denote the normal stresses across elements dy and dz respectively,
S the shearing stress across either of the above elements. Then, if the

206 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

lines of principal stress make an angle a with the axes, and if R is the
principal stress-difference, it is well known that

P=OQ=R cos 2a
2S=R sin 2a.

Thus a determination of R and a at every point Yeads to the value
of 8 at all points.

On the other hand, considering the equilibrium of a small rectangle
dz, dy and neglecting body-forces, we have the well-known body stress
equations for generalised plane strain,

sy eae ie wis
Se Sp ae ayaa.

Now, at a point of the boundary, all the stresses will be known.
For the normal stress across an element of the boundary where the
outwards normal makes an angle with the axis of wis

P cos? 6+Q sin? 64258 cos 6 sin 6

z= ae + ae cos 20+8 sin 20.
S and P—Q being known from optical data, and the normal stress across
the boundary being also known from the boundary conditions, the above
equation determines P+-Q and hence (P—Q being known) P and Q.
Consider now a point A of the plate. Draw a line through A parallel
to the axis of « to meet the nearest boundary at a point Ao (@p, y).
Then, integrating the equation

éP , 38

bu OY
along the line Ay A, we find
P— Pa -\5 da,
oy

where P, is the value of P at Ay.
Similarly, if a line through A parallel to the axis of y meets the nearest
boundary at a point Bo (x, yo) when the value of Q is Qo,

Yo
Now, if we know the value of S at all points, the values of the partial

’ : : 58
differential co-efficients dy’? dy, can be obtained approximately by

taking differences. P and Q can then be found as above by the ordinary
process of graphical integration, Pj, Q) being known, as explained. This
method can be used with any set of experimental data, provided only that
these are accurate enough to allow of differences being taken to calculate

Se’ By In any case, before actually applying the method, the curves for
S when either « = constant or y = constant should be ‘smoothed’ so

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 207

as to take out accidental inequalities. A check on the accuracy of the
calculation is easily provided, for the calculated P—Q should agree with
the value optically observed.

In many problems it is known that one of the normal stresses is through-
out verysmall. In this case, if Q, say, is nearly zero, we have P=R cos 2a,
and the stress difference leads easily to the complete system of stresses.
This assumption has been made by Coker in his earlier papers, but it
would seem desirable to justify it more fully.

NOTKS.

(References to these are given in the text.)

(1) Karl Pearson, A. F. C. Pollard, C. W. Wheen, and L. F. Richardson :
An Experimental Study of the Stresses in Masonry Dams. (Drapers’
Company Research Memoirs: Technical Series V.)

(2) J. S. Wilson and W. Gore: Stresses in Dams. ‘ Proc. Inst. C.E.,’
1908.

(3) H. N.daC. Andrade : The Distribution of Slide in a Right Six-face
Subject to Pure Shear. ‘R.S. Proc. A.,’ vol. 85, pp. 448-461.

(4) Sir David Brewster: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1816, p. 156. ‘ Annales de
Chimie et de Physique,’ vol. xx. Fresnel : ‘ @uvres d’Augustin Fresnel,’
tome 1, p. 713. F. E. Neumann, ‘ Abh. d. k. Acad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin,’
1841, vol. ii., p. 50-61. See also ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ vol. liv. John Kerr:
* Phil. Mag.,’ 1888, ser. 5, vol. 26, No. 161. G. Wertheim: ‘ Annales de
Chimie et de Physique,’ ser. 3, vol. xl., p. 156.

(5) F. Pockels: ‘Ueber die Aenderung des optischen Verhaltens
Verschiedener Glaser durch elastische Deformation,’ Ann. d. Physik, 1902,
ser. 4, vol. 7, p. 745. L.N.G. Filon: On the Variation with the Wave-
length of the Double Refraction in Strained Glass, ‘Camb. Phil. Soc.
Proc.,’ vol. xi. Pt. vi., vol. xii. Pt.i., and vol. xii. Pt. v. On the Dispersion
in Artificial Double Refraction, ‘ Phil. Trans. A.,’ vol. 207, pp. 263-306
(1907). Preliminary Note on a New Method of Measuring directly the
Double Refraction in Strained Glass, ‘ R.S. Proc. A.,’ vol. 79, pp. 440-442
(1907). Measurements of the Absolute Indices of Refraction in Strained
Glass, ‘ R.S. Proc. A.,’ vol. 83, pp. 572-578 (1910). On the Temperature
Variation of the Photo-elastic Effect in Strained Glass, ‘ R.S. Proc. A.,’
vol. 89, pp. 587-593 (1914).

(6) Clerk Maxwell: ‘ Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin.,’ vol. xx., 1853, p. 1172 ;
or ‘ Collected Papers,’ vol. i.

(7) A proof of the statement in the text is as follows :—Let E be the
stress function for generalised plane stress (Love: ‘ Theory of Elasticity,’
pp- 86 and 446), P, Q, S the mean stresses 22, 77, 7 in the usual notation,
R the principal mean stress-difference, ¢ the angle which the lines of
principal stress make with the axes.

Then it is known that

R= (P—Q)"-+48"
tan 24=28/P—Q

25=P sin 2¢ P—Q=R cos 2¢.
Also the mean stresses are given in terms of the stress function by
9 D 2
paz? # °K ga od 0}

megs She Rage ae ay

208 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Using the transformations

2é=r+-y
2n=x— Ly
we find readily
ré 10) 8 (OK
wes fe 2) a a le
= 2 (9) i aon 2
SS OTE THES: BP =— 55,
ed Dy _ &H
Q—P+2 2S= sa (1) Q—P—2.5 = op (2)
ako
Q+P=5- Sy (3)
From (1) and (2)
OK eH
pe —21p — = ae Hi a ee
Re 52 Re S72
Apo see
822 oy? (4)

Now, the isoclinic lines give ¢ as a function of a, y and therefore of €, y
for every point.
On the other hand, it is well known that E satisfies the equation

7) 0
vy
or
SE
82. 82

of which the solution is
=E, (£)+E.(y)+7E;(€)+-€H,(y) (5)

K,, Ey, E3, and Hy, being arbitrary functions.
(4) then gives

een] By"(Q4- my") ] Bs") +4") ()
Putting 7=0, €=0 successively in the identity (6)

Ey!" (€) =e 4b) 5 | B,"(0)+48,"(0) | (7)

By" (yg) =e Cm) ‘ [ #1"0)+7B"(0) (8)

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 209

Differentiating (6) with regard to &» and then putting €=0 and
n=0 respectively, we find

Bs"(={ 52. | By"(8)-+ nly’) Jeno

B= { 5 e-+4[ By"(n)+2,'Cn) | bo
4.€.,

Bn —=4e (58), Ba") tom {8,04 9850) | (9)

By"()= —4e( 58) Hy") | Hy(0)-+-€8/""(0) f (10)

Assume E,'’(0)=A, E3’’(0)=B, E,’”(0)=C, E3’’(0)=D.

Equations (7)-(10) determine E,”(7), Ey’’(n) and hence H,’(£), E,'’(é)
as homogeneous linear functions of A, B, C, D.

Hence E=Ae,+ Be,+Ce,+De,+ a€+ (3+ yén+s, where €1, C2, @3, C4
are now known functions and a, £, y, 6 are arbitrary constants.

The termsin a £ 6 do not affect the stresses and may be dropped.

The term y £ 7 may add y to P+Q.

If, now, the value of any stress be known at a given point, this leads
to a linear equation between A, B, C, D, y.

Hence the complete specification of the stress at two points leads to
six equations for A, B, C, D, yin like manner, if we consider the conditions
at the boundary, where two of the stresses are in general known, the con-
ditions at three points give six equations. In either case we have more
than enough equations to determine A, B, C, D, y.

Thus the stress conditions at a few points, together with the isoclinic
lines, determine the stress system completely.

(8) O. M. Corbino and Trabacchi: ‘ Rendiconti Acad. dei Lincei,’
vol. 18,1909. See also letter by O. M. Corbino in ‘ Nature,’ Jan. 16, 1913.

(9) Volterra: ‘ Annales de l’Ecole Normale de Paris,’ 1907.

(10) L. N. G. Filon: The Investigation of Stresses in a Rectangular
Bar by Means of Polarised Light, ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ Jan. 1912.

(11) Volterra, loc. cit. Note (8); Corbino, loc. cit. Note (7). Filon,
loc. cit. Note (9) ; also Filon, ‘ Phil. Trans. A.,’ vol. 201, pp. 63-155.

(12) Carus Wilson: ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ ser. 5, Dec. 1891.

(13) Boussinesq: ‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. 114, pp. 1510-1516. See
also Flamant : ‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. 114, pp. 1465-1468.

(14) L.N.G. Filon: Onan Approximate Solution for the Bending of a
Beam of Rectangular Cross-section under any System of Load: ‘ Phil.
Trans. A.,’ vol. 201, pp. 63-155.

(15) O. Hénigsberg and G. Dimmer: Interferenzfarben beanspruchter
durchsichtiger Kérper. O. Hénigsberg: Unmittelbare Abbildung der
neutralen Schichte bei Biegung durchsichtiger Kérper in zirkularpolar-
isierten Licht, ‘International Association for Testing Materials,’ Brussels
Congress, 1906.

(16) E. G. Coker: The Determination by Photo-elastic Methods,
of the Distribution of Stress in Plates of Variable Section, with some
Applications to Ships’ Plating, ‘Transactions of the Institution of Naval
"eet See especially pp. 9-11.

14. P

210 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

(17) E. G. Coker: Paper cited in Note 14 and the following :—The
Optical Determination of Stress, ‘ Phil. Mag.,’? 1910. The Distribution of
Stress at the Minimum Section of a Cement Briquette, ‘ International
Association for Testing Material,’ 1912.. The Effects of Holes and Semi-
circular Notches on the Distribution of Stress in Tension Members, ‘ Phy-
sical Society of London,’ 1913.

(18) E. G. Coker: An Optical Determination of the Variation of
Stress in a Thin Rectangular Plate subjected to Shear, ‘ Proc. Roy.
Soc.,’ 1912.

(19) E. G. Coker and W. A. Scoble: The Distribution of Stress due
toa Rivet in a Plate, ‘ Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects,’
1913.

(20) A. Mesnager: Mesure des efforts intérieurs dans les solides et
applications, ‘International Association for Testing Materials,’ Buda-
Pesth Congress, 1901.

The Lake Villages in the Neighbourhood of Glastonbury.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Boyp
Dawkins (Chairman), Mr. WiLLouGHBY GARDNER (Secre-
tary), Professor W. RipcEway, Sir ArTHUR J. Evans, Sir C.
HERcuLES READ, Mr. H. Batrour, and Mr. A. BULLEID,
appointed to investigate the Lake Villages in the Neighbour-
hood of Glastonbury in connection with a Committee of the
Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society.
‘Drawn up by Mr. ARTHUR BULLEID and Mr. H. St. GEorGE
Gray, the Directors of the Excavations.)

Tur fifth season’s exploration of the Meare Lake Village by the
Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society began on
May 13, 1914, and will be continued until May 27 (exclusive of filling
in). The ground being excavated is situated in the same field and is
continuous with the work of previous years. As the report has to be
sent in on May 22, while the excavations are in progress, any notes
regarding the work will necessarily be incomplete and curtailed. There
has been considerable difficulty this year in procuring labour, and it
is proposed to reopen the excavations in September. The digging
includes the examination of the ground situated to the north-east of
Dwelling-Mound V., south-east of Dwelling-Mound VII., the south-
west quarter of Dwelling-Mound IX., and the ground lying to the
north-east of Dwelling-Mound XVIII. There is little of interest, so
far, to note structurally, but the number and importance of the objects
found have been well maintained.

Tue REtics.

This report is called for before the season’s work is half completed,
and at a time when the excavators are only on the fringe of two well-
defined dwelling-mounds. Hence there is little to say with regard
to the relics so far discovered.

Bone.—The bone objects include part of two needles, worked tibia
of sheep and ox, tarsal and carpal bones of sheep, cut and perforated.

THE LAKE VILLAGES IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF GLASTONBURY. 211

shoulder-blades, polishing-bones; and a long tubular die with numbers,
3, 4, 5, 6, represented by small circular depressions on the sides,
and of a similar variety to those found in the Glastonbury Lake Village ;
also a piece of bone cut for the formation of two dice. A bone object
of a new type is the coarse comb of rude workmanship formed from
a rib-bone of ox or horse; there are eight large, clumsy teeth of varied
size, which bear evidence of considerable wear; it is quite of a different
character from the weaying-combs so frequently found in the lake
villages.

Crucibles.—Several fragments.

Bronze.—The bronze objects include a piece of bordering, two
fibule of safety-pin design (La Téne III.), one in almost perfect
condition, and a small ornamented ring-handle, perhaps of a vessel.
A long tubular object formed from a strip of sheet bronze was also
found, the working-end of which is trifurcated by splitting the metal
for a distance of about 2 inch, each of the divisions tapering to form
a three-pointed instrument.

Iron.—Parts of knives and fragments of pointed objects.

Flint.—A few flint flakes, some with secondary chipping.

Glass.—A perfect bead of clear white glass, ornamented with three
sunk spiral devices filled with a light yellow paste, has been added
to the bead series; and others have been found in addition.

Antler.—Part of a polished tine, a small tubular object, a cut piece
with partial perforations, two weaving-combs, ‘cheek-pieces,’ and
tool-handles.

Kimmeridge Shale.—Part of a fluted armlet of large size, lathe-
turned; and portions of three others.

Tusks.—Several boars’ tusks (? wild), including one perforated.

Querns.—No complete upper or lower stone has been found, but
several large portions ‘of well-worked saddle and rotary querns have
been uncovered in Mound IX.

Other Stone Objects.—Several sling-stones, found singly; a large
number of whetstones ; a few small smooth pebbles (perhaps calcult).

Spindle-whorls.—Six have been found so far, (a) one of baked clay,
(b) four of lias stone, (c) a part of one formed from an ammonite.

Baked Clay.—Several sling-bullets of fusiform shape have been
collected; also a large triangular loom-weight and fragments of others
in Mound IX.

Pottery.—No complete vessel has been found, but shards are very
abundant in proportion to the area dug. The rougher wares are strongly
represented, but a fair number of ornamented pieces have been
collected, including some new and elegant designs. Part of an orna-
mented pot-cover of a type previously found at Meare has been found;
also at least two separate fragments of Roman ware of the ‘ Burtle
type,’ obtained from below the alluvial deposits and on the original
surface of Roman times.

Animal Remains.—Large quantities of bones of domesticated
animals are being collected, chiefly of young animals. Many split
bones and splinters have been noticed. Bird-bones are also commonly
found. A cock-spur has also come to light at Meare, which implies that

P 2

212 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

the sport of cock-fighting, common in Gaul before the Roman conquest,
was carried on in the lake village of Meare, as well as in that of
Glastonbury.

The Committee are desirous that they should be authorised to act
for the ensuing year on the part of the British Association, and that
a grant of 20]. should be made in aid of the exploration that is mostly
paid for by local effort.

Physical Characters of the Ancient Egyptians.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor G. Exuior Smita (Chair-
man), Dr. F. C. SHRuBSALL (Secretary), Professor A. KEITH,
Dr. F. Woop JongEs, and Dr. C. G. SELIGMANN.

Professor Elliot Smith’s Report.

Tus report deals with two distinct series of anthropological material,
(A) one from Saqqara in Lower Egypt, and (B) the other from the
Southern part of the Kerma basin in the Sudan. Both collections
are of quite exceptional importance from their bearing upon the
history and the racial movements in the Nile Valley.

(A.) The Committee was appointed primarily with the object of
acquiring, studying, and, if feasible, transporting to England a valuable
and unique series of skeletons of Ancient Egyptians, buried in mastabas
of the Second and Third Dynasties at Saqqara, which Sir Gaston
Maspero, Director-General of the Egyptian Government Antiquities
Department, had placed at my disposal. The material was brought
to light in the course of the excavations carried on for the Antiquities
Department by its Senior Inspector, Mr. J. E. Quibell, who did
everything in his power to facilitate and help me in my investigations.
The cemetery in which the material was obtained is situated a short
distance to the north of the Pyramids of Saqqara, and included the
tomb of Hesy, from which the famous wooden portrait panels (now
in the Cairo Museum) were obtained by Mariette Pasha many years
ago. The tombs themselves are of very great interest, and will be
described in detail in Mr. Quibell’s official report, a summary of
which was read at the Dundee Meeting. They are the earliest known
examples of elaborate subterranean rock-cut tombs, and range in date
from the latter part of the Second Dynasty until well into the period
of the Third Dynasty. At the Dundee Meeting of the Association I
read Mr. Quibell’s account of this cemetery, from which the following
extracts ? have been taken :—

‘This is the area in which Mariette found most of his mastabas,
from which much of the knowledge of the Old Kingdom has been
obtained.’

1 Excavations at Saqqara, 1910-1911, Service des Antiquités de ]’Egypte.

2 These extensive quotations, not published hitherto, are necessary to explain
the importance and precise significance of the anthropological questions involved
in the study of the material, to the consideration of which I shall return in the
latter part of this report.

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 213

‘ More than 400 tombs were dug and recorded: they were singularly
uniform in type and cover but a small period in time. Four were of
the First Dynasty, and the rest of the Second and Third. Intrusive
burials of later ages were confined to two periods, that of Thotmes ITI.
and (probably) late Ptolemaic, and were unimportant.’

‘In what follows we will confine ourselves to the Second and Third
Dynasties :—

‘ These tombs were most varied in size, but uniform in plan. One
was 50 métres long and 30 wide, but the one I have chosen as a type
was no more than 14 métres long, and even originally not 1 métre
high. It consists of a hollow oblong of unbaked brickwork filled in
with gravel and stone chip, plastered and whitewashed externally.
On the east side are two niches, the southern one being the larger and
the more important. Below the mastaba was a small stairway and a
subterranean chamber. The smaller tombs were often built in rows,
and their position parallel with the sides of the larger ones suggested
that they belonged to the servants or relatives of the great men.

“One tomb showed very clearly the origin of the later type in
stone. The niche has been withdrawn into the body of the building
and protected by a door. A small chamber is thus formed, and the
sides of this were, no doubt, decorated with paintings; later, when
stone replaced the crude brick, the scenes were made in low relief.
This is the form of most of the mastabas published by Mariette; the
more complex plans of the large tombs that have been left open are
_ exceptional.

‘The paths between the tombs were very narrow, hardly wide
enough for one man to pass, and among the larger tombs, where there
were walls 3 métres and more high, must have formed a perilous
maze. They were much used; offerings of minute quantities of food
were brought on every feast day and placed before the false doors in
little vases like egg-cups and saucers. Piles of these pots are found
thrown away near some of the tombs.

“Very little stone-work was found. Small tanks 20 centimetres
or so long occasionally remained before the niches, and in two cases
an inscribed stone panel depicting the deceased seated before his table
of offerings had escaped the search for lime. This panel appears in
the middle of the later stele of the Fifth Dynasty, of which it was
evidently the most important part.

“The sides of the niches may have borne painted decoration—
probably did so—but no trace of this remained.

‘In one mastaba, a very large one, the wall was double: the two
niches were carefully built in both the inner and the outer walls,
evidently in order that the inner one might retain its magical value,
even if the outer one were destroyed.

‘The space inside the four walls was generally filled with gravel
and with stone chip from the subterranean chamber, but in some of
the larger tombs the filling contained also a great number of coarse
vases, many crushed by the overlying gravel, but many also unbroken.
These we thought at first might have been the jars used by the work-
men for food, but some of them were of unbaked clay, and could hardly

214 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

have been used at all. In other cases, too, these vases had been
placed in orderly rows; in one the whole desert floor between the
walls of the tomb and the edge of the shaft had been covered with
these vases, with clods of black clay placed between them. It would
seem, then, that these were deposits intended to supplement the
furniture of the subterranean chamber.

“In the case here shown there can be little doubt. Below the
filling, hidden beneath 3 métres of gravel, we found a shallow trench
4 métre wide, once roofed with wood. Inside it were two rows of
jars or model barns, each 30 centimétres high, made of unbaked clay,
and containing a brown organic powder, probably decayed corn. The
trench is lined with brick, and from it a tiny tunnel, a handbreadth
wide and high, leads to the mouth of the shaft. This, surely, was a
secret supply of food for the dead man.

‘In three of the large tombs a still more elaborate provision was
made. A row of brick chambers, or tanks, was sunk in the floor of
the tomb, filled with jars, and covered with a course of brick. What
the jars contained is not clear; a very light organic matter, probably
a fat, filled the lower half of a few, but most of them were empty when
found. These chambers, or tanks, must, however, have once contained
something of value, for in one tomb they had been laboriously robbed.
A shaft had been sunk through the filling—in this case composed of a
very tough, dried mud—into one of the chambers, and from this
tunnels had been forced, sometimes through the walls, sometimes
above them through the mud filling, till all the eight chambers had
been rifled. The labour must have been considerable and the risk not
trifling: there was nothing to show how it had been repaid.

‘We now leave the structures above ground and come to the shaft.

‘This was nearly always in the form of a stair, sloping down
from the north or east to the chamber mouth. The stair often starts
from the east, near the north niche, and bends at a right-angle half-
way down; this would be practically useful while the digging was
going on, as it would stop a falling stone before it acquired an
awkward velocity. The shafts, like the tombs, vary much in size.
Some are 12 métres deep, some so small—l métre or less—that
the steps would be of no practical use.

‘Tn the larger and deeper tombs the steps are cut in the rock, are
of reasonable size, and evidently served their purpose in the excavation
of the chamber below; but in many of the moderate sized mastabas,
those 4 to 5 métres long, the steps are of brick, and are too narrow
and fragile for a man to stand on them. Shafts and steps in the
small tombs, and presumably also in the large ones, were carefully
plastered and whitewashed for the funeral ceremony. In small tombs
a low skirting wall a few inches in height was built round the shaft,
and this, too, was whitened. The upper part, the mastaba, was built
after the funeral. But in larger tombs this was not practical; the
works above and below ground had to go on together, so the stair
was fenced in by a separate wall.

‘Shafts were generally filled with gravel, the portcullis being relied
on to secure the mouth of the chamber; but in large tombs they were

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 215

filled with slabs of stone, packed in on edge, and in some cases a
pavement of heavy blocks was laid in above. A few stone vases were
occasionally placed in the shaft, and in one tomb a great numbér had
been laid on the steps of the stair. The same arrangement was found
by Garstang in a great tomb at Bét Khallaf.

‘The portcullis consisted of a large flat block of stone with
rounded edges, sometimes as much as 3 métres long and 1°5 métres
wide, which fitted into a groove cut in the rock. It must have been
lowered before the mastaba was built and chocked up so that its base
was above the door of the chamber. Ropes were used to aid in
lowering it; the channels cut by them were observed in one stone.

‘The chamber opened either on the south or west, very rarely the
north, never on the east.

‘Tt was generally a small, rudely-cut cave, too small to hold a
body laid at full length; this small rough chamber was the general
rule, but the larger tombs have a series of chambers of a somewhat
elaborate plan.

‘On passing the portcullis in these we find ourselves in a broad
passage, from which three or four chambers, probably magazines,
open on each side.

‘ A wide doorway at the end leads to a continuation of the passage,
and this to further chambers, in which there is some variety of plan;
but two features are constant. To the right—that is, to the 8.W.—
is the actual burial chamber with remains of a single skeleton; in the
S.-E. corner is a feature new in Egyptian tombs, and, surely, in any
other tombs-——viz., a dummy latrine; north of this, in two cases, was
a narrow chamber with rude basins carved in the floor—probably
meant for a bathroom. The provision for the dead was evidently more
thoughtful and complete than in later ages.

“In all these underground chambers the antiquities found were
somewhat disappointing. It is true that we did obtain a great number
of bowls and dishes of alabaster, diorite, and other stones—indeed, an
embarrassing quantity of them—also ewers and basins of copper,
occasionally a wooden piece from a draughtsboard, a box or a bit of
ivory inlay, and that the mud-seals on the vases were in three tombs
inscribed with Kings’ names, thereby giving us our assured dates for
the cemetery; but the ancient robbers had very different returns for
their labour ; there had certainly been quite other classes of monuments
of which no sample had survived. All the tombs except the very
smallest and poorest had been robbed, and robbed, too, at a very early
period: this was clear from the knowledge shown by the robbers of
the construction, and the skill with which they penetrated to the burial
chamber with a minimum of labour. Sometimes the earth inside the
chamber had been passed through a sieve: this shows that the second
robber had found some gold beads left behind by the first; he (the
first one) would not need a sieve—he found the coffin and all the
furniture lying clear.

“We assume that there was a coffin in all cases—indeed, fragments
were often found, but complete coffins remained in four tombs only,
and these four of the poorest.

‘They are short, with panelled sides and arched square-ended lid:

216 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.,

two niches are made in the east side. In one coffin, the east side
of which alone is here shown, the central panels are covered with
a series of slabs; these are rounded at the ends and do not, as one
would expect, butt against or mortise into the uprights; this suggests
that they are in imitation of a door.’ [Similar coffins were subse-
quently found by Professor Flinders Petrie in a contemporary cemetery
on the opposite bank of the river. |

‘When the east side of the coffin is taken away the body appears,
sharply contrasted, with head to the north and face east. The limbs
are swathed in linen bands, and masses of linen folded together lie
above the body. There was some little evidence of an attempt at
mummification, but no flesh remained on the bones; those of the
arm lay free inside a wide cylinder of wrappings, which retained the
shape of the limb. The preservation of these coffins and bodies was
partial; some of the wood was quite sound, other pieces could not be
moved. So of the cloth; some had been eaten by white ants, but
some was in admirable preservation.

“About fifty skeletons and parts of skeletons were found in fair
condition, and these, happily, owing to the visit of Professor Elliot
Smith, could be carefully examined, some of them before they had
been touched.

“In one only of all these four hundred tombs have paintings been
found, but this is of very considerable interest, and the paintings are
so extensive that our time for a whole season has been mainly
occupied in copying them. This is the tomb of Hesy.

‘The panels of Hesy have been, for more than forty years, in
the Museum; they were brought there by Mariette, who discovered
them and attributed them, correctly, to the Third Dynasty.’

These quotations from Mr. Quibell’s report will make it clear
that we are dealing with the remains of the very people who were
responsible for technical inventions of far-reaching importance in the
history, not merely of Egyptian craftsmanship, but of that of the
whole world. This series of tombs reveals the stages in the acquisi-
tion of the means of cutting out extensive rock tombs; and it is a
matter of considerable significance to determine the precise racial
characteristics of the people who invented and were the first to practise
these arts and crafts which were destined to exert so profound an
influence on the world’s culture.

The crucial importance of the human remains buried in these
tombs depends upon the fact that the earliest bodies hitherto found
in Lower Egypt (exclusive of those brought to light at Turah in the
winter of 1909-1910 by Professor Hermann Junker, and described by
Dr. Derry, to which reference will be made later) belonged to a later
period-—Fourth to Sixth Dynasties—and revealed undoubted evidence
of considerable alien admixture, such as does not occur, except in rare
sporadic instances, in the earlier remains from Upper Egypt. The
problem for solution was the determination of when and how this
process of racial admixture began.

The contemporary and earlier material found by Professor Junker
upon the opposite (east) bank of the river, and a little further north,

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 217

was in a very bad state of preservation, and no adequate photographic
record was obtained to permit of exact comparisons with other collec-
tions. But Dr. Derry’s report, which seems to suggest that the alien
element in these poorer graves did not become certainly appreciable
until the time of the Third Dynasty, served to add to the interest of
Mr. Quibell’s material, and to make it more than ever desirable to
secure and preserve a collection of such crucial importance for the
investigation of the problems of Egypt’s anthropological history.

The chief difficulty that faced me was how satisfactorily to deal
with a collection of most fragile bones, a large proportion of which
were certain to become damaged, more or less severely, during trans-
port. As there was no anthropologist on the spot to measure and
make descriptive notes on the material, it was proposed to employ
experts to photograph each skull, and other important bones, before
they were treated with size, or other strengthening agent, in prepara-
tion for transport to England.

But, while preparations were being made for carrying out this
scheme, most of the difficulties were removed by the fact that the
Egyptian Government requested me to go out to Egypt in connection
with the work of the Archeological Survey of Nubia, and it thus
became possible to visit Mr. Quibell’s excavations in person, to
examine and measure all the material on the spot, to supervise the
work of photographing and packing it for transmission to England.
It was possible to do so much in the short time at my disposal,
because Mr. Quibell and his trained workmen afforded every help,
and Mr. Cecil M. Firth and his native photographic assistant,
Mahmud Shaduf, of the Nubian Archeological Survey, volunteered
to help. Mr. Firth took about a hundred and thirty photographs of
the material. Every help was also given by the Egyptian Survey
Department in the loan of instruments and other apparatus. Further-
more, the authorities at the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
in London offered to take charge of and repair the material on its
arrival, and to grant me every facility for its investigation.

Full notes and photographs were obtained of all human material
rescued by Mr. Quibell, consisting of the remains of thirty-nine
individuals of the Second and Third Dynasties, most of which is now
safely housed in the Royal College of Surgeons’ Museum. At the
outset it may be stated that the material closely resembles the human
remains of the Pyramid Age found in neighbouring sites of a some-
what later date. There are quite definite evidences of some racial
influence alien to the Proto-Egyptian race; but the difficult problem is
raised as to how much of the contrast in the features of the two
populations—Upper Egyptian and Lower Egyptian at the Second
and Third Dynastic Periods—is due to admixture and blending; and
how much, if any, is due to the specialisation in type of the Delta
portion of the Proto-Egyptian people.

The investigation also revealed some suggestion of attempts at
mummification as early as the Second Dynasty—a fact of some
interest, as the earliest undoubted case of mummification is referred
to the Fourth or Fifth Dynasty (more probably the latter), and no

218 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

evidence has been obtained before of attempted mummification of a
body which was not buried in the fully extended position.

While in Egypt I took the opportunity of comparing the Saqqara
skulls directly with the type collection of Predynastic skulls in the
Anatomical Museum of the Cairo School of Medicine, and also with
skulls of the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties at Dr. George Reisner’s
excavations (for Harvard University and Boston Museum) at the
Giza Pyramids.

For convenience of comparison I have followed the plan and used
the notation explained in the Report on the Archeological Survey of
Nubia (1910), vol. i., p. 40.

Detailed Statement of the Results of Examination of the
Human Remains.

2102 F.* Man about forty-five years of age, with well-defined
alien traits.t Buried in a small mastaba with degraded stair placed
alongside a big mastaba. A very big, broad, full ovoid calvaria, with
large bregmatic bone and squarish orbits, and narrow high-bridged
nose. The rest of the face and mandible are missing (that is, were
not gaved by Mr. Quibell). LL. (maximum length of cranium in milli-
métres) 205, B (maximum breadth of cranium) 146, F.B. (minimal
frontal breadth) 98, H. 135, L.O. 38 x 34.

2104 G. A man with a short and very perfect, well-filled ovoid
skull, which does not conform to the Egyptian type; rounded orbits ;
long narrow nose; jaw of distinctly alien type. L.176, B. 139, H. 137
(approximately), F.B.90, T:F.119, U.F. 73, Biz. 122, Interorb. 21,
N. 50 x 23, R.O. 39. x 35, L.0. 36 x 84.

2164 J. A characteristic example of the type of skull (male) alien
to Egypt, which was found at Giza and also at the Biga Cemetery at
Nubia. It has large, obliquely placed, squarish orbits; prominent
narrow-bridged nose, with very projecting sharp margins and long
nasal spine; a broad face with the zygomatic arches curved strongly
outward; a jaw with a wide chin; and a ramus which is narrow,
moderately high, and has a big coronoid process. The skull is a
short, broad, full ovoid; there is a straight line of brow and nose;
very deep conceptaculz cerebelli, associated .with manifestation of
an occipital vertebra. L.174, B.134, F.B.93, H.136, Biz. 130,
mH 19 UR TL C28.) 99) Rope Oe imnteronb. 22:00 hr Oe aimee
L.0. 87°5x36, N. 515x205, Big. 102°5. Femur, rough estimate
of length, 486. One molar is carious, and there is widespread but
slight periostitis of the leg-bones and pelvis. The pelvis and leg-
bones are very big and massive. ©

2104 N.W. Woman,. probably about twenty-eight years of age.
The skull is a broad, flat ovoid (or beloid), with markedly sloping
forehead, the profile passing without break into the nose (‘ Greek

5 Distinguishing number of the grave in Mr. Quibell’s Archeological Report.

* In using the term ‘alien traits’ I refer to features which are foreign to
the Proto-Egyptian people as well as to the Brown Race in general. In most
cases—as for example this instance—these foreign features, such as ‘a very big,
broad, full ovoid calvaria,’ ‘squarish orbits,’ and ‘narrow high-bridged nose’
are distinctive of the Armenoid population of Western Asia.

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 219

Fie. 1.

Fia. 2, Fia. 3.

220 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

profile’); square orbits with rounded angles; nose moderately broad
and not very prominent, but the nasal spine is large. In most
respects the mandible conforms to the Proto-Egyptian type, but the
ramus shows a tendency towards the form distinctive of the Biga
population (see ‘ Report of the Archaeological Survey of Nubia,’ 1907- -
1908, vol. i.). The teeth are perfectly healthy. The femur is small
and slender, with slight flattening of the upper part of the shaft. The
length of the right femur is 407, and the diameter of its head 38.
iy. 178"5,) B. 138, © #.B.93;" B.132,: Biz; 122, fa 120; Welw,
C.B. 102, F.B. 98, Interorb. 245, R.O. 39x34, L.O. 36345,
N. 55x27, Big. 87, Sym. 36.

2104 H.E. This is a man about twenty or twenty-one years of
age, with a curious blending of the features seen in the skeletons of
the man 2104 J. and the woman 2104 N.W., having the cranial
features of the former and the facial traits of the latter. The skull
is a moderately broad, well-filled ovoid, with a sloping forehead and
a profile like 2104 N.W. The nose also resembles that of the latter,
but is also curiously like that found in the Nubian people at the time
of the Middle Kingdom. Its lower margins are rounded. The orbits
are not quite so square as those of N.W., being almost elliptical and
oblique. The teeth are perfectly healthy and unworn. ‘The large
size of the canines and incisors has produced slight prognathism.
The left tibia is 306 in length; its epiphyses are just consolidating.
e165; B. 141, 2B, 97, OH. 1385; Biz. 131, T.F. 1205, Ue.
Interorb. 27, R.O. 40x33, L.O. 38x33, N. 52°5x26, Big. 86, Sym. 35.

2162. An elderly man with the coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid
sutures almost completely closed. The teeth are well worn, but
healthy, excepting for a ‘ perforation abscess ’° at the root of the lower
right first molar. There is, however, a considerable amount of tartar
deposit on the teeth. The cranium is a big ovoid or beloid, with
prominent superciliary ridges; small, flat, horizontal orbits; small,
narrow, high-bridged, sharp-edged nose; a wide jaw, with broad chin,
and a moderate ramus of alien form, with out-splayed angles. There
is evidence of severe arthritis in the left temporo-mandibular joint.
The face conforms to a type which is often seen in the Dynastic
Kgyplian. L.198, B. 139, H.136, «8.B. 9%, Big. 105) ‘Siete;
T.F. 113, U.F.69, Biz. 134, N.54x25, Interorb. 26, L.0. 38x29,
R.O. 37 x 30.

2116 N. This skeleton is probably a woman’s. It conforms to
the Proto-Egyptian type, the mandible being quite typical, and the
skull a long ellipsoid, which is well filled. None of the cranial sutures
show any sign of closing, although the teeth are moderately worn
and encrusted with deposits of tartar. L. 181, B. 129, F.B. 93.

2146. A middle-aged or elderly man, with a full ovoid or
beloid skull, with flattened occiput, somewhat rounded orbits, and
moderately prominent nose. The coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid
sutures are closing, and the teeth are worn down, and there are

5 By this term I refer to an alveolar abscess, which is not due to dental
caries, but originates by infection through the pulp cavity of a tooth, which has
been exposed by excessive wearing-down.

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 221

several ‘ perforation abscesses.’ There is thinning of the-left parietal
bone. L. 183, B. 139, H. 146, F.B. 93, U.F. 72, Biz. 180, N. 53°5 x25,
Interorb. 24, L.O. 38x33, R.O. 38x33.

2152. Middle-aged man, whose coronal and sagittal sutures are
beginning to close. The teeth are well worn down, and there are
four ‘ perforation abscesses,’ that associated with the upper left second
molar opening by a large perforation into the maxillary antrum. The
jaw is 1 big, heavily built ovoid, with well-marked muscular impres-
sions and prominent superciliary ridges. The orbits are flat and
horizontal, the nose is narrow with a prominent high-bridged root.
Soyrod. b.138, H. 138,. F.B. 100, U.F. 69, Bia. 135, N...49.x 24:5,
Interorb. 24, L.O. 40x32, R.O. 40x 33.

2170. A man whose coronal suture is beginning to close, and
whose perfectly healthy teeth are only slightly worn. The skull is a
big, well-filled ovoid, with sloping forehead and moderate superciliary
ridges. The face is short and broad, with small, narrow nose and
very flat orbits. The jaw is heavily built, but its form is Proto-
Beyotian: ~ 1.187, B.141;. F.B.95, H.138, . Big. 131, ,T.F.110,
U.F. 67, Interorb. 25, R.O. 40x 32, R.O. 40x 33.

2170. A man whose coronal suture is beginning to close, and
whose perfectly healthy teeth are only slightly worn. The skull is a
big, well-filled ovoid, with sloping forehead and moderate superciliary
ridges. The face is short and broad, with small, narrow nose and
very flat orbits. The jaw is heavily built, but its form is Proto-
Kgyptian. L.187, B.141, F.B.95, H.138,, Big.131, T.F.110,
WD. 67, Interorb. 25, R.O. 40x 30°5, L.O. 38 x 30°5, N. 53 x 24.

2173 D. This is a child of nine or ten years, with a typical Proto-
Egyptian pentagonoid skull.

2172 B. This is a woman of twenty years, or perhaps a little
more, with a small head of Proto-Egyptian type, and well filled
pentagono-ovoid form; the nose has a small horizontal, elliptical,
flattened bridge; small mandible, with a very pointed chin: the
zygomatic arches are laterally compressed. The teeth are in excellent
condition and practically unworn. L.178, B. 128, F.B.85, H. 129,
Biz. 116 (estimated), T.F. 111, U.F. 68, C.B. 98, F.B. 94, Interorb.
24, R.O. 38x27, L.O. 35x28, N. 46x24'5, Big. 82, Sym. 35, Sig. 45.

2172 E.B. A woman with very perfect, small, well-filled ovoid or
ellipsoid cranium. The face might be Proto-Egyptian, but the large
orbits and prominent-spined nose suggest alien affinities. The coronal
suture is beginning to close. L.173, B.130, F.B.90, H. 1385,
Biz. 121, T.F: 102, Interorb. 20, R.O. 37x32, L.0.38x32, N. 48x23.

2172 a (? or B). This is a man with teeth moderately worn, but
quite healthy. Sutures all open. Long pentagonoid cranium with a
markedly bombé occipital. Prominent superciliary ridges thickening
whole upper edge of orbits meet across the mid-line, overhanging the
depressed and flattened root of the nose. Orbits flattened; nose wide;
typical Proto-Egyptian jaw, with pointed chin and _ characteristic
ramus. 9.194, B. 1365, H. 141, F..95,, T.F. 107, U.F. 66, Biz. 130,
N. 49x30, L.0. 38x30, R.O. 39x29, Interorb. 23°5.

2173. A woman about twenty-one years of age. Teeth healthy.

232 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Typical Proto-Egyptian pentagonoid skull, with small, broad, flat-
bridged nose (nasals fused), not separated by any depression from the
frontal; oblique orbits, and typical high ramus and coronoid process
of the alien type of jaw. L. 173, B. 133, H. 133, F. 92, T.F. 110,
U.F. 67, N. 47x 23°5, Interorb. 24, R.O. smashed.

2173 A. This is a woman with teeth well worn; left upper molars
carious, abscesses at all upper molars. Temporal part of coronal
suture closed, as well as the whole sagittal and part of lambdoid.
Big broad ovoid head, with senile thimning commencing. Broad face
with out-curved zygomatic arches and out-splayed angles of jaw.
Long, very narrow nose, with prominent spine, but not very high
bridge. Large square orbits, with deficient lateral walls. Left femur
is severely affected by osteomyelitis, according to Professor Ferguson,
of Cairo, who had taken the bone before I arrived at Saqqara. Large
inflammatory excavation in front of right sacro-iliac joint. L. 183,
B. 137, F. 96°5, H. 135, Biz. 183, T.F. 125, U.F. 80, Interorb. 23,
R.O. 39x 365, L.O. 40x 37, N. 55x 23, Big. 106.

2173 D. A woman’s skull, almost edentulous, but all the sutures
are still open. A broad, flat, beloid cranium associated with a small
infantile face, “.175)'B; 138; PB, 90) HB. 117, Biz. 1195 PEO,
U.F. 69, R.O. 37x 30, L.O. 36x31, N. 52x 22.

2175. A man with all upper incisors and right canine teeth gone,
probably the result of some alveolar disease, leaving now a large hole
about 27 mm. in diameter. The three principal sutures are closed.
Has a large, lofty, well-filled ovoid skull. Face very long, narrow
and ovoid, with Proto-Egyptian type of orbits; but small, narrow,
high-bridged, sharp-margined nose. Pointed jaw with a high ramus,
set at so oblique an angle that the sigmoid height cannot be measured.
Ty. 185°5; BB. 144,’ FB) 96; Hi: 140, ‘Biz. 131, T:F.130, GEoave
(estimated), Interorb. 21, R.O. 41x 32, L.O. 40x32, N. 50x 24.

2262. A woman with a perfect set of healthy, almost unworn
teeth; temporal part of coronal suture closed. A big broad pentago-
noid skull with large alien jaw and rounded orbits. L. 189, B. 141,
BB: 95)°H.'131, Biz: 122,-T.F. 119).U.F» 72, Intererh: 24/487@:
37 x 33, L.O. 36 x 33°5, N. 49 x 24.

This individual exhibits signs suggestive of some form of mummifi-
cation having been attempted. If so, it is the earliest authentic
evidence of such a practice. The skeleton was found completely
invested in a large series of bandages—more than sixteen layers still
intact, and probably at least as many more destroyed—ten layers of
fine bandage (warp seventeen and woof forty-eight threads to the
centimétre), then six layers somewhat coarser cloth, and next to the
body a series of badly corroded, very irregularly woven cloth, much
coarser (warp six and woof fourteen per centimétre) than the inter-
mediate and outer layers. Hach leg was wrapped separately, and
there was a large pad on the perineum. The bandages were broad
sheets of linen rather than the usual narrow bandages. The body was
flexed, as was usual at this period.

_In the wide interval between the bandages and the bones there
was a large mass of extremely corroded linen, whereas the intermediate

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 223

and superficial layers of cloth were quite well preserved and free from
corrosion, except along a line where the cloth was corroded to repre-
sent the rima pudendi—a fact of great interest when it is recalled
that in the Fifth and probably the Fourth Dynasties it was the custom
to fashion (in the case of male mummies) an artificial phallus.

The corrosion is presumptive evidence that some material (probably
crude natron) was applied to the surface of the body with a view to
its preservation. If so, this is the earliest body with unequivocal
evidence of an attempt artificially to preserve or prevent decomposition
in the soft tissues.

9262 N. (?) Woman aged twenty years of age. The teeth are
healthy and almost unworn. Cranial sutures all open, Small
infantile face of characteristic Proto-Egyptian type. Broad pentagonoid

Fig. 4.

cranium and flat orbits. L.185, B. 142, F.B.83, H. 136, Biz. 124,
T.F.105, U.F.63, Interorb. 215, R.O.389°5x30, L.0. 37x30,
N. 48x23.

2262 B.N. A small tormmb containing a man aged about forty years.
Teeth extremely worn; right lower molar carious; severe alveolar
abscesses in upper jaw; only a few stumps left. Typical Proto-
Egyptian pentagonoides, shading into ovoides. Low, very slightly
oblique orbits; narrow nose with high bridge, very sharp margin and
prominent spine. Semitic curve of nasal bones. Mandible with widely
splayed angles. The face as a whole, while Proto-Egyptian in type,
has a suggestion of the criminal Blemmye type in jaw, nose, and
orbits—? a Sinaitic Arab. Three lower incisors (two right and one
left removed), left zygomatic arch fractured, and rejoined with inward

924 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

bend: 11) 189; B:135, B.B?975, Ei 141, Baz? 130, "Ta 110s Wee aan,
C.B.105, F.B.93, Interorb. 23, R.O. 385x305, L.0. 39°5x31,
N. 50x23, P. 53x37, Big. 108, H.S. 28.

9962 J.N. A man of about twenty years of age. Basilar recently
closed. Teeth healthy and only slightly worn. Perfect Proto-
Egyptian type. Long ovoid, fairly broad. L. 183, B. 137°5, H. 135,
F. 89, U.F. 69, Biz. 120, N. 50x28, Interorb. 22, L.O. 36x29
(flat, horizontal, oblong), R.O. 38 x 30.

2196. This is a man whose coronal is beginning to close. Very
full broad ovoid; large squarish orbits; very narrow, long, high-bridged
nose; no jaw. L.188, B.137, H.145, F.91, U.F. 75, N. 55x23,
Biz. 130 (curved out), Interorb. 20, L.O. 87x33, R.O. 37°5 x 31°5.

2187. A woman of about twenty-five years, with teeth quite
healthy. Flattened beloid skull, with Proto-Egyptian jaw and hori-
zontal flattened orbits. Small Proto-Egyptian nose and_ slight
prognathism. L.171, B.140, H. 1382, F. 90, Interorb. 22, L.O.
37°5 x 29, R.O. 88x 29, N. 44x 23, Biz. 120, U.F. 62°5, T.F. 105.

2256 N. A man almost edentulous, seven stumps flush with gum.
Coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid closed. Big, well-filled ovoid head ;
oblique squarish orbits, and narrow prominent nose of alien type.
L. 186, B. 138, H. 134, F. 104, U.F. 73, Biz. 132 (well curved out),
Interorb. 24, L.O. 40x32, R.O. 87x33 (right occiput much more
prominent), N. 54x24.

2256 §. A child of thirteen or fourteen years, Flat beloid skull
175 x 133, H. 133. Small elliptical horizontal orbits. Very narrow,
sharp-edged, prominent nose.

2256 S. (2nd.) Child about seven years old. Long, narrow,
pentagonoid skull. L. 176, B. 127.

2191. Woman. Coronal and sagittal sutures beginning to elose.
Metopic suture present. Teeth moderately worn and perfectly healthy,
with slight tartar. Slender beloid skull. Fronto-nasal profile an
unbroken line, sharp-edged nose of type suggestive of Giza (that is,
from the necropolis of the Great Pyramids) aliens. L. 174, B. 180,
H. 124, U.F. 65, N. 48x 24, L.O. 39x31, F. 87:5, Interorb. 22.

No. ? A man aged fifty years; principal sutures closing, but teeth
only slightly worn and quite healthy. Large beloid skull, but face
of Proto-Egyptian type, with small pointed mandible. Nose probably of
bulbous type (like that of King Mycerinus, as displayed in his statues).
Ti, 189, B. 144, BP. 97, Hy 141, Biz. 129, TF. 73; Tnterqre26;
R.O. 40x32, L. 39 x 32, N. 50x 28, Femur R. 468, head 45.

No. ? Man with small, regular, well-worn, perfectly healthy
teeth. Temporal part of coronal suture closed. A somewhat
effeminate skull with typical small-featured Proto-Egyptian face, but
well-filled ovoid cranium. 4.179, B. 138, F. 96, H.137, Biz. 123,
T.F. 108, U.F. 70, Interorb: 25, R.O. 36°5x31, L.0. 36x30,
N. 49°5x24.

2307. A skeleton, probably female, obtained from a large mastaba,
but not certain. Coronal, lambdoid, and sagittal sutures closed. Well-
filled ovoid skull. LL. 185, B. 137, H. 126, F’. 100.

2311 B. A woman forty-five years of age. Large, well-filled,

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 225

broad ovoid, almost ellipsoid cranium. Face of Proto-Egyptian type;
moderately large, almost horizontal orbits; moderate nose; typical
pointed Proto-Egyptian jaw; low ramus, with small coronoid. Vertical
forehead, passing without interruption into line of nose. Femur R.
413, head 40. Femur small, with no pronounced features, slenderly
built. Diameter of head, 40 mm. UL.181, B. 137, F.93, H. 139,
Biz. 127, T.F.. 116, U.F. 73, C.B. 99, F.B. 92, Interorb. 24, R.O.
38 x 31, L.O. 40x31, N. 50x 24, Big. 84, Sym. 30, Sig. 47, Cir. 510.

2313 W. A man with healthy but well-worn teeth; left upper

Fic. 5.

incisor missing and a curiously regular bevelled V-shaped hole in its
place. Coronal and sagittal sutures closing. A big, high, ovoid cranium,
with very narrow, high-bridged, prominent, sharp-margined, promi-
nent-spined nose. Large squarish orbits; jaw with moderate ramus;
beard on chin; race certainly alien. L. 186, B. 143, F.92, H. 138,
Biz. 130, T.F.124, U.F.76, Interorb. 21, R.O. 40x34, L.O. 39x35,
N. 55x23.

2314 C. Man. Small pentagonoid skull of Proto-Egyptian type,
cranium greatly thickened (parietal, 11 mm.).

2315 N.E. A man’s skull, with coronal suture just beginning to
close. Ovoid head with prominent superciliary margin; a small,
narrow, sharp-margined, prominent-spined nose, otherwise typical
small-featured Proto-Egyptian. .180, B.139°5, F.90, H. 143,
Biz. 125, T.F. 119, U.F. 72, Interorb. 21°5, R.O. 39x31, L.O.
38 x 32, N. 50x25. Some tartar on the teeth, which are well worn.

1914. Q

226 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

An abscess, starting from the infection of the pulp cavity of the worn
left upper molars, has eroded large holes in palate and into maxillary
antrum.

2316. Probably a female about thirty-five years. Cranium is a
well-filled ovoid, with flattened occiput, with fairly broad, sloping
forehead. Moderately large squarish orbits, and small, narrow, and
not very prominent nose. ‘Teeth perfectly regular, and only very
slightly worn. Mandible with somewhat curved body, and a narrow
ramus, but not very high. In the temporal fossa there is a very marked
prominence in the postero-lateral corner of the frontal. On the left
side series of four lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum probably belonging
to this body ankylosed by severe inflammatory process, which also
affects the sacro-iliac joints, although there is no fusion of the bones
in these joints. L.174, B. 134, F.96, H. 130, Biz. 123, T.PI14,
U.F. 70, C.B. 97, F.B. 95, Interorb. 26, R.O. 40 x 33, L.O. 39°5 x 34,
N. 50x 24°5.

2323 C. Woman with temporal suture closing and parietal thin-
ning becoming apparent. Thick mass of tartar on teeth. Alveolar
abscesses around upper molars. Very small head with typical Proto-
Egyptian face, but rather well-filled ovoid cranium. lL. 167, B. 129,
F. 86, H. 129°5, Biz. 115, T.F. 105, U.F. 65, Interorb. 20, R.O.
35 x 30, L.O. 35 x 30, N. 49 x 23.

2338. Probably a man with very effeminate skull. The femur
suggests masculine sex. Coronal suture closing. Large tartar deposits
on the teeth; alveolar abscesses at the two lower molars on both sides.
Typical Proto-Egyptian pentagonoid skull; large square orbits, but
otherwise characteristic Proto-Egyptian face with suggestion of negroid
influence. Very slender humeri, the right coronoid fossa perforated,
anterior lamella only of left gone. Femur R. 443, head 44, L. 184,
B. 132, P..91, 2134, Biz. 123, T.F. 118, U.P. 69°5, 0.B. 95, FB, 93,
Interorb. 24, R.O. 39x36, L.O. 39x36, N. 50X23°5.

2344 A. Woman about forty years of age. Typical Predynastic
narrow pentagonoid skull. Orbits were small, horizontal, and ellipti-
cal. Mandible was missing. Long and very slender femur with no
outstanding peculiarities. Diameter of head 388. Femur R. 440,
oblique. L. 175, B. 181, F. 83, H. 135, Biz. 120, U.F. 69, Interorb. 24,
R.O. 385X315, L.0. 85x31°5, N. 40x24.

2347 C. A woman’s cranium of Proto-Egyptian type, with sutures
open. Facial skeleton missing. L. 180, B. 184, H. 131, F. 91.

2358. A woman with perfectly healthy, only slightly worn teeth.
Temporal part of coronal suture closing. Perfect ovoid skull, with
sloping forehead and uninterrupted line of forehead and _ nose.
Rounded orbits and sharp-edged narrow nose of somewhat alien
appearance. L. 180, H. 135, B. 137°5, F. 89, U.F. 67, Biz. 120,
N. 49 x 23, Interorb. 20, L.O. 37x33, R.O. 38x33.

Skull found on stair north of 2376. Man. ‘Teeth healthy and
only slightly worn. Cranial sutures all open. Flattened beloid skull,
with sloping forehead; jaw with broad chin and moderate ramus.
Femur R. 445, head 42. ‘Tibia curved and platyenemic. L. 182,
B, 140, F. 97, H. 180.

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 227

9416. A man with coronal suture beginning to close and sagittal
half-closed. Big broad pentagonoid skull, the face being Dynastic-
Egyptian in type, with Proto-Egyptian jaw. Three lower incisors
removed at some time. L. 187, B. 141, F. 99, H. 139, T.F. 120,
U.F. 74, Biz. 187 (established), Interorb. 27, R.O, 38x31, L.O.
smashed, N. 52x20.

9433. Sex uncertain. Temporal part of coronal suture closed.
Mandible healthy and well worn. Left upper first molar and first
premolar alveolar abscesses due to infection through the pulp cavities
exposed by the wearing down of the teeth. Large abscess destroyed
alveolus from second lower right molar to the premolars (inclusive).
Small well-filled ovoid cranium. The nose has a somewhat flattened
bridge, the jaw being rather a pronounced feature, typically Lower
Meypuan, by. 171, B. 1382) F.90, H. 1315, Biz. 128, T.F. 106;
U.F. 67, C.B. 98, F.B. 94, Interorb. 22, R.O. 39x 33, L.O. 37x31,
N. 50X23 (moderately large orbits, not very oblique), Big. 86,
Sym. 27, Sig. 52 (moderate outward curve of zygomatic processes).

The Significance of these Data.

In discussing the facts thus set forth I cannot refrain from
expressing regret that it was not possible to examine each skeleton
im situ in the tomb. For in removing human remains from tombs,
not only does the material suffer considerable damage, but a great
deal of the most valuable kind of evidence is destroyed. In this
particular instance the loss of this opportunity is particularly regretted,
because I feel sure important facts bearing upon the early practice of
mummification might have been recovered.

In making these remarks I am not unmindful of the fact that
Mr. Quibell removed the material from the tombs into his workroom
with the object of facilitating my work and enabling me to do as
much as possible in the limited time which I was able to spend upon
this work at Saqqara.

Apart from supplying what is perhaps the earliest evidence of
attempts ab mummification (see the account of No. 2262 above), this
group of remains has also provided the earliest known instances of
symmetrical thinning of the parietal bones not due to senile changes.
That this parietal atrophy was not due to old age is quite certain,
because the best-marked case occurred in the skull of a young woman
(No. 2323 C) who could not have been much more than thirty years
of age. This is interesting in view of the fact that such parietal
thinning has not hitherto been known to occur at so early a period,
although it became exceedingly common in the Pyramid Age, two
Dynasties later. Its causation seems to be associated with the habit
of constantly wearing heavy wigs, which by pressure affect the
blood supply of the parietal bones.®

Another interesting feature of the material discussed in this report
is the rarity of dental caries, which became so common and wrought
such appalling havoc in the successors of these people of Memphis a

® Blliot Smith, ‘The Causation of the Symmetrical Thinning of the

Parietal Bones in Ancient Egyptians,’ Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,
vol. xli., 1907.

Q 2

228 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

few years later during the Pyramid Age. Alveolar abscesses are
common enough, but they are not, as a rule, the result of dental
caries, as I have explained above.

The contrast presented by this collection of human remains to
those of the Proto-Egyptian population of the Predynastic period is
so profound, and the alien features so widely diffused amongst them,
that a fundamental problem is raised for discussion. This question is
so large that I propose specially to consider its bearings in a separate
communication to the Association.

The intimate blending of this Egyptian population with a people
of foreign type and origin at so early a period as the Second and Third
Dynasties points to the fact that we have to deal, not with a recent
admixture, but one which must have been taking place for many
generations before the time of the Second Dynasty. But we have no
evidence to indicate whether the Western Asiatic element—for there
can be no doubt as to the nature of the alien strain—had been percolat-
ing into the Delta gradually, or came more suddenly in larger volume
possibly as a people already mixed to some extent with Egyptian blood
in Syria or elsewhere.

The important result emerges from such considerations that the
people who developed the wonderful and precocious civilisation of
Egypt were not pure Proto-Egyptians. The growth of early Egyptian
civilisation no doubt represents the gradual evolution of the ideas and
the arts and crafts which we know to have had their origin among the
Predynastic people of Upper Egypt; but their full fruition came only
when the contact of peoples of diverse origin in Lower Egypt brought
the influence of new: ideas and new manners of thought—probably
also a more virile type of intellect—to stimulate and help in the
development of the Egyptian civilisation.

B. The Human Remains of the Hyksos Period found in the Southern
Part of the Kerma Basin (Sudan).

At the end of 1913 I received from Professor George A. Reisner,
who, working on behalf of Harvard University and the Boston
Museum, had excavated a site at the south of the Kerma Basin, in
the Dongola Province, a series of skeletons of the Hyksos Period.
These bones were sent to me for examination, with the consent of the
Archeological Committee of the Sudan Government and the approval
of the Governor-General, Sir Reginald Wingate, whose interest in the
anthropology of the Sudan is well known.

As only a part of the material has yet been sent to me, and as
Dr. Reisner has not yet communicated the details of the archeological
evidence, it would perhaps be preferable if I withhold my report until
next year.

I may say that the tombs of the wealthier people contained the
remains of typical Egyptians, such as we know to have lived in the
Thebaid during the times of the New Empire; while the other tombs
contained skeletons of Proto-Egyptian and Middle Nubian (C group)
types. Although slight negroid traits are common, there is a sur-
prising absence of the more obtrusive negro features.

ARTIFICIAL ISLANDS IN LOCHS OF HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLAND. 229

Artificial Islands in the Lochs of the Highlands of Scotland.—
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Boyp
Dawkins (Chairman), Mr. A. J. B. Wace (Secretary), and
Professors T. H. Bryce, J. L. Myres, and W. RipcEway.

Since, owing to the meeting of the Association in Australia this year,
reports have to be sent in at a much earlier date than usual, the Com-
mittee have so far little to record. The Rey. F. O. Blundell, the Com-
mittee’s correspondent at Fort Augustus, continues to collect and
tabulate information. He desires to thank the Committee for their
assistance and for their encouragement in his investigations of a subject
which, though full of interest, presents many difficulties that can
scarcely be realised by those who have not taken part in the work.

By the courtesy of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, fifty
reprints of the paper read before that Society, containing numerous
illustrations, have been circulated amongst the correspondents of this
Committee, and this has again stimulated interest in the subject. The
Paper, which was compiled largely from the replies to the British
Association inquiry, was printed in full in the ‘ Transactions’ of the
Society, and elicited numerous letters of congratulation on the results
obtained by the Association. Mr. Gilbert Goudie, F.S.A.Scot., writes
amongst others: —‘ May I be allowed to add that I have been much
impressed by your paper on Artificial Islands in the ‘‘ Proceedings of
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland’’? These I had previously
regarded as entirely exceptional and rare, but the numerous instances
you adduce go far to show that they were almost the normal idea—
quite a new conception which will influence me largely in looking at
these things in future.’

One of the main objects of the Committee is to secure a suitable
site for excavation. The artificial island in Loch Kinellan was pro-
visionally fixed upon last year for excavation this year. Now Mr. F.C.
Diack of Aberdeen has sent photographs and particulars of the ‘ Island ’
in the Loch of Leys, Banchory. The loch is now completely dry, and
therefore this island is a much more suitable site for excavation than
that in Loch Kinellan. The Secretary proposes to visit the site with
the Rev. F. O. Blundell in July, and hopes to receive the permission
of the proprietor, Sir Thomas Burnett, Bart., of Crathes, for the pro-
posed excavation. It is hoped that the funds at the disposal of the
Committee, together with a grant made by the Carnegie Trust to Dr.
R. Munro for the excavation of the island in Loch Kinellan, will be
sufficient for a preliminary excavation.

The Committee desires to be reappointed and that a grant of 51.
should be applied for at the next meeting of the British Association.

It will be necessary for a new Secretary to be appointed—Professor
Tl. H. Bryce is suggested.

230 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Lxploration of the Paleolithic Site known as La Cotte de St.
Brelade, Jersey, during 1914.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. R. R. Marerr (Chairman), Dr. A. Kerra, Dr.
C. AnpREws, Dr. A. Dunuop, Mr. G. pz Grucuy, Col. R.
GARDNER WARTON (Secretary), appointed to excavate a Palao-
lithic Site in Jersey.

Scheme of Operations.

Tur Committee arranged with Mr. Ernest Daghorn, who had for the
three previous years carried out the excavation of this site with signal
success, that for the sum of 501. (being the full grant authorised by
the British Association) he should supply throughout the months of
March and April 1914, viz., for forty-eight working days, the services
of three experienced quarrymen, while himself superintending their
labours; that he should bear the responsibility for all accidents;
and that he should furnish whatever tools or other appliances might
be required for the work. The Committee has to thank Mr. Daghorn
for having amply fulfilled all that was expected of him. The men
worked with a will, and great intelligence was displayed in the
execution of orders.

Attention was exclusively directed to the main cave, already
partially excavated by the Société Jersiaise in 1911 and 1912. Mean-
while it was hoped that it might be found to extend round the back
of the ravine, up to now masked by talus, and so to be continuous
with the smaller cave opposite, which Messrs. Marett and de Gruchy
uncovered in 1913. Hitherto exploration of the main cave had been
confined to the outer or western side, where the roof ig somewhat
lower and the pile of superincumbent débris consequently less. As
the side contiguous with the back of the ravine is approached, the
mass overlying the paleolithic floor and reaching up to the roof passes
from about twenty-five to some forty feet of thickness; so that for
every square foot of floor to be cleared an amount of material weighing
approximately a ton has to be removed. It was now decided to tackle
this heavier part of the task and, as far as might be possible in the
time, to carry the clearing right across the mouth of the cave to
whatever might prove to be its inner or eastern limit.

For the first three weeks the attack concentrated on the upper
portions of the cave-filling, the extreme top being demolished by a
successful piece of blasting which brought down some eighty tons.
The ultimate aim being to open up the floor outwards from a line
running parallel to the mouth about eighteen feet from it, it was
necessary to cut back the higher portions of the detritus to the extent
of another ten or twelve feet, so as to provide some sort of slope, and
thus minimise the result of sudden downfalls. This was done without
revealing either the true back of the cave or the supposed chimney
through which the clay and rock-rubbish, other than what is due to
roof-collapse, must have descended. It may be noted, however, that
a tentative excavation on the further or northern side of the cliff into

ON PALAOLITHIC EXPLORATION IN JERSEY. 231

which the cave penetrates brought to light a considerable fissure,
about twenty feet higher than the level of what is to be seen of the
cave-roof; and this may very well turn out to be the upper end of this
hypothetical! funnel. For the rest, these topmost parts of the cave-
filling proved to be absolutely sterile, with the single curious exception
that right at the back of the cave, some thirty-five feet above the floor,
a piece of bone was noticed to jut out’ When this was with some
difficulty rescued from its rather inaccessible position, it was found
to have all the appearance of extreme antiquity, and is probably
assignable to Bos. Presumably, therefore, it is contemporary with
the cave-filling, and came down therewith from above.

It was calculated that it would be just possible with two months’
work to carry a clearing about eighteen feet broad right across the
mouth of the cave to its eastern side-wall, since its upper and visible
portion, distant about thirty feet from the opposite side-wall, showed
a perpendicular drop which might be presumed to extend indefinitely
downwards. On April 8, however, it was discovered that this wall,
along the whole breadth of the eighteen feet in process of clearance,
was undercut, at a point about sixteen feet above floor-level, by a
further cavity. To judge by the narrow section opened up, there is
not less than twelve feet of additional penetration to be reckoned with
on this side. Shielded as it is by its lower roof, this annexe would
appear to be at once remarkably dry and free from shattering falls of
rock. Thus it offers conditions more favourable to the preservation
of bone than the high-domed cave on which it borders, and would be
an ideal place in which to come upon human remains. This discovery
led to a modification of the original plan, the breadth of the clearing
being reduced to about ten feet, so as, consistently with thorough
exploration of the portion of floor uncovered, to stretch forth a
‘feeler’ in this tempting direction. Nothing short of a fresh bout
of excavation, however, supported by a grant no less substantial than
the last, will enable the Committee to cope with this unexpected
lateral extension of the main cave; not to speak of the rearward parts
of the cavern which are likely to prove more or less prolific also.

In proceeding towards the eastern wall it was at first impossible to
note any stratification in the gradually thickening floor owing to the
large blocks distributed through it. At about twenty feet, as measured
from the western side, there was, for the first time, clear evidence of
some sort of stratification. For three feet above floor level there was
a bed of thick ashes of a deep black colour. Above for about one
foot succeeded an almost completely sterile layer. Then, for another
two feet, occurred frequent implements in a layer of brownish clay,
interspersed with slight traces of a darker matter. It was at first
thought that the implements of the lower layer were rougher, and
that, in particular, the typical Mousterian ‘ point’ was absent. Sub-
sequent observation, however, controlled by careful segregation of the
finds from each layer, failed to bear out this view, some of the
finest points (one of them, however, being worked on both sides, and
in this way suggesting an older style of manufacture) being found in
the lower bed. Of course a more detailed examination of the products

232 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

of the different layers may establish some sort of sequence in their
forms. When the recess on the eastern side was reached the height
of the implementiferous soil amounted to as much as twelve feet above
the point taken to represent floor-level. At the very top of this bed
were found three mammoth teeth and a large number of well-made
implements. It is even possible to distinguish these highest portions
as a third stratum, since in one place the top of the layer immediately
above the sterile bed already mentioned was marked for about six feet
by a thin line of almost pure sand. This sand was not such as might
result from disintegration of the local rock, and its occurrence almost
suggested that the inhabitants of the cave must at one time have
indulged in the luxury of a sanded floor. This line of sand stood at
about six feet above floor-level.

Osteological Remains.

At least 5,000 portions of bone, mostly very fragmentary, were
discovered. It has been found possible only to submit these to the
roughest preliminary examination. Dr. Andrews reports as follows
on the selection of bones submitted to him at the British Museum :—

Hyena Crocuta, var. Spelea.—Portions of premolar teeth.

Canis Vulpes.—Maxilla.

Cervus Megaceros (Irish Elk)—Unworn upper molar, fragment
of mandible with molars.

Cervus Hlaphus (Red Deer).—Portions of jaw, with teeth.

Rangifer tarandus (Reindeer).—Numerous teeth, bones, and pieces
of antler.

? Capreolus Caprea (Roe deer).—A tooth.

Goat or Sheep.—A tooth.

Bos primigenius.—Fragments of bones and teeth.

Equus.—Numerous teeth of a horse. The teeth are large, but it
does not follow that the horse was.

Elephas primigenius (Mammoth).—Portions of a thin plated tooth.

Myodes torquatus (Arctic lemming).—Numerous lower jaws and
bones.

A metatarsus of some species of Grouse.

This brings up the list of species (exclusive of varieties as in the
case of Hquide and Bovide) from six to thirteen, Rhinoceros ticho-
rhinus having been found on previous occasions, and yields what may
be described as a thoroughly representative Pleistocene fauna of the
cold, or tundra, type.

Artefacts.

The amount of worked flint unearthed in the course of the recent
excavation proved simply immense, over 3 cwt. of implements and
chips (including hammer stones) having been extracted. It must be
remembered that flint is not found in situ in the Channel Islands, so
that it is perfectly certzin that all flint found in the cave has been
brought there by man. It is impossible briefly to convey an impres-
sion of the full extent of the material awaiting detailed study. This
site will assuredly bear comparison with any other Mousterian site as

ON PALMOLITHIC EXPLORATION IN JERSEY. 233

a source of a representative series of types. Very symmetrical ° points ’
adorned with the finest secondary chipping occurred to the number of
several dozen. The largest measured 130x88 mm. Curiously
enough, a small piece broken from the side of this specimen was
recovered at a spot distant several yards away, though at the same
level, the patina proving that the fracture was ancient. Some of the
‘points’ were of the graceful elongated type that has been termed
‘hemi-Solutrian.’ The most characteristic of these measured
97x53 mm. It is to be noted that the implement from the lowest
layer worked on both sides was of this shape, measuring 110 x 52 mm.
It is made of a piece of flint of a ‘ knotty ’ kind which may well have
invited additional trimming. Several cases of double patination occur,
the most noticeable being that of a well-formed ‘ point’ measuring
70x 50 mm., which, having first been blocked out in true Mousterian
style, has afterwards had time to acquire a white patina (very similar
to that characteristic of the Neolithic in Jersey, and thus possibly
standing for some 5,000 years), and has been subsequently subjected
to elaborate re-chipping along the edges. A ‘point’ beautifully
worked in jasper, but, unfortunately, broken at the base, is something
of a curiosity. For the rest, every known type of scraper abounds.
Special notice may be taken of a frequent type in which the core has
been utilised as a handle. A certain number of small pieces, the best
examples measuring 50 x 22, 35 x 22, and 30x20 mm., bear a strong
resemblance to arrow-heads, the more so as they have notched bases ;
though to ascribe the bow to Mousterian times may be somewhat
unorthodox. One specimen, again, is of that ‘ rostrocarinate ’ type of
which so much has lately been heard. Apart from the worked flint,
there is a very interesting series of utilised pebbles, every variety of
hammer stone being found. It seems to have been customary with
the inhabitants of this cave to split pebbles, especially those formed
of diakase, and to use the longitudinal sections as scrapers or
polissoirs. By good fortune it was possible to re-constitute such a
pebble out of three portions found in different parts of the lowest bed,
at some distance from each other. Occasionally pieces of stone other
than flint had been trimmed into the rough semblance of ‘ points,’
the best example being of the hard sandstone (grés Armoricain) found
in Alderney. A very interesting series has been provisionally con-
structed of granite implements. These occurred in the heart of the
bed of ashes, side by side with flint implements of similar form, under
such conditions as almost certainly to exclude the possibility of their
being accidental splinters from the roof. Certain bone fragments
showed clearly the signs of having been cut with a flint knife, and it
is possible that they will have to be ranked as implements, one of
them, for instance, whether by accident or design, making a very
convenient spatula. It only remains to add that everything that can
possibly be of human workmanship, including all the inevitable
débitage d’atelier, has been carefully preserved and stored by the
kindness of the Société Jersiaise in a special room, where the student
can work over the whole material at his leisure. with every chance of
constructing a truly classical series.

234 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Acknowledgments.

The Chairman, Dr. R. R. Marett, directed operations from
March 21 to April 22, inclusive, the Secretary, Colonel Warton,
assuming responsibility for the rest of the time. Nine members of
the Oxford University Anthropological Society, including Dr. F. C. S.
Schiller and Mr. W. McDougall, F.R.S., took an active part in the
work, while there were also many local helpers, most of them
inembers of the Société Jersiaise. Special thanks are due to Mrs.
Briard for the use of her car and for her personal assistance in the
important matter of transport; to Mrs. Coltart and Miss Bayly for
their help both in finding and in dealing with the finds; to Mr. G. de
Gruchy, the proprietor of the site, who helped in the actual work
of excavation for about a fortnight; to Captain A. H. Coltart (Exeter
College), who actively superintended the work during its final stages,
and took a leading part in arranging the material at the Museum; to
Mr. B. de Chrustchoff (Lincoln College), who for a month inhabited
a small cabin upon the site itself, and acted as custodian of the
treasure; to Mr. T. B. Kiitredge (Exeter College), who was constantly
at work for a month, and afforded great assistance in every way;
to Mr. Emile Guiton, of the Société Jersiaise, who acted as photo-
grapher-in-chief; to Mr. Joseph Sinel, curator of the Museum of the
Société Jersiaise, who took efficient steps to secure the preservation of
the osteological remains; and last, but not least, to Dr. Smith Wood-
ward and Dr. Andrews, of the British Museum, for the determination
of the fauna represented by these remains.

Future Policy.

The Committee wishes to apply to the British Association for a
grant of not less than the sum previously given, in order that the
work may be continued without delay. It is well-nigh a certainty
that a rich store of remains awaits excavation, and, indeed, that it lies
exceedingly near to hand, more especially along the eastern side,
where the hearth deposits are particularly rich. Any such grant will
be devoted entirely to the work of removing the débris. All incidental
expenses will be met by local contributions, as in the present case.

The Production of Certified Copies of Hausa Manuscripts.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. K. S. HARTLAND
(Chairman), Professor J. lL. Myres (Secretary), Mr. W.
CROOKE, and Major A. J. N. TREMEARNE.

Tue sum of 20/]., placed at the disposal of the Committee in 1912,
has been expended in payment of the printer.

Copies have been presented as follows: To the Committee for
Anthropology, Oxford; the Syndicate for Anthropology, Cambridge;
the Imperial Institute; the London School of Economics; 1’Ecole
d’Anthropologie, Paris; the University Library, Berlin; the India
Office Library; Exeter College, Oxford; Christ’s College, Cambridge;
King’s College, London; and to various missionary and other religious

ON THE PRODUCTION OF CERTIFIED COPIES OF HAUSA MSS. 235

societies where texts in Hausa will be accessible and useful to students.
The usual copies have also been deposited in pursuance of the Copy-
right Acts. ‘There remain three copies in hand which the Committee
hope to distribute in a similar way shortly.

The Prehistoric Civilisation of the Western Mediterranean.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. R1nGE-
way (Chairman), Dr. T. AsHBy (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H.
DuckwortH, Mr. D. G. Hocarru, Sir A. J. Evans, and
Professor J. LL. Myres, appointed to report on the present
state of knowledge of the Prehistoric Civilisation of the
Western Mediterranean with a view to future research.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Our knowledge on this subject has made considerable progress in
recent years, though one of the main hypotheses—that of the advance
of the so-called ‘ Mediterranean’ race (to which several scholars
attribute the megalithic civilisation of the end of the Neolithic and
the dawn of the Bronze Age) from North Africa—has yet to be tested
by further research in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, which we may hope
that Italian archeologists will shortly be able to undertake. In the
meantime, the megalithic remains of Malta have been studied to
some extent by the British School at Rome, though more work might
be profitably undertaken there; a considerable number of dolmens are
now known in Sardinia; and a new group of them has recently been
found in the neighbourhood of Bari, in the south-east of Italy.

It would be important to study the intermediate links in the chain,
which seems to connect the megalithic civilisation of the Western
Mediterranean with that of our own islands: and the dolmens of
Spain and Portugal might with some profit be further examined.

The Teaching of Anthropology.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir RicHaRD TEMPLE (Chairman), Dr. A. C. HADDON
(Secretary), Sir E. F. im Taurn, Mr. W. Crooxe, Dr. C. G.
SELIGMANN, Professor G. Exuiot SmirH, Dr. R. R. MAReEtTT,
Professor P. E. Newperry, Dr. G. A. AUDEN, Professors T. H.
Bryce, P. THompson, R. W. Rep, H. J. Fururs, and J. L.
Myres, and Sir B. C. A. WINDLE, appointed to investigate
the above subject.

Tue President of Section H, Sir Richard Temple, initiated a discus-
sion at the Birmingham Meeting on the practical application of
anthropological teaching in Universities. A report of this discussion
was printed in Man, 1918, No. 102, giving the President’s opening
statement, extracts from letters from distinguished administrators and
ethnologists, and an abstract of the speeches made by Sir Everard im

236 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Thurn, Mr. W. Crooke, Lieut.-Colonel Gurdon, Dr. Haddon, Dr.
Marett, and Professor P. Thompson.

A Committee was appointed by the British Association for the
purpose of devising practical measures for the organisation of anthro-
pological teaching at the Universities in the British Islands. With
this committee was associated a. committee appointed by the Council
of the Royal Anthropological Institute. These committees met in
joint session at the Institute, under the chairmanship of Sir Richard
Temple, and passed the following resolutions: ‘ (a) It is necessary to
organise the systematic teaching of Anthropology to persons either
about to proceed to, or actually working in, those parts of the British
Empire which contain populations alien to the British people. (b) The
organisation can best be dealt with by the collaboration of the Royal
Anthropological Institute, the British Association, and the Universi-
ties, with the support and co-operation of the Government, the Foreign
Office, the India Office, the Colonial Office, and the Civil Service
Commissioners. (c) It would be well for the organisation to take the
form of encouraging the existing Schools of Anthropology at the
Universities and the formation of such schools where none exist.
(d) As laboratories, a library, and a museum, readily available for
teaching students, are indispensable adjuncts to each school, it is
desirable to encourage their formation where they are not already in
existence.’

By the courtesy of the Master and Wardens of the Worshipful
Company of Drapers of the City of London, a conference to consider
the findings and recommendations of the Joint Committee was held in
the Hall of that Company on February 19, 1914. The President of
the Conference was the Right Hon. the Earl of Selborne. A large
number of representatives of various Home and Colonial Government
Departments, Universities, Societies, as well as politicians, adminis-
trators, and others, were present or sent letters of regret at their
inability to be present at the Conference, and expressing their sym-
pathy with the purpose of the Conference. A full report of this
Conference will be found in Man, 1914, No. 35.

In November 1913 Sir Richard Temple addressed the Indian
Civil Service students at Exeter College, Oxford. In February 1914
he published a pamphlet entitled ‘ Anthropology a Practical Science,’
which included his Birmingham Address (1913), an Address delivered
in Cambridge in 1904, and extracts from that given at Oxford (1913).
In March he addressed the American Luncheon Club, and also the
Sphinx Club, both mercantile institutions, on Anthropology in its
‘business’ aspects. And he has engaged to do the same at the
Merchants’ Luncheon Club at Hull.

It has not yet been possible to place the findings of the Conference
before the Prime Minister, whose time has been, and is still, taken up
with urgent matters of State. An endeavour to secure an audience
with the Prime Minister will be made when an opportune moment
arrives.

ON THE DUCTLESS GLANDS. 237

The Ductless Glands.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor Sir EDWARD ScH.AFER (Chairman), Professor SWALE
VINCENT (Secretary), Professor A. B. MAcattum, Dr. L. E.
SHorE, and Mrs. W. H. THompson. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

Mr. A. T. Cameron has continued his investigations on the presence
and function of iodine in different tissues. Examination of the thyroids
of the elasmobranchs Scylliwm canicula and Raia clavata gave positive
results, those for female Scyllium thyroids (116 per cent.) being
higher than any previously reported.1| Examination of the thyroids of
the dog-fish Acanthias vulgaris, of the frog, of the alligator, and of
the pigeon gave positive results, the variations found being traceable
to variations in diet. Comparison of the iodine content of thyroid and
parathyroid tissue in the dog gave such marked differences as to
warrant the assumption that the parathyroid is not concerned with the
production of iodine compounds, and, therefore, as far as these are
concerned, that there is a differentiation of function between the two
glands.

A wider investigation has shown, in comparison with data previously
published by others, that iodine is an almost invariable constituent
of all organisms, plant and animal, the amount depending on the diet
and medium of the organism. With higher development there is greater
specificity of the tissue concerned in storing iodine, until in the
vertebrates no tissue except thyroid contains appreciable quantities.
Thymus especially has been examined in a large number of species,
with negative results. All normal thyroids contain iodine, the amount
varying with the diet, and between the limits 0°01 and 1°1 per cent.
(dry tissue). Other observers have shown previously that sponges and
corals (besides many algze) contain quantities of iodine comparable with
that in the thyroid. Three other types of tissue have been found in
marine organisms which contain amounts of iodine over 0'1 per cent.
(dry tissue) viz.: the horny tubes of Eunicid worms, the external
cutaneous tissues of the ‘ foot’ of the horse-clam, and the test of a
tunicate. Further work will be carried out to determine the type of
iodine compound in these tissues, with a view to throwing further light
upon the type of iodine compound in the thyroid. The above results
are in course of publication.

Mr. Cameron is also engaged in work on the effects of feeding iodine
compounds (and thyroid) on the amount of iodine present in the thyroid
gland, with a view to determine the rate of increase or diminution.
These results are not yet ready for publication.

The Secretary has been engaged upon various problems connected .
with the ductless glands. The effects of varying conditions upon the
histological structure of the thyroid and parathyroid have been investi-
gated in a preliminary fashion, but the results are conflicting and
difficult to interpret. The variations in structure in normal thyroids

1 Biochem. J., 2, 466, 1913. 2 J. Biol. Chem., 16, 465, 1914.

238 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

are so great that the effects of feeding, drugs, &c., cannot be sum-
marised in a definite manner.®

The pharmacodynamics of different extracts have also been studied.
Among other facts to which attention will be called in subsequent
publications it may be mentioned that large doses of adrenin by no
means always interfere with the normal action of the vagus, that the
rise of blood-pressure due to injection of adrenin is of a double nature,
and that comparatively small doses of the last-mentioned drug
frequently cause an unexpected fatal result in dogs.

The effects of adrenin and thyroid extracts upon the activity of the
vagus have led to an inquiry as to the effect of hormones upon
vaso-motor reflexes, and owing to the unsatisfactory accounts given
in the majority of books as to the actual facts in connection with these
reflexes, it has been necessary to extend the inquiry so as to include
a consideration of the vaso-motor reflexes in general. So far, the only
hormone which appears to give any interesting results is the extract of
pituitary, the effect of injection of the extract being to change the nature
of the reflex, so that in cases where, for example, stimulation of the
central end of the sciatic produces a fall of blood-pressure, after
injection of pituitary extract a similar stimulation produces a rise.

This work is nearly ready for publication.

The Committee desire to be reappointed with a grant of 401.

Calorimetric Observations on Man.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor J. S. Macponaup (Chairman), Dr.
F. A. DuFrietp (Secretary), and Dr. KrtrH Lucas, appointed
to make Calorimetric Observations on Man in Health and in
Febrile Conditions. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

In furnishing a report upon the calorimetric work undertaken during
the past year, it is necessary to refer to a paper published by Professor
Macdonald and printed in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’
B, vol. 87, 1913, and to a communication to the Physiological Society,
May 1914. The commencement of the first paper, containing a de-
scription of the apparatus and of the method of procedure followed
in these experiments, may be omitted here, since these have been in-
cluded in previous reports of this Committee. The latter part, which
1s the collected and digested results of a very large number of experi-
ments made upon a variety of individuals, forms a large part of this
report.

The experiments all through have been carried out by Professor
Macdonald with the apparatus and in the manner already described
by himself in the earlier reports. The subject, shut up within the
calorimeter, was made to perform a definite measured amount of
mechanical work upon the cycle. The degree of work was varied in
different experiments, and from the data of these heat-production

* See discussion, Zancet, 1914 (March and April), by Bell, McGarrison,
Chalmers, Watson, and Vincent.

ON CALORIMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ON MAN. 239

figures have been obtained which fall into four groups corresponding
to the grades of mechanical work done. It has been found that these
results may be expressed by a constant multiplied by a function of
the subject’s weight, which varies with the amount of mechanical
work performed in the different groups, i.e. 02, ‘03, ‘O7 and ‘09 h.-p.

Group A—Heat-production = K,W*"

” B— ” — K,W**
» O— 4 SSK WwW
” D— ” — K,

From these results it is evident that the weight becomes less and
less of a handicap as the mechanical work increases. And, to carry
this a stage further, the query arises as to the likelihood of the weight
Ecoming a positive advantage at a still higher grade of mechanical
work.

The communication to the Physiological Society contains a formula
for one of the subjects cycling at a revolution rate varying from 40
to 98 revolutions per minute, and performing external work against a
brake varying in different experiments from 0 to 73 calories per hour—

4gVuai + 568

The first part of the formula represents the heat-production associated
with the rate of movement ‘ V,’ and is the same no matter what the
value of the external work performed by the movement. The second
is the ‘ coefficient of efficiency ’ multiplied by the external work done,
and fully represents the heat-production associated with the perform-
ance of external work. It will be noticed that this coefficient of
efficiency is represented as varying inversely with the two-thirds
power of the subject’s weight, and that the ‘ efficiency ’ which is its
reciprocal therefore varies directly with this value. This has been
found universally the case in the data from all the remaining subjects,
and explains the fact that in the heavier work experiments the results
become independent of the subject’s weight, if consideration is paid
to the other fact, also elicited from these data, that the heat-production
associated with movements per se (irrespective of the mechanical work
performed by them) varies, on the other hand, directly with the function
of the weight. In fact the total energy transformation is the sum
of the two factors, one due to the subject’s movements per se varying
directly, the other due to performance of mechanical work in the
course of these movements varying inversely as the subject’s weight ;
but in neither case in a simple linear fashion. The general formula
given (Proc. Physio. Soc., March 1914), is

x work in Kals. per hour = Kals. per hour.

» 566.8
s7WV ER +i x work,

The first fraction is probably expressible in the following form—

KWV?? where ‘v’ is the natural rate due to the ‘ pendular
character’ of the limb movements, and V is the particular rate
imposed in each experiment.

240 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Professor Macdonald also finds analogies between these results and
those of walking experiments described by Douglas and Haldane in
‘Phil. Trans.’ B, ciil., p. 245. A full consideration of the matter will
be found in a paper communicated, June 1914, to the ‘ Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ on the ‘ Mechanical Efficiency of Man.’

The section of the work dealing with the respiratory changes has
also been continued during the past year. A number of experiments
have been performed in which the respiratory interchange of a man,
doing a measured amount of mechanical work upon a cycle in the
calorimeter, has been investigated. The calorimeter is ventilated by
means of a stream of air drawn through it at a uniform rate by a
pump and measured by a meter placed on the distal side of the latter.
All three are connected by tubing, through which the air flows, and
the air as it leaves is sampled by suitable means every ten minutes.
The samples thus obtained are examined by the gas-analysis apparatus
devised by Dr. Haldane, and the carbon dioxide and oxygen percentage
determined. ‘The carbon dioxide figures, when plotted against the time
on squared paper, take the form of a curve rising steadily to a horizontal
asymptote.

In order to understand the figures thus obtained it was obviously
necessary to inquire into the question of storage of gases within the
calorimeter, and to do this a number of calibration experiments (17 in
all) were made, in which a stream of carbon dioxide, measured by a
gas-meter and generated by a modification of the apparatus described
in a paper by Young and Caudwell (‘ Soc. Chem. Ind.,’ March 1907),
was passed into the calorimeter at a uniform rate, and the ten minutes’
samples examined in the manner described in the experiments on the
human subject. Attempts were then made to discover the relation
which exists between the curve of the carbon dioxide in the leaving air
and that of the carbon dioxide introduced from the generating appara-
tus; but so far the results appear so complicated that no definite relation
has been arrived at. However, quite recently Mr. G. H. Livens, M.A.,
Lecturer on Mathematics to the University, has rendered most valuable
assistance towards solving this problem. A fairly accurate empirical
formula has been obtained from the actual readings, but it is not of
such good agreement with the theoretical formula as is desired, and
further experiments are being made to detect the cause of the dis-
crepancy.

Owing to the appearance of a considerable error in the readings of
the large meter used for measuring the volume of the air-flow through
the calorimeter, it became necessary to replace it by a water-meter
supplied by Messrs. Parkinson and Cowan, Ltd. Also, a large number
of tests were made, both in the Physiological Laboratory and through
the courtesy of the Sheffield Gas Company at their test-room, on the
small meter which is used for measuring the volume of carbon dioxide
introduced into the calorimeter in the calibration experiments men-
tioned above. I am now certain that the error in our estimation
on these accounts 1s well under 2 per cent.

ON EFFECT OF LOW TEMPERATURE ON COLD-BLOODED ANIMALS. 241

The Lffect of Low Temperature on Cold-blooded Animals.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor SWALE
ViNcENT (Chairman) and Mr. A. T. CAMERON (Secretary).
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Mr. A. T. Camexron has continued the experiments of Cameron and
Brownlee on frogs communicated in the last report, and has arrived at
the following conclusions :—

(1) The death-temperature of R. pipiens from cold is — 1259 +
mise C. .

(2) There is no climatic adaptation, nor any periodic adaptation due
to hibernation, in RA. pipiens.

(3) The cause of death is a specific temperature effect on the co-
ordinating centres in the central nervous system. Those controlling
lung-respiration may be specially concerned.

(4) Frogs surviving degrees of cold such as those occurring during a
Manitoban winter do so below the surface, near the margin of springs,
and are themselves never subject to temperatures below the freezing-
point of water.

(5) There seems to be a slight variation in the death-temperature
from cold, of different species of frogs, amounting to some tenths
of a degree Centigrade.

(6) Frogs heated rapidly to normal room-temperature from a tem-
perature just below the freezing-point of their body-fluids (and not itself
capable of causing death) are thrown into a peculiar hypersensitive
condition, in which cessation of lung-breathing takes place for long
periods.

These results are deduced from experiments with R. pipiens from
Manitoba, Minnesota, and Illinois, with R. clamitans from Minnesota,
and with R. sphenocephala from C. Carolina. The experimental details
will be published elsewhere. The Committee do not wish to be re-
appointed.

Miners’ Nystagmus.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor J. H. MurrHeap (Chairman), Dr. T. G.
MalTLaANp (Secretary), Dr. J. JAMESON Evans, and Dr.
C. 8. Mysrs, appointed to investigate the Physiological and
Psychological Factors in the Production of Miners’
Nystagmus.

Factors concerned: (a) Internal; central and peripheral. (b) External.

Two features have long been admitted to be provoking agencies in the
production of miners’ nystagmus—an external factor, defective lighting,
and an internal or peripheral factor, viz., muscular strain. The former,
defective lighting, is found to be the more important, and our examina-
tion led us to conclude that where this factor is in greatest evidence
there we find the greatest incidence of cases. Miners’ nystagmus is
a disease limited practically to coal-mining, and, further, it is associated
with the use of lamps of small illuminating power, such as the Davy
1914. R

242 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

or its modifications, so that it is rare, even in coal-mines, to find
cases of nystagmus where more powerful illuminants such as candles
and electric lamps are used. Moreover, the great absorption of light by
the coal-surface diminishes the illuminating value of the lamp employed.
This absence of reflections from walls, floor, and ceilings interferes
with clear visualisation, since direct rays are never so satisfactory as
diffuse rays. The other factor mentioned above—muscular strain,
especially of the elevators of the eyeballs—is also taken into considera-
tion, notwithstanding the difference of opinion on the importance of
this. Snell has collected several cases of nystagmus which, as in the
case of compositors, has followed strain in this way, and we have
ourselves found that there is a larger number of cases of miners’
nystagmus associated with ‘holing’ than in any other occupa-
tion underground—under conditions, therefore, which demand an
awkward posture with straining of the head and eyes. Other sources
of peripheral irritation are opacities of the media, errors of refraction,
pigmentary and other ocular defects, which tend to produce or aggravate
nystagmus by either modifying illumination or by causing muscular
strain or by interfering with the direct rays on the fovea.

Taking all these factors, however, into consideration—factors which
are generally acknowledged—the fact remains that, working under
similar conditions of illumination and strain, a large percentage of
miners do not develop nystagmus, and it is our object to find out what
is the decisive factor. Admitting the external factors in those who
develop nystagmus to be more or less constant, admitting the occa-
sional possibility of peripheral factors such as those above mentioned,
there remains some factor unaccounted for which explains the selection
of certain miners for this trouble. At this stage of our inquiry, how-
ever, we investigated what seemed to us a neglected field—the relative
sensibility of the retina in the foveal and in the perifoveal regions—
and for this reason. The peculiar modifications which the dark-adapted
eye undergoes might bring about a still further interference with the
illumination by a reactive function on the part of the percipient.

A consideration of the conditions of work in the coal-mine sug-
gested very strongly the importance of the possession by the miners
of delicate vision sensibility. Before dark-adaptation could be fully
developed the miner at his first entry into the pit would have to
strain his vision under the most trying circumstances to avoid roof
obstacles as he made his way to his work. Such a strain would display
itself in the muscles chiefly involved, such as the elevators of the
eyelids and of the eyes. It is interesting clinically to find the initial
symptom complained of is a heaviness of the lids.

At work on the coal-face the miner with his eyes on the coal-
surface would be subjected only to a few reflected rays from smooth
facets of coal and some little diffused light from the coal-surface
generally. Very dim light would bring out the latent differences in
the visual sense, such as the differences of acuity between foveal and
perifoveal vision. If the rays were too feeble to excite foveal sensation
they might yet stimulate perifoveal sensation. ;

Our theory regarding this particular feature of the eye was that a

ON MINERS’ NYSTAGMUS. 243

perifoveal sensation, in the absence of foveal sensation, or a perifoveal
sensation of greater intensity than a foveal sensation, would excite
a fixational or movement reflex. This would bring the exciting point
in the marginal field on to the fovea, and would then either cease
altogether to excite sensation or would be so diminished in intensity
as to lay the eye open again to marginal stimulation. With a central
stigma, a neurasthenic diathesis, there would be present all the material
for the development of a habit spasm.

A large number of observations were made on students, assistants,
and ourselves with a piece of apparatus described in the appendix.
This apparatus was arranged to present a spot of light the intensity of
which was controllable. The open eye was directed on this spot while
the room was in full daylight, and then the room was suddenly plunged
into darkness. At the end of five seconds the subject was examined as
to his ability with direct vision to perceive this faintly illuminated spot,
its intensity rapidly altered until the subject was only just able to per-
ceive it. The time for this, the minimum visibile, usually took about
five seconds, and the degree of illumination was remarkably constant in
all these cases, so much so that we were able to fix on this degree of
light intensity as our zero. The direct vision was contrasted with
indirect vision, the subject being directed to look slightly away from the
spot of light, which at once appeared to become more vivid. The inten-
sity was then diminished until here again the spot was only just dis-
cerned, and so we obtained a minimum vision visibile for indirect or
perifoveal vision.

At intervals of two and a half minutes the minimum visibile was
estimated for both fovea and perifovea, and we were able to represent
in graphic form the increasing sensibility of the retina to faint illumina-
tion. In general the dark adaptability of fovea and perifovea increased
rapidly up to the end of half an hour, less rapidly up to the end of two
hours ; arriving then at its maximum sensibility it remained stationary.
The perifovea throughout this development of dark adaptation not only
retained its primary advantage, but slightly increased that advantage up
to the limit of change. In our experience in the coal-mines we never,
however, felt that the maximum amount of sensibility was ever in
demand, and while the light was indeed feeble enough to be exces-
sively irritating to our unaccustomed eyes, yet nowhere did we find
working conditions approaching our experimental conditions. Was the
miner’s eye differently equipped from our own, did it possess a greater
adaptability through use and habit ?

This led to an examination of the dark-adaptability of miners who
had been afflicted with nystagmus, and here we found without exception
a totally unexpected condition, yet one which now rendered plausible
our fixational hypothesis. Instead of finding a greatly increased adapt-
ability as a result of long use and cultivation of the eye in the dark,
we found that in this respect it was greatly inferior to the ‘ normal ’ eye.
In the first place the ‘zero’ was not perceived until after about five
minutes of exposure to the dark, and then once perceived it remained
without an appreciable development through the two hours’ experiment.
This peculiarity on the subjective side amounted to the same thing in

A R 2

244 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

its effects as a modification of the external factors of the illumination,
so that the differences observed in the normal eye, under the experi-
mental condition described above, might in the case of the miner come
into operation under the condition of his work owing to the altered
sensational values following retinal insensitiveness. The fact is that
the theory of ‘ fixational reflexes’ might yet be true of the behaviour
of the miner’s eye in the coal-mine.

The conclusion of the research so far then seemed more and more
to lay stress on the one well-recognised agency, that of illumination, and
that insensitiveness of the retina really amounted to the same thing
as an absolute decrease in the illuminant.

There remains for examination the actual excursion of the eye, and
an examination into the nervous system of the afflicted miner.

Since this was written an examination of unaffected miners has been
made, with the result that there is no appreciable difference between
their dark-adaptability and what we describe as the normal.

The Apparatus for estimating the Minimum Light Sensibility in the Process of
Dark-adaptation.

It consists of an oblong box, the front of which is pierced by a round hole
witha diameter of 20 mm., which is covered by an opal disc. At the back of the
box exactly facing this aperture is a sheet of white paper which reflects light
thrown upon it on to the disc. At the side of the box is another aperture into
which a tube nearly 2 m. long fits. This tube carries within it a small 2-volt
lamp which can be moved quite freely from end to end. The light from this
lamp is thrown on a mirror so placed that it reflects this light on to the sheet of
paper, which then reflects it on to the disc. It was only in this way the light
could be sufficiently diminished to obtain marginal stimuli.

After a number of experiments we arbitrarily decided upon our zero—that is,
the light that could be only just perceived five seconds after the room was
plunged in darkness. At intervals of two and a half minutes the subject was
tested again, and the lamp was gradually moved away from the box until the
subject failed to perceive the disc.

The Investigation of the Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. SEWARD
(Chairman), Mr. H. HamsHaw Tuomas (Secretary), Mr.
HaARoLD WAGER, and Professor F. EK. WEIssS.

Tus year attention has been concentrated on the plant beds on and
near Roseberry Topping, North East Yorkshire, more especially on the
Thinnfeldia beds. A careful search was made for the reproductive
structures of Thinnfeldia, and this was rewarded by the discovery of
numerous associated seed-like bodies, whose structure has yet to be
investigated, and which may, perhaps, prove to belong to this
plant. A new example of a Williamsoniella flower-bud was found,
which is of interest in greatly extending the range of this form. Some
fruits and seeds, probably referable to the provisional genus Caytonia,
were also discovered, though they were previously known only from
Gristhorpe. One or two new forms were found, and many duplicates
of the more interesting species were collected. It is not proposed to
continue field-work and collecting in the future on the same scale as

ON INVESTIGATION OF THE JURASSIC FLORA OF YORKSHIRE. 245

during the past three years until the existing collections have been
fully investigated.
The Committee does not seek re-appointment.

The Vegetation of Ditcham Park, Hampshire.—Interim Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. G. TANSLEY (Chair-
man), Mr. R. 8. ApAmson (Secretary), Dr. C. E. Moss, and
Professor R. H. Yapp, appointed for the Investigation thereof.

Since the date of the last report a large number of experiments have
been carried out with evaporimeters. Especially, a large series of
simultaneous readings have been taken, covering a considerable period,
from instruments placed in various positions in beech-woods, coppices,
and in open grassland. Several of the results suggest further lines of
experimentation and research, but a much larger number of readings
must be obtained before any generalisation can be enunciated. The
evaporimeter readings have been run concurrently with a series of
readings of wet and dry bulb thermometers, and also of maximum and
minimum thermometers which have been placed in association with the
evaporimeters.

The work on soils has commenced, but so far has been mainly .
preliminary. Experiments have been made on soil temperatures,
especially in relation to exposure, drainage, woodland canopy, &c.

The general preliminary mapping of the various associations com-
posing the area has been completed, and an analysis of them has been
made from the topographical and floristic standpoints as a basis for
experimental work in the coming season. In this connection special
attention has been paid to the successive changes occurring after
coppicing till the re-forming of the full canopy, and also to the question
of the recolonisation by trees of cleared areas and grasslands. Data
_ been collected which serve as a starting-point for a more detailed
study.

The areas enclosed against rabbits, &c., have also been under
observation, and the changes occurring have been examined and
recorded.

The Committee asks to be reappointed, without a grant.

Experimental Studies in the Physiology of Heredity.—Report of
Committee, consisting of Professor F,. F. BuackMAn (Chair-
man), Mr. R. P. Grecory (Secretary), Professor W.
Bateson, and Professor F. KEEBLE.

Tue grant of 301. has been expended in part payment of the cost of

experiments conducted by Miss E. R. Saunders, Mr. R. P. Gregory,

and Miss A. Gairdner. Miss Saunders’ experiments with stocks have
had for their main objects :—

(1) The investigation of the condition known as half-hoariness and

246 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, 1914.

its relations to the glabrous and fully-hoary forms. A new half-hoary
race, which has been obtained after some difficulty, has made it possible
to design a complete series of experiments, which is now in progress.

(2) The further study of the gametic coupling already shown to exist
between the factors for double-flowers and plastid-colour. This in-
vestigation promises to give results of great interest, but a further
generation must be raised before a statement can be made.

(3) A result of some interest is the discovery that the double-
flowered plants, at least in some strains, have a more rapid and vigorous
growth than the singles. It is thus possible, by means of selection
based on this difference, to obtain a far higher percentage of doubles in
the flower-bed than would be expected from the normal output of
doubles by a double-throwing single.

(4) A beginning has also been made with the work of obtaining a
complete series of types of known factorial constitution, so that a supply
of material may be available for testing the view which has been put
forward as to the inter-relations between the factors determining hoari-
ness and sap-colour.

Experiments with foxgloves have been designed for the investigation
of a curious condition of partial hoariness, as well as for observations
on the range of variability in the heplandra form.

Experiments by Mr. Gregory with Primula sinensis have been
designed chiefly with a view to the investigation of the cytology and
genetics of certain giant races, which have been shown to be in the
tetraploid condition; that is to say, they have 4x (48) chromosomes in
the somatic cells and 2x (24) chromosomes in the gametic cells, whereas
in the diploid races the numbers are 2x (24) and x (12) respectively.
These experiments have given results of very great interest, which may
be briefly summarised by saying that the reduplication of the chromo-
somes has been found to be accompanied by a reduplication of the
series of factors, An account of this work has been published in the
‘Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ B., Vol. 87, p. 484, 1914, and it is hoped that a
further statement will be made at the meeting of the British Association
in Australia. Further experiments with these tetraploid plants are
designed especially to investigate the phenomena of coupling and repul-
sion between certain factors. These experiments promise to yield
results of very great interest, both as regards the genetics of tetraploid
plants and as regards cytological theory as to the possible relations
between factors and chromosomes.

In the experiments with the ordinary diploid races, an interesting
case has been discovered in which the coupling between the factors for
magenta and green stigma is on the system 7:1; whereas in a very
large number of other experiments the coupling (or repulsion) between
these factors is of a very low order, apparently less than 3:1.

A paper is in the course of preparation, and will shortly be
published in the ‘ Journal of Genetics,’ on the inheritance of green,
variegated, and yellow leaves in Primula. The variegated plants consist
of a mosaic of two kinds of cells, respectively like those of the pure
green and pure yellow-leaved plants. The. characters of the chloro-
plasts, on which greenness and yellowness depend, have been found to

ON EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES IN THE PHYSIOLOGY OF HEREDITY. 247

be inherited through the egg-cell only, the male gamete playing no part
in determining the nature of the offspring in respect of these characters.

The experiments of Mr. R. P. Gregory and Miss Gairdner on the
inheritance of variegation and other characters in Trope@olum have been
continued. It is hoped that sufficient data will have been gained by
the end of the present season to permit of the publication of an account
of this work. Present results indicate that in Trop@olum variegation
is inherited in the usual way from both the father and the mother, and
is a Mendelian recessive character. Other characters in Tropeolum
which are being studied are those of colour and habit (dwarf or trailing).

The experiments on the gynandrous variety of the Wallflower and
its relation to the normal type are nearing completion, and it is hoped
that an account of them will be published next year.

The Committee ask for reappointment with a grant of 45]. The
expenses of these experiments involve an annual outlay of about 1101.
to 1201. By far the largest item in this expenditure is the cost of
labour, which has increased during the last few years with the general
rise in wages which has taken place. Other important items are those
of the rent of the garden and the cost of heating the Primula house.
During the present year Miss Saunders and Mr. Gregory jointly receive
a grant from the Royal Society of 601. in aid.of the cost of this work.

Breeding Experiments with Ginotheras.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor W. BATEson (Chairman), Pro-
fessor F. KEEBLE (Secretary), and Mr. R. P. GReEcory,
appointed to carry out the Experiments.

Tur Committee have received the following Report from Dr. R. R.
Gates on the experiments which he has made :—

‘The grant of 201. made by the British Association for Gnothera-
breeding has been applied to the expenses of these experiments during
the last year. In the season of 1913 about 10,000 plants were grown,
representing a great many races and hybrids of Ginothera. The plants
were grown at Rothamsted on a two-acre plot set apart for the purpose.
They developed very successfully, nearly every individual reaching
maturity. The largest series of hybrids were the F, from @. grandi-
flora, GH. rubricalyx and its reciprocal, and the F, of crosses between
CH. grandiflora and Gi. Lamarckiana. The F, generation of the former
cross confirms and extends the results of the F, and F, generations
already published in ‘ Zeitschr. f. Abst. u. Vererb.,’ vol. xi. They
show in particular that both blending and alternative inheritance of
characters occur. Some of the plants, which have been examined
eytologically in conjunction with Miss Nesta Thomas, further emphasise
the fact that mutation and hybridisation in Cnothera are separate
processes, both of which may go on together. Some of these results
will be incorporated in a book now in preparation.’

248 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, 1914.

The Renting of Cinchona Botanic Station in Jamaica.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor F. O. BowErR
(Chairman), Professor R. H. Yapr (Secretary), Professors R.
Butier, F. W. Oviver, and F. HE. WEIss.

Tur Committee has met twice. The negotiations with the Jamaican
Government are progressing favourably, the Committee having been
assisted by the advice of Sir David Prain. There is every prospect of
the house and buildings being let to the Committee on an annual tenancy
to commence from October 1, 1914, at a rent of 251. There has,
however, been considerable delay, partly owing to the long posts, partly
to the progress of papers through official channels.

As no agreement has yet been signed the grant of 251. has not
been drawn. But in view of the prospect of negotiations being com-
pleted on the terms above stated, the Committee ask that they may be
reappointed, and that the grant of 251. be carried over to the ensuing
year as an unexpended balance.

Mental and Physical Factors involved in Education.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. C. S. Myers (Chairman),
Professor J. A. GREEN (Secretary), Professor J. ApDAms, Dr.
G. A. AtpEN, Sir Epwarp Brasroox, Dr. W. Brown,
Professor E. P. CunvERWELL, Mr. G. F. DANIELL, Miss B.
Foxuey, Professor R. A. GrEeGoRy, Dr. C. W. KIMMINs,
Professor McDouaatu, Drs. T. P. Nunn, W. H. R. RIVERS,
and F. C. SuHRuBsALL, Mr. H. Bompas SMITH, Professor C.
SpEARMAN, Mr. A. Ei. TWENTYMAN, and Dr. F. WARNER,
appointed to inquire into and report upon the methods and
results of research into the Mental and Physical Factors
involved in Education.

Tue Committee has to report the retirement of its Chairman, Pro-
fessor J. J. Findlay, and the election of Dr. C. 5. Myers in his place.

They have been engaged in collating the data which was _pro-
visionally reported upon at Birmingham, and hope to present the
results in a definite form for the Manchester Meeting in 1915. The
Committee asks to be reappointed, and applies for a grant of 301.,
to include the unexpended balance from this year’s grant.

Influence of School-books upon Eyesight.—Interim Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. G. A. AUDEN (Chairman),
Mr. G. F. Danrety (Secretary), Mr. C. H. BorHamuey, Mr.
W. D. Eaaar, Professor R. A. Grecory, Mr. N. BIsHop
Harman, Mr. J. L. Houuann, and Mr. W. T. H. WALSH.

In previous reports (1912 and 1913) reference was made to the injurious
effect of shiny paper, in particular to the interference with binocular

ON INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 249

vision which may result from excess of specular reflection. The
Committee is investigating the proportion of specular to diffusive
reflection in the case of books and writing-papers used in schools, and
has received valuable assistance from Mr. A. P. Trotter, who has
devised a gloss-tester. The Committee desires to continue this investi-
gation in the hope of arriving at an objective standard the adoption of
which would prevent injury to eyesight through the use of glossy paper,
and therefore asks to be reappointed with a grant of 5l. in addition to
the unexpended balance of last year’s grant.

Museums.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
J. A. GREEN (Chairman), Mr. H. Bouton and Dr. J. A.
Cuuss (Secretaries), Dr. BatHER, Mr. EX. GRay, Mr. M. D.
Hitt, Dr. W. EK. Hoyt, Professors E. J. GARwoop and
P. NEWBERRY, Sir RicHaRpD TEMPLE, Mr. H. H. THomas,
Professor F. E. Weiss, and Mrs. J. WHITR, appointed to
examine the Character, Work, and Maintenance of Museums.

Tue Committee report that a detailed schedule of inquiry upon
Museums has been drawn up and presented to the House of Lords by
Lord Sudeley. It is hoped that the schedule will be issued by the
Board of Education, and that the information obtained will be available
for the purposes of the Committee. Opinions and reports have been
obtained upon various sections of museum work and their relation to
various divisions of Education. Other inquiries of a similar nature
are also being made. Offers of assistance have been received from the
American Association of Museums. Two members of the Committee
will examine overseas museums during their journey to and from
Australia and report.

A deputation will report upon the educational work of Museums
in France.

The following questions are receiving special consideration :—

The requirements of (1) students; (2) school children; (3) general
visitors to museums.

The Committee ask to be reappointed with a grant of 301., includ-
ing the balance, 71. 9s. 2d., of last year’s grant, now in hand.

250 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

On Salts Coloured by Cathode Rays.
By Professor E. GOLDSTEIN.

[Ordered, on behalf of the General Committee, to be printed in extenso.]

Preruars a part of the phenomena which I am about to discuss is
already familiar to you all. I shall not bring forward many hypo-
theses. So you will perhaps ask why I should speak at all. And,
in fact, apart from reference to certain facts not published hitherto,
my intention is mainly to invite the interest of men younger and abler
than myself in a class of phenomena which seem to constitute a new
condition of matter, but on which very few have yet worked.

If cathode rays fall on certain salts—for example, common salt, or
chloride of potassium, or potassium bromide—vivid colours are pro-
duced immediately on these salts.1 Thus common salt becomes
yellow-brown (like amber), potassium chloride turns into a beautiful
violet, potassium bromide becomes a deep blue colour quite like copper
sulphate. Here you see a specimen of common salt transformed in
this way on the surface of the single crystals into a yellow-brown
substance. I show also sodium fluoride, which takes a fine rosy
colour.

The colours so acquired in a very small fraction of a second may
be preserved for a long time, even for many years, if the coloured
substances are kept in the dark and at low temperatures. But in
the daylight, and also under heat, the colours will gradually disappear
till the original white condition is reached again.

The colours of different salts are sensitive to heating in a very
different degree. I could show you the yellow sodium chloride, pre-
pared some months ago in Europe, but I cannot show you here the
violet KCl and the blue KBr, because these colours, even in the dark,
do not stand the heat of the Equator. The same salt, if dissolved,
may keep very different colours, according to the medium in which
it has been dissolved, even when the pure medium itself cannot be
coloured at all by cathode rays. I am speaking of solid solutions,
produced by fusing a small quantity—for instance, of common salt
or of certain other alkali salts—together with a great mass of a
salt which remains itself colourless in the cathode rays, as, for example,
the pure potassium sulphate. Lithium chloride acquires a_ bright
yellow colour in the cathode rays; but if dissolved in potassium sul-
phate a lilac hue is produced, as you may see in this specimen. Like-
wise the pure carbonate of potassium acquires a reddish tint, but
after dissolving it in the potassium sulphate it becomes a vivid green
in the cathode rays, as you see here.

Very small admixtures are sufficient to produce intense colours.
So soy Of carbonate will produce the green colour in the potassium

1 E. Goldstein, Wiedem. Ann. 54,371; 60,491; Phys. Zeitschr. 8, 149 ; Sitzungsber,
Berl. Akad. d. Wiss. 1901, 222.

ON SALTS COLOURED BY CATHODE RAYS. 251

which you will detect the nature of the different small ad-
mixtures which adhere to the pretended pure preparations of the
different factories. In this way a new analytical proof, much more
sensitive than the ordinary chemical methods, is obtained, and im-
purities may be detected even when a certain specimen of salt contains
more than a single impurity, because the colours produced by different
admixtures generally disappear with different speed in the daylight or
under rise of temperature. For instance, the ordinary potassium
sulphate turns to a dark gray with a slight greenish tint at first.
After a short while the very sensitive gray will disappear, simply under
the ordinary temperature of the laboratory room, and a vivid green
comes out. The gray hue indicates a very small amount of sodium
chloride, ;54555 or so, and the remaining green indicates the admix-
ture of a carbonate. Here are some preparations of potassium sul-
phate each containing a single small admixture (K,CO,, Li,CO,,
LiCl, KCl, KBr). You will notice how different are the colours of
the originally white substance, varying from green to bluish gray, ash-
gray, grayish blue, and violet.

By fractional crystallisation one may finally get a really pure pre-
paration of potassium sulphate, which is no longer coloured by
cathode rays (or only in a very slight degree, indicating minimal traces
of sodium chloride). But there are other preparations which, so far
as I know, cannot be acquired in pure condition by any means, not
even by fractional crystallisation. I never came across a pure sodium
sulphate—the purity exists only on the manufacturers’ labels. Even
the best preparations of this salt contain an amount of sodium car-
bonate which up to the present cannot be separated from it, not
even by frequent fractional crystallisation. The colour produced by
the small admixture, which always remains, is a very marked ash-
gray. By an intentional further addition of sodium carbonate the
colour becomes nearly black.

The question arises: What may be the cause of these colourations
in pure salts and also in solid solutions of them? Shortly after the
colours of the alkali salts had been discovered, an explanation was
given’, according to which the phenomenon mainly consists in a
chemical reduction. For instance, in the case of potassium chloride
the chlorine would be set free, while the remaining potassium is dis-
solved in the unaltered main quantity of the salt, colouring it at
the same time. And it seemed a convincing proof for this theory
when Giesel® and also Kreutz, simply by heating rock salt in the
vapours of sodium or of potassium, produced colours in this rock
salt quite similar to those produced by cathode rays. It seemed that

2 EK. Wiedemann and G. C. Schmidt, Wied. Ann. 54, 618.
8 ¥, Giesel, Ber. D. Chem. Ges. 80, 156.

202, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

the problem was settled finally. However, it was soon discovered
that the coloured Giesel salts, although they look to the eye quite
like the cathode-ray salts, in all other respects behave quite differently.
For instance :—

(1) The cathode-ray salts, as I mentioned before, are very sensitive
to daylight: after an exposure to diffuse daylight of a few minutes—or
in some salts even of several seconds only—the colouration diminishes,
whilst the Giesel salts remain unaltered even when they are kept in full
sunshine for days or even weeks.

(2) The cathode-ray salts, if dissolved in distilled water, show
absolute neutral reaction; the Giesel salts are strongly alkaline.

(3) The cathode-ray salts give very marked photoelectric effects (as
Elster and Geitel* observed); the Giesel salts are quite ineffective.

(4) Under certain circumstances, which will be mentioned further
on, the cathode-ray salts may emit a phosphorescent light, the Giesel
salts none at all. Therefore the question arose again, whether there
is not a marked internal difference between the cathode-ray salts and
the Giesel salts, and what is the nature of the latter?

I have succeeded in settling this question, having produced salts
by cathode rays, the behaviour of which is in every respect absolutely
identical with the Giesel salts. You may produce such substances if
you allow the cathode rays to fall on the original salts not for a short
moment only, but for a somewhat prolonged time, until the salts are
strongly heated. Produced in this way the salts will keep colours; but
the substances coloured in this way are not sensitive to light; they
show no photoelectric effect; they give strong alkaline reaction, and
they are not suited for phosphorescence—all like the Giesel salts. It
is quite sure, and you may test it also directly by spectroscopic proof,
that in this case, if for instance you have worked on sodium chloride,
the chlorine is set free. Then of course an amount of free sodium is
left, which dissolves itself in a deeper layer of unaltered sodium
chloride, to which the cathode rays could not penetrate. I call these
non-sensitive colours the after-colours of the second class, while the
ordinary sensitive after-colours, produced in a short time on cool
salts, are called after-colours of the first class.

Now, u the after-colours of the second class are identical with
the Giesel salts, then, of course, the very different substances of the
first class cannot be also identical with the Giesel salts. Therefore the
question arises anew what is the nature of the first-class after-colours?

One observes with regard to solid solutions that the first-class colours
depend not only upon the metal contained in the small admixture, but
they vary greatly, for instance, in the case of the admixture consisting
of potassium chloride or bromide or iodide. This indicates that the
metals alone do not cause the after-colours. It becomes much more
clear when we expose some ammonium salts to the cathode rays. (The
ammonium salts are cooled by liquid air in the discharge-tube to prevent
their evaporation.) Then you get strongly marked after-colours like-
wise; for instance, ammonium chloride becomes yellow-greenish, the
bromide becomes yellow-brown, the iodide becomes brown, and the

4 J. Elster and H. Geitel. Wied. Ann. 59, 487.

ON SALTS COLOURED BY CATHODE RAYS. 253

fluoride a deep blue. In the daylight these colours are gradually
destroyed, quite like other after-colours of the first class. The colours
themselves—yellow-greenish for the chloride, yellow-brown for the
bromide, and so on—induce us to presume that the after-colours in this
case are produced by the haloids, and not by the hypothetical
ammonium radical. This presumption becomes a strong conviction
when we observe that also a great number of organic preparations
which contain no metal at all (and not any metal-like radical) acquire
marked after-colours of the first class in the cathode rays also. (The
part of the discharge-tube which contains the organic substances is
cooled by liquid air.)

Then you may observe that solid acetic acid (C,H,O,) remains
quite colourless in the cathode rays; but if you substitute a hydrogen
atom by chlorine, the substance thus produced (the monochloro-acetic
acid) acquires a marked yellow-green after-colour. If you introduce
an atom of bromine instead of chlorine, you get C,H,BrO, and the
after-colour is of a marked yellow. Bromoform (CHBr;,) turns into
the colour of loam, and chloral (C,HCI],0) becomes a deep yellow.
In this way we see that not only salts, but likewise substituted acids,
substituted hydrocarbons, and substituted aldehydes acquire after-
colours if they contain any haloid.

Now, it seems highly improbable that in the case of alkali salts the
electro-positive component is absorbed only (producing the after-colour),
and that, on the other hand, in the ammonium salts and in the organic
substances the electro-negative component is efficient only. The most
probable inference is that in each case both components remain and
that both are efficient, but that under the same conditions the haloids
produce a slighter colour than the metals, so that in the case of the
salts the haloid colour is overwhelmed by the metal colour.

Therefore we are compelled to suppose that we have not to deal
with a decomposition in the ordinary form, by which the different com-
ponents are finally separated from each other and at least one of them
is set entirely free, but that the components detained by absorption
remain at a quite short distance from each other, so that they may
easily meet again. I realise that—for instance, in the case of sodium
chloride—at every point of the coloured layer there is an atom (or
perhaps a molecule) of chlorine and an atom (or a molecule) of sodium ;
but they cannot combine, because they are fixed by absorption and dis-
tended from each other by the absorptive power, which in this case
surpasses the chemical affinity. But the absorptive power may be
weakened by heating and the chemical affinity or the amplitude of the
molecular vibrations may be strengthened by the energy of daylight.

If we grant these assumptions, it is immediately evident why the
reaction of all dissolved colour substances of the first class is a
neutral one, for the two components may combine again and re-
establish the original substance. The other special qualities of the
first-class colours, and especially their differences from the Giesel
salts, which contain the electropositive component only, may be de-
duced likewise from this retention of both components and their oppor-
tunity of meeting each other again when the absorptive power is

254. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

weakened or the chemical affinity is strengthened. Now, the two
components in the coloured substances being distended in some degree,
I propose for this special condition of matter the name of distension. If
we accept this, have we created a new name only, or does matter in
this condition really show new qualities? It seems to me that we
have to deal with a peculiar condition of matter, which deserves a
more elaborate study than it has met till now. I will not enter again
into some special qualities, which have already been mentioned—the
photoelectric effect and so on—but I should like to point out that
matter in the distension state shows a strongly strengthened absorption
of light.

We noticed with regard to ammonium chloride the yellow-greenish
after-colour of the chlorine. Now, cathode rays, as used in these
experiments, will not penetrate any deeper than one-hundredth of a
millimetre into the salt. In such a thin layer even pure liquefied
chlorine would not show any perceptible colour. But besides this it
must be noticed that we observe this after-colour at the temperature
of liquid air, and that chlorine at this temperature, as Dewar and
Moissan observed, is snow-white, even in thick layers. In a similar
degree the brown colour of bromine is weakened at low temperatures.
Now, if nevertheless we observe at this very low temperature the marked
characteristic colours of chlorine and bromine, we must conclude that
the absorptive power of these substances has become a multiple of
its ordinary value. One may observe this strengthening of the absorp-
tive power directly in the pure sulphur. Sulphur likewise turns into
a snow-white substance if cooled by liquid air. But when the cathode
rays fall on the white sulphur it takes immediately a yellow-reddish
colour. It is a real after-colour, because at constant low temperature
the colour is destroyed by daylight.

Now, since the strengthening of light-absorption occurs in this
elementary substance, it becomes evident that the cause cannot be
any chemical process, but only a physical allotropy. The special
character of this allotropy (which may be connected with an absorp-
tion of electrons) will not be entered on in a discussion here. Probably
we have to deal with a polymerisation, so that, for instance, the
yellow-reddish sulphur would be analogous to polymerised oxygen—to
ozone.

I have mentioned already that the first-class after-colours are
gradually destroyed by incident daylight. A peculiar phenomenon is
connected with this destruction of colour. I found that after the day-
light had fallen on the coloured substances, even for the shortest time?
most of them showed a marked phosphorescence of long duration.
I have observed this phosphorescence even in substances which had
been coloured twelve years ago and had been kept in the dark since
that time. The diffused dim light of a gloomy November day, when
falling through a window on the coloured substance for one or two
seconds only, is sufficient for the production of this phosphorescence
in a marked degree. If you allow the daylight to fall several times
on the same spot, then the colour is weakened at this spot, and we
come to the presumption that the loss of colouration is generally

ON SALTS COLOURED BY CATHODE RAYS. 255

attended by the emission of phosphorescent light. This is in accord-
ance’ with the experience of Wiedemann and Schmidt that if the
destruction of the colour is produced by heating, likewise a phos-
phorescent light is produced, which in this case is strong but of a
short duration, corresponding to the quick destruction of the after-
colours by strong heating.

If the salts, after having been coloured in the condition of a fine
powder and then having been put between two glass plates (in order
to obtain a plane surface), are placed in a photographic camera instead
of the photographic plate, you may get a fine phosphorescent picture
of a landscape or of architecture after a very short exposure.

Time does not allow me to mention in detail several other
peculiarities which are shown by matter in the distension state. In
one direction only I may be allowed to make some remarks.

The first-class after-colours may be produced not only by cathode
rays but also by the B rays of radioactive substances, as you probably
know. But they may also be produced by ultra-violet light, for
instance, by ultra-violet spark light, even when a quartz plate is inter-
posed between the spark and the salt. More than thirty years ago [
brought forward a hypothesis, according to which in every point where
cathode rays strike a solid body a thin layer of ultra-violet light-
radiating molecules is produced in the gas, to which ultra-violet light of
very short wave-lengths, for instance, the phosphorescence of the glass
walls in the cathode rays, is due. But I came further to the assumption
that nearly all effects which are commonly ascribed to special qualities
of the cathode rays, and likewise of § rays and x rays, are mere effects
of the ultra-violet light which is produced by the stopping of these rays.
I have been guided by this assumption during many years, and have
very often been aided by it in foreseeing new phenomena. For
instance, in this way I was induced to expect that the after-colours
would be produced not only by cathode rays but also by the ordinary
ultra-violet light; further I could guess that also the x rays would
produce after-colours (which in this case have been observed by
Holzknecht), and in recent times I could foresee that solid aromatic
substances (the benzene derivatives) in the ultra-violet light must change
their spectra of ordinary phosphorescence, composed of broad bands,
and turn to peculiar spectra composed of narrow stripes, the wave-
lengths of which are characteristic of the single aromatic substances.°
So I believe also that the after-colours are produced not directly by the
cathode rays or by B rays, but by the aforesaid ultra-violet light which
is connected with the stopping of the other rays.

In this way the after-colours enter at once into a great class of
phenomena known as reversible effects of light. You know that certain
effects of the visible spectral rays are destroyed by rays of longer
wave-lengths, by the infra-red rays. And the analogy to this
phenomenon is in my opinion the destruction of the after-colours: they
are produced by the ultra-violet light of the stopped cathode rays and
are annihilated by the longer visible wave-lengths of daylight. In this
way you may likewise understand, for instance, that the coloured

5 KE. Goldstein, Verhandl. d. D. Physik. Ges. 12.

256 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

spots, produced by x rays on the luminescent screens after long
exposure, may he destroyed again by exposure of the screens to day-
light. You may also explain the peculiar medical observation that
therapeutic radium effects in parts of the human body not covered,
specially in the face, are often not of long duration—for the face is
exposed to the counteracting visible rays of daylight.

We notice here a connection of our subject with a department of
great practical importance. For all therapeutic effects of a rays,
radium rays, and mesothorium rays would, according to this view, be
effects only of ultra-violet light produced by the stopping of these rays
in the human body, and the ‘special character of the radium- and meso-
thorium- and z-ray treatment would consist mainly in the carriage into
the interior of the body, by the rays, of the ultra-violet light, which
is not confined to the surface of the body, but is produced at every place
where any of the entering rays are stopped. You may notice further
that this view of the medical ray-effects presents a heuristic method
for the treatment itself, which up to the present followed quite fortui-
tous and merely empirical paths. For it may be hoped that treatment
by radioactive substances will be useful in every disease in which ultra-
violet light has been proved to be efficient in some degree; you will
avoid such treatment in the well-known cases in which light of short
waye-lengths is noxious, and you may be justified in substituting an
ultra-violet light treatment where radium or mesothorium is not obtain-
able. At the same time it becomes evident why the treatment of certain
diseases by the # rays has effects very similar to those produced by
fulguration—that is, by the light of very strong sparks: the efficient
agent is in both cases the ultra-violet light. :

But it cannot be a physicist’s task to enter too far in medical
questions: it was only my intention to show how interesting are some
of the problems which are connected with the salts coloured by cathode
rays.

The Problem of the Visual Requirements of the Sailor and the
Railway Employee. By JAMEs W. Barrett, C.M.G., M.D.,
M.S., F.R.C.S. Eng.

[Ordered, on behalf of the General Committee, to be printed in eaxtenso.]

Tuer discussions which have taken place on this subject are apparently
interminable. They have for the most part resolved themselves into
discussions amongst oculists and communications made by deputation
or otherwise to the Board of Trade presenting their point of view.

The Board of Trade, whilst it has collected a certain amount of
valuable information, has not materially modified its methods, and
apparently does not propose to do so. As its authority weighs heavily
in the Dominions, which are as a rule not consulted by it before it takes
action, various anomalies make their appearance. I venture therefore
to bring before this meeting of the Physiological Section of the British
Association a summary of the present position.

VISUAL REQUIREMENTS OF SAILOR AND RAILWAY EMPLOYEE, 257

Until recently the standard adopted by the Board of Trade was
normal colour vision as tested by coloured wools and a form vision
equal to 6/12 partly with both eyes open. In other words, the theo-
retical objective was normal colour vision, and form vision of such a
standard that one eye might be totally blind and the other possess
somewhat less than half vision. The Board, however, appointed an
expert committee in 1910, which took evidence and made a number of
recommendations. This committee sat for two years, and in its report
recommended that the form vision required should be 6/6 in one eye
and 6/12 in the other, and that colour vision should be tested by wools
and by coloured lanterns. It did not, however, definitely recommend
that the eyes of those who enter dangerous services should be subjected
to a complete ophthalmological examination when the boy first goes to
sea. Apparently such changes would have required fresh legislation.

Since this report, however, the Board of Trade has again altered
its requirements, and now requires the candidate to read 6/9 partly and
6/6 partly with both eyes open, which means, simply, that the old
standard has been reverted to as regards form vision, except that the
minimum has been raised from 6/12 partly to 6/9 partly. During the
course of its long inquiry the expert committee apparently did not
consult those in the Dominions who were dealing with the matter, with
the exception of the examination of two witnesses, nor did they
apparently seek to make any careful reference to the various accidents
which have taken place by sea and land and can be attributed to
defective vision.

Clause 13 of the Report of the Departmental Committee on Sight
Tests states:—‘ Sir Walter Howell informed us that the Board of
Trade were not aware of any casualty which could be traced to defective
vision. He explained that the Board could raise any question they
pleased on an official inquiry into a marine casualty ; that the smallest
question as to the colour vision of any officer concerned would be probed
to the bottom; that if there were any question of confusion the men
concerned would be re-tested; but that such a question had not been
raised in a single instance. We have examined a large number of the
Reports of Board of Trade inquiries, and the result of our examinations
has confirmed the view that no official evidence exists of casualties due
to this cause. We have examined eight master mariners of long
experience, none of whom knew of any case in which a casualty had
arisen from defective vision.’

Clause 14.—‘ At our request the Liverpool Steamship Owners’
Association ascertained that, of its members, the owners of 857 steam
vessels, of the aggregate tonnage of 3,776,695 tons, knew of no instances
in which mistakes due to defective form or colour vision had been made
in the reading of lights at sea, and of no instance of difficulty of reading
signals ; while the owners of 59 steam vessels of 192,494 tons knew of
some few instances in which a man’s sight had been or had been
alleged to have been defective, but of no casualty resulting therefrom.’

Clause 15.— The Secretary of the Joint Arbitration Committee at
Grimsby, which investigates the circumstances of a large number of
collisions every year, has never known of a collision caused through

1914. s

258 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

the mistaking of the colour ofa light. The Manager of the Hull Steam
Trawlers’ Mutual Insurance and Protection Co., Ltd., who in 12 years
has had to deal with an average of 100 collisions a year, knows of
only four cases in which any question of defective vision has arisen.
Two of these cases were in elderly men, and in the other two the
witness considered the danger was caused by excessive smoking.’

Clause 17.—' The Board of Trade casualty returns, which include
collisions to foreign ships on or near the coast of the United Kingdom
and of British Possessions, show no case in which a sea casualty has
been attributed to the defective vision either of an officer or a look-out
man; but they show that since the adoption of the 1894 sight tests
there have been reported on the average each year 100 collisions
attributed to bad look-out and 429 strandings attributed to causes con-
nected with navigation and seamanship. The strandings resulting
from bad look-out are not shown separately. From these returns it is
not possible to arrive at any reliable estimate of the total number that
might have been occasioned by the defective vision of the officer in
charge or of the man on the look-out. Further, the returns, as they
do not distinguish the vessels commanded by officers who have passed
the 1894 sight test, afford only a general basis of determining how far
the existing system has been successful in eliminating dangerously
defective men; but they do show that amongst the vessels registered in
the United Kingdom the total number of collisions attributable to bad
look-out and of strandings attributable to all causes relating to naviga-
tion and seamanship is less than 500 a year. The Board of Trade has
no record of the actual number of voyages made by British vessels, but
on a rough estimate that number cannot be less than 300,000 a year.’

Clause 18.-—‘ There appears to be no evidence showing conclusively
that defective vision has caused any appreciable number of accidents at
sea, although we do not think that it necessarily follows from this that
the present method, even where it has been employed, has been success-
ful in excluding all dangerous persons from the Mercantile Marine, or
that no accidents have been caused in this way, since it has not been
the practice, in conducting inquiries into the causes of casualties, to
test the vision of persons implicated: We think it regrettable that
effect has not been given to the recommendation as to the testing of
witnesses contained in the report of the committee of the Royal Society
in 1894, and we desire to repeat that recommendation—that in case
of judicial inquiries as to collisions or accidents witnesses giving
evidence as to the nature or position of coloured Signals and lights
should be themselves tested for colour and form vision.

Sir Norman Hill, who signed the Minority Report, states that ‘
the absence of all evidence of any single casualty resulting from defec-
tive form vision I am opposed to the retention of the new standard
under which 10 per cént. of the candidates who have for many years
proved their competency would have been excluded from the service.’
Mr. Nettleship, however, one of the members, since the publication of
the Report, made a collection of the cases in which disaster at sea or
land seemed to be actually or potentially due to these causes, and was
in communication with the writer in regard to the details of a number

VISUAL REQUIREMENTS OF SAILOR AND RAILWAY EMPLOYEE. 259

of other cases at the time of his death. In that work Mr. Nettleship
makes the following pertinent observation (p. 3):—‘ For reasons
such as the above, defects in sight are regarded by those who have to
inquire into accidents as of such little importance that in the official
investigations the question of defects of sight in the men who are
on look-out or corresponding duty is scarcely ever raised. Naturally,
therefore, no accidents are discovered to have had visual defects’ for
their cause. Continuing to reason in a circle, the conclusion is that
defects of sight do not cause accidents! It would be ludicrous if the
matter were not so grave that though precautions of greater or less
efficacy are taken to exclude men with conspicuous defects of sight from
entering the sea or railroad services because such defects are admittedly
dangerous, yet, when the accident happens, no trouble is taken to find
out whether the man responsible for it has efficient sight or not. Every
possible cause for the casualty is sought out, but the possibility that his
vision either was defective when he entered the service or has become
so since is never even considered.’

Yet in spite of the foregoing the fact remains that Dr. Orr and I
reported in the Lancet, October 29, 1904, the account of the wreck of
the Australia and the previous grounding of the Indraghiri by a pilot
whose form vision was very defective. In spite of this Report, the
statements of Sir Walter Howell and Sir Norman Hill appear in the
Expert Committee’s Report. I propose now to refer to the methods
adopted in the Victorian Railways, the Victorian Pilot Service, and the
Union 8.8. Co. of New Zealand. The history of vision-testing in the
Victorian Railways is too lengthy for detailed reference. The number
of candidates who have to be dealt with is very large, and the Depart-
ment has adopted a rough-and-ready plan with which I am not in
complete sympathy, but which undoubtedly eliminates the majority of
the defective cases. Colour vision is tested by the lantern and form
vision by Snellin’s types. For those entering the service the vision
required is 6/6 in each eye and 6/6 in both together. The pupil is then
dilated with homatropine and the vision is again tested. It must now
not be less than 6/12 in each eye or 6/12 in both together. Once the
applicants are admitted to the service they are re-tested without the
use of homatropine, and must possess 6/12 vision in each eye and 6/9 in
both together.

I propose now to indicate the steps that have been taken by the
Marine Board of Victoria to provide for the thorough examination of
the vision of pilots who enter their service, and for their re-examination
since the disaster of 1904. I also quote Clauses 100, 102, 104 and
105 of the regulations which provide for the contingencies to which
Mr. Nettleship referred.

Victorian Pilot Regulations.

Pilots must be examined prior to admission to the service, and
their vision must be as follows :—
__ 1. Vision to be 6/6 in each eye without glasses.
-2.- The total error of refraction not to exceed 1 d, and of this
s2

260 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

astigmatism not to exceed ‘5 d. This estimate to be made by
retinoscopy with the eye under the influence of a mydriatic.

3. The pupillary reflex to be normal, the fundus to be free from
disease, visual fields normal, and balance of colour muscles to be
normal. Candidate to possess binocular vision.

4. Colour vision to be normal as tested by coloured wools and
coloured discs.

If persons possessing these qualifications are admitted, on re-
examination the standard required is :—

1. The same as in the case of an applicant for a licence, except that
after admission into the service deterioration of vision will be allowed,
provided that the vision is not less than 6/9 fully and 6/6 partly in
each eye.

2. There must be no evidence of any morbid or other condition
in either eye which would render it probable that the vision would
deteriorate before the next periodical examination.

Clause 100 provides that ‘every pilot until he arrives at the full
age of sixty years, whether licensed before or after the coming into
force of these regulations, shall at intervals of not more than twelve
calendar months, and in the case of a pilot who under the regulations
does not necessarily retire at the age of sixty years, after he attains that
age, at intervals of not more than six calendar months, have his
eyes examined and vision tested, and pass as satisfying the prescribed
standard by an expert oculist to be approved by the Marine Board.’

Clause 102 provides :—‘ If, on the occasion of any examination or
testing of a pilot or of his eyesight or vision (whether biennial, sixth
monthly, or casual) any physical, mental, or visual defect is discovered
which in the opinion of the medical examiner or expert oculist, as the
case may be, does not immediately, but may within a variable time,
render the pilot unfit for service, such pilot shall submit himself for
re-examination within such lesser intervals than those hereinbefore pre-
scribed as the examiner or oculist, as the case may be, may certify
to be necessary, any longer interval hereinbefore limited to the contrary
notwithstanding. ’

Clause 104 provides :—‘ In the event of any casualty or accident
occurring to or in connexion with any vessel or incidental to the naviga-
tion thereof, which in the opinion of the Marine Board may be due to or
of which in its opinion one of the contributing causes may have been
some defect in health or vision of the pilot in charge, such pilot shall
if required by the Board forthwith submit himself and be examined
by a medical practitioner or expert oculist to be nominated by the
Board, or by both, as the Board may direct, and until such practitioner
or oculist or both, as the case may be, shall certify that such pilot is fit
physically and mentally or visually, and such certificate be lodged with
the Secretary to the Board, such pilot shall not follow his calling.’

Clause 105:—‘If any pilot be absent from duty on account of
illness, and such absence shall extend beyond twenty-eight days, or in
case of illness of any duration, if the Marine Board think it advisable,
or when from any other cause any pilot has been absent from duty and

VISUAL REQUIREMENTS OF SAILOR AND RAILWAY EMPLOYEE. 261

such absence shall have extended for six calendar months or upwards,
such pilot shall not return to duty unless and until, as regards his
condition physical and mental, a medical practitioner and, as regards
his vision and eyesight, an expert oculist, to be in both cases nominated
by the Marine Board, have respectively certified to the Board that such
pilot is in a fit condition physically, mentally, and visually to perform
his duties as a pilot.’

The annual examination of the pilots has probably averted disaster,
as one pilot was retired with high blood-pressure and retinal hemor-
rhages detected in the course of periodical examination.

The Union Steamship Company of New Zealand adopts a like
standard for those who enter its service, and provides for periodical
testing of form vision.

What standard of form and colour vision is necessary for safe
navigation or railway service?

So far as colour vision is concerned the results of the ordinary tests
with wools and lanterns seem to coincide with the quantitative measure-
ments made by Sir William Abney, and I have never seen any prac-
tical difficulty in detecting a dangerous degree of colour defect by the
combination of these means.

With regard to form vision, however, the matter is not nearly so
simple. Two questions arise: What standard of form vision shall be
required? and, Are two eyes necessary? Some time ago, in the
Ophthalmic Review, Mr. Fergus gave an account of his own experi-
ence in motor navigation with defective vision. Apart from theoretical
disquisition which I was unable to follow, he stated correctly enough
that lowered form vision means for the most part a loss of detail. A
house is still seen as a house at a distance when the form vision
is lowered, and a ship is still seen as a ship in like circumstances. I,
however, set to work to make myself artificially myopic with bi-convex
glasses, and to reduce my form vision to different degrees in order to
repeat his experience. In passing, however, it should never be for-
gotten that the standards given by Snellin’s types are at best approxi-
mate. They depend on the illumination of the types, on the contrast
between the letters and the background, on the illumination of the
room, and the size of the pupil. They nearly always give better results
in daylight than by artificial illumination. At best they have approxi-
mate significance.

_ Rendering my eyes artificially myopic in this way, I reduced my
vision to 6/9 partly and 6/12, and found, as Mr. Fergus said, that
houses, men, dogs, and objects of various kinds were still recognised
as such, but certain details could not be detected. For example, a
man and a dog at five hundred yards’ distance were seen as one mass;
a flag on a flagpole at a distance of a mile was indefinite, so that one
could not tell which way the wind was blowing. Outside Dunedin
Harbour I mistook a ship on the rocks for the rocks themselves. By
bright ordinary daylight I should have experienced little or no difficulty
in navigating. Furthermore, in a long motor run there was not the
least difficulty in seeing details on the road, and there would have been
no difficulty in steering the motor. At evening, however, and at night,

262 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

the matter was entirely different, and with this reduced vision motor
driving would have been full of difficulty and danger by reason of the
reduction of the range of vision. When, however, I lowered the vision
to 6/18 partly navigation and motor driving would have been dangerous
by night or day.

The experimental evidence obtained by the Expert Committee at
Shoeburyness was to the effect that vision of less than 6/12 seriously
affects colour perception, and that consequently 6/12 represents the
minimum of vision compatible with safety. This accords with my own
personal experience, with the reservation that anyone who possesses
6/6 vision will be a much safer navigator, other things being equal,
than anyone who possesses 6/12 vision.

Mr. Fergus seems to draw a distinction between myopia and hyper-
opia, but when I have rendered my vision defective by rendering my
eyes hyperopic—that is, by the wearing of concave spectacles—I have
been unable to detect any practical difference in the result. In both
cases one makes many failures when one’s colour vision is tested by
the lantern. When the aperture is small and the light a little dim,
no colour can be seen at all, probably for the reason that Sir William
Abney instances.

In Sir Wiliam Abney’s work, dated 1913, ‘ Researches in Colour
Vision’ (p. 409), reference to similar experimental work is made.
The writer, a few years ago, when considering other causes than those
of deficient colour sensation which might prevent the recognition of
colour, came to the conclusion that the optical condition of the eye
might be of such a nature that small discs of coloured light might be
taken as colourless or not seen at all. To confirm or disprove his
diagnosis he made his eye myopic and observed a ship’s light from the
sea-coast and also known stars, and found that with about half normal
vision the ship’s light at two miles was sometimes invisible or colour-
less, and that only stars above the fourth or fifth magnitude could make
any impression on the retina.

Conclusion.

There is abundant evidence to show that a number of disasters by
land and sea are attributable to defective vision. There is also good
reason for thinking that a larger number of accidents have occurred
which have not been reported, and, as Mr. Nettleship says, they never
will be reported under existing conditions. It is clear that, so long as
the present mode of lighting ships and the present method of using
railway signals are continued, form vision below 6/12 is dangerous
as regards its effect on colour perception, and is dangerous by reason
of the limitation of the range of vision in dull light, and I am of
opinion that for the purposes of safety the minimum visual require-
ments should be 6/9 in one eye and 6/18 in the other. A hyper-
metropia of two dioptres with astigmatism not exceeding ‘75. D might
be permitted. The colour vision should be normal and tested both with
wools and lights, and there should be no ocular disease. To satisfy
these requirements it is necessary that all those who go to sea or
enter the railway service to earn a livelihood should be examined at

VISUAL REQUIREMENTS OF SATLOR AND RAILWAY EMPLOYEE. 263

the outset of their career, since one complete ophthalmological
examination at that period of life will enable the future vision of the
examinee to be predicted with tolerable certainty.

Tt will be seen that the method adopted by the Victorian Railways
would eliminate those who have a high degree of hypermetropia; but
it may admit those suffering from choroiditis with contracted fields,
from glaucoma, and, in fact, any eye disease which is not obvious and
which has no lowered central form vision.

Stress need hardly be laid on the injustice perpetrated in allowing
anyone to enter a seafaring life, to spend some years in acquiring pro-
ficiency, and then subject him to a visual examination when he makes
his appearance for his first professional examination. The sensible
course is obviously to insist on a complete examination when the boy
first goes to sea.

Dry-Farming Investigations in the United States. By Lyman Ji:
Barieds, M:iS:, Ph.D:

[Pratre V.]

(Ordered, on behalf of the General Committee, to be printed in eatenso.)

Tur term ‘dry-farming’ is now generally applied to agricultural
practice in regions where rainfall is the primary limiting factor in
crop production. The determination of the tillage methods which are
most efficient in the storage and conservation of moisture, and the
development of varieties which are especially suited to dry-land con-
ditions, are economic problems worthy of the best efforts of the
agronomist. The most efficient methods are not always the most
profitable methods, for the margin of profit in dry-farming is normally
small, and the cost of tillage must always be compared with the
return. Efficiency in the use of the limited rainfall is, however, the
basis upon which dry-farming practice must be built.

Before taking up the discussion of dry-farming investigations in
the United States, a word regarding the organisation of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture in this connection may be of interest. Five
offices in the Bureau of Plant Industry are devoting a large part of
their energies to dry-farming problems. The Office of Dry-Land
Agriculture operates over a score of experimental farms in various
sections of the Great Plains. This office is concerned chiefly with the
determination of the crop rotations and tillage methods which are best
adapted to the various dry-farming sections. It was early recognised
in the development of this work that dry-farming problems are often
of an extremely local character, and that numerous experimental
stations are necessary to cover the field. Fach experimental farm is
superintended by a trained agriculturist, usually an agricultural college
graduate. These farms also afford experimental facilities for other
offices engaged in dry-farming problems. The offices of Cereal Investi-
gations, Forage Crop Investigations, and Alkali and Drought-Resistant
Plant Investigations are engaged in the investigations of crops suited to

264 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

dry-land conditions ; while the Office of Biophysical Investigations, in co-
operation with the above-named offices, is concerned with the study
of the influence of various tillage methods on the absorption and reten-
tion of rainfall, the water requirement of crops under field conditions,
and the influence of climatic conditions on the growth of dry-land
crops. Over 50,0001. is now appropriated annually by Congress for
the support of the dry-land work. In addition to this, several of
the States are also conducting dry-farming investigations on an exten-
sive scale, either independently or in co-operation with the Govern-
ment. The field of investigation is so extensive that the present paper
will be confined largely to the biophysical phases of the work.

Dry-Farming Areas in the United States.

Two great dry-farming areas occur in the United States. One,
the Intermountain area, lies between the Rocky Mountains on the
east and the Sierra Nevada Mountains on the west. It is essen-
tially a region of winter and spring rainfall. The other, the Great
Plains area, extends from the Canadian boundary along the eastern
side of the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Mexican boundary, and
embraces over 200,000 square miles of land whose productivity is
limited by the rainfall. This area, in contrast to the other, is a
region of summer rainfall.

These two great areas differ greatly in their physiographic features
and in their native plant cover. The Intermountain district is broken
into numerous valleys, and the vegetation consists mainly of shrubby
perennial plants, such as the sage-brush (Artemisia tridentata)
(Plate V.) and a salt-bush (Atriplex confertifolia). The size and
character of this vegetation affords a good index of the productivity
of the land.'. The larger the sage-brush the greater the water-supply
and the better the farm. The soils occupied by salt-bush, on the other
hand, are apt to be so saline in character as to be unsuited to dry-
farming.

In the Great Plains no trees or shrubs are found except along
the water-courses, while the gently undulating, grass-covered plain
stretches unbroken to the horizon save for the buildings of the settlers.
Much of this country is covered with buffalo grass (Buchloé dacty-
loides) and grama grass (Boueteloua oligostachya) (Plate V.), while
farther to the east, where the rainfall is somewhat heavier, the taller
bunch grass (Andropogon scoparius) and wire grass (Aristida
longisela) make their appearance.? This striking difference in the
vegetation, characterised by the shrubby plants in the Intermountain
districts and by grasses on the plains, reflects the difference in the dis-
tribution of the annual rainfall, which has had a marked effect upon
the dry-farming development of the two sections.

1 “Tndicator Significance of Vegetation in Tooele Valley, Utah,’ Kearney, Briggs,
Shantz, McLane, and Piemeissel, Journal of Agricultural Research, United States
Department of Agriculture, 1, p. 365, 1914.

? Shantz, H. L., Natural Vegetation as an Indicator of the Capabilities of Land
for Crop Production in the Great Plains Area, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau
of Plant Industry, Bulletin 201, 1911.

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.] [PLATE V,

Showing the native sage-brush vegetation on virgin land in the Intermountain
district (above), and the short-grass vegetation of the virgin Great Plains
(below). The Intermountain district has a winter rainfall and the Great
Plains a summer rainfall. (Photographed by H. L. Shantz.)

Illustrating the Report on Dry-Farming Investigations in the

United States.
[To face page 264,

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 265

Rainfall.

Tt has become customary to use the average annual rainfall as a
measure of the relative value of different areas for dry-farming pur-
poses. Since the water-supply is usually the primary limiting factor,
the annual rainfall must of course be emphasised. All who are
engaged in dry-farming investigations recognise, however, the severe
limitations of this classification. The seasonal distribution and thie
character of the torrential or in the form of
numerous light showers, or occurring as steady,
more important than the total annual rainfall in determining the pro-
ductivity of a dry-farming region. The uncertainty of the rainfall
should also be considered whenever sufficient statistical evidence is
available.

FPACTFIC. INTERMOUNTAIN. | GREAT PLAIWVS:

DALLES, OREGON 3 8B/SMARCH, W.D.

UTI WW | eens aaa
1 F*URTOIAEUnTa*| | mp URURURTRTER TT
Me COME, |
Ee

I
|
I
SACRAMENTO, CAL
UU WUT
rT TE nua

LOS ANGELES, CAL. 4 PAROWAN, UTAH.

i HEE | | Hit

OGDEN, UTAH.

2
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fe)
4
3
2
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(4)

Fro. 1.—Chart showing the monthly distribution of the rainfall at representative
stations in the Great Plains, Intermountain, and Pacific coast regions. The
length of the black lines in each diagram represents the monthly precipitation
at that place, beginning with January on the left. The scale in inches given
on the right of each diagram can be used to find the actual amount of the
monthly rainfall. For example, the average monthly rainfall at Bismarck,
N. Dak., for June is seen to be 3} inches, while for July it is only a little more
than 2 inches. It will be noted that in the Pacific coast region the rain comes
principally at the beginning and end of the year, that is, in the winter; in the
Intermountain districts during the winter and spring months ; and in the Great
Plains during the summer months.

Rainfall is not the only factor of importance, however. We shall
refer later to the desirability of knowing the seasonal evaporation as
measured from freely exposed tanks, which affords a summation of
those factors which determine the rate of transpiration. The maximum
temperatures and the wind velocity are also important factors. For
an adequate comparison of widely separated dry-farming areas, a know-
ledge at least of the annual rainfall, its seasonal distribution, the

266 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

seasonal evaporation, and the depth and character of the soil appears
to be indispensable.

Reference has already been made to the striking difference in the
monthly distribution of the rainfall in the Great Plains as compared
with the Intermountain districts. This difference is illustrated in
fig. 1, which shows the monthly distribution of rainfall. at repre-
sentative stations in each area. Three Pacific Slope stations with
a distinctly winter type of rainfall are also included. In this latter
region, owing to the mildness of the climate, an annual crop of wheat
is grown during the winter months either for grain or hay.

Grain-farming under the alternating fallow and cropping system
has been satisfactorily established in Utah, where the annual rainfall
is 13 inches or more. In the southern part of the State of Washing-
ton, where the conditions are unusually favourable, land with an
annual rainfall as low as 10 inches is used for growing winter wheat
by the summer-fallow method,* but the returns are uncertain. When
the annual rainfall is reduced to 8°5 inches the crop will barely return
the cost of production.

The rainfall required when the rain comes chiefly in the summer
is higher than for winter rainfall. This appears to be due to the
greater evaporation-loss from the fallow when wet frequently by
summer rains. In the Great Plains, where a summer rainfall prevails,
dry-farming is not successfully conducted on an annual rainfall less
than 14 inches, and this minimum is still higher in the southern part
of the area, due, as we shall see, to the higher rate of evaporation.

Evaporation.

The evaporation-rate may fairly be considered as ranking next in
importance to the annual rainfall in determining the dry-farming
possibilities of a region. The evaporation from a free-water surface
represents a summation of the intensity of solar radiation, temperature,
saturation-deficit, and wind velocity, all of which enter also into the
determination of the transpiration-rate of the growing crop, though
not necessarily in the same proportion as in free evaporation. Evyapora-
tion has been measured daily during the summer months at each of
the experimental farms located in the dry-farming sections. Tanks
6 or 8 feet in diameter and 2 feet deep are used, the tanks being
sunk in the ground to within four inches at the top. The free-water
surface is maintained at ground-level, i.e., about 4 inches from
the top of the tank. Observations are now available for seven years
at the stations first established. The observations are limited to
the six months from April to September inclusive, since freezing
weather is encountered at the stations during most of the remaining
months. The average seasonal (April to September inclusive) evapora-
tion in inches for each station, together with its location, is shown
on the accompanying map (fig. 2). The evaporation increases rapidly
as one proceeds southward in the Great Plains; the evaporation in
Northern Texas, for example, is 54 inches, compared with 31 inches

3 Briggs, L. J., and Belz, J. O., Dry Farming in relation to Rainfall and Hvapora-
tion, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 188, p. 25.

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 267

*qaed U1eT}100
oY} UL AVY} 9014 ATIROU SI SUIeTT 7VOIK) OY} JO Javd UTEYNOS oy} UT UOVIOdeAD oy} UDA oq TIM 4 *(@ATSNTOUT
Taquiaideg 04 [rdy) syyuoM 1eWUINs XISs By} SuULIMp soyour ur uoYRIodvaSe oY} MOYS sommsy oyy, “suoMesysSoAUT
yeorshydorg Jo soQ oy Aq opet Suioq ore syuomMoMsvour uoMeIodeAS YoryA 4e suoRs SurMoys dey_—z “O17

268 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

in the central part of North Dakota. Such differences have a profound
influence upon the water-requirement of plants.

Shantz * has shown that under practically uniform soil conditions
a pure short-grass formation is found in Northern Texas with an
annual rainfall of about 21 inches; in Eastern Colorado with an
annual rainfall of about 17 inches; and in Montana with an annual
rainfall of approximately 14 inches. The region throughout has a
summer rainfall. The same plant formation then requires 50 per
cent. more rainfall in Northern Texas than in Montana. The explana-
tion of this is to be found in the difference in the evaporation-rate
in the two sections. Reference to fig. 2 will show that the evapora-
tion in Northern Texas is approximately 60 per cent. higher than in
Central Montana. A similar comparison between Northern Texas and
North-Eastern Colorado shows that short-grass requires about approx-
imately 27 per cent. more rainfall in Northern Texas, where the
evaporation is 23 per cent. higher than in North-Eastern Colorado.
The effectiveness of rainfall depends of course upon its penetration
iuto the soil, so that any relationship which may be developed
between evaporation and precipitation will necessarily be an approxi-
mate one. The above figures indicate, however, a rather close
parallelism between the evaporation and the rainfall required to
maintain a given plant formation, and emphasise the necessity of
knowing the evaporation as well as the rainfall in judging the dry-
farming possibilities of a region.®

A direct relationship between evaporation and water-requirement—
i.e., the pounds of water required by a plant in the production of a
pound of dry matter—is shown in the following measurements by
Briggs and Shantz of the water-requirement of the same strain of
alfalfa when grown in different parts of the Great Plains (Table I.).

TABLE I.— Water-requirement of Grimm alfalfa (second cutting) at different
Stations in the Great Plains, 1912.

} ] |
| Water-re- :
| | quirement | Evap.| Daily Set ef
Location | Growth period | Days |(toproduce| in | Evap. in Dak
1 lb. dry |inches; inches “nad
| | matter) P
| | | | Ab, 20x21 |
| Williston, N.D.. July 29-Sept. 16 47 518 12] 7-5 | 0-159 33 |
| Newell, S.D. .| Aug. 9Sept. 24, 46 630 8) 86 0-187 34
| Akron, Col. .| July 26-Sept. 6 42 | 853 13 9:5 | 0-226 38
Dalhart, Tex. .| July 26-Aug. 31| 36 | 1005 8/ 110 | 0306 | 34 |
{ Ward 2 |! / | |

Tt will be seen that the water-requirement increases steadily as
one proceeds southward through the Great Plains, being twice as
great in Northern Texas as in North Dakota, The daily evaporation

4 Shantz, H. L., Natural Vegetation as an Indicator of the Capabilities of Land
for Crop Production in the Great Plains Area, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau
of Plant Industry, Bulletin 201, 1911, p. 12.

nee L. J., and Belz, J. O., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 188, 1911,
Pp: .

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 269

also increases in a corresponding manner, so that the ratio of the
water-requirement to the daily evaporation is approximately constant.
Montgomery and Kiesselbach* have shown that maize grown in a
dry house and in a humid house varied in its water-requirement
exactly in proportion to the relative evaporation-rates in the two
houses.

The water-requirement is not, however, always proportional to the
evaporation. Other factors such as temperature may have a profound
influence in determining the development of the plant. This may be
illustrated by comparing the water-requirement of wheat and sorghum
in Colorado and in Northern Texas (Table II.).?_ When the difference
in evaporation is considered, sorghum is seen to have made a more
efficient use of its water-supply in Texas than in Colorado, while the
reverse is true in the case of wheat.

TasLE II.—Comparison of the Relative Evaporation and of the Relative
Water-requirement in the Great Plains in 1910 and 1911.

Akron, Colo. .' 1910 | wheat | April 18-Aug. 2 | 27:7 | 100 664 | 100
Amarillo, Tex. April 5—July 19 | 34:0 | 122 | 853 128

Akron, Colo. .' 1910 sorghum | May 25-Sept. 28] 33:0 | 100 356 | 100
Amarillo, Tex. May 10-Aug. 28 | 37:7 | 114 | 359 | 101)

Akron, Colo. .| 1911 | wheat | May 13-Aug. 2] 248 100 | 468 | 100
Dalhart, Tex. . April 25—-July 18 | 28-5 | 115 | 673 | 148

Akron, Colo. .}| 1911 |sorghum | May 12-Sept. 4] 35:0 | 100 | 298 | 100
Dalhart, Tex. . May 14-Sept. 12] 41:9 | 120 | 313 | 105

Influence of the Distribution of Rainfall on Farm Practice.

The different distribution of the rainfall in the Intermountain district
and the Great Plains has led to interesting differences in the farm
practice of these regions.

Spring wheat is not a successful crop in the Intermountain district
for two reasons: (1) The land cannot be fitted for sowing until late in
the season, owing to the spring rains; and (2) the driest part of the
season occurs when the spring wheat crop is maturing. A large acreage
of winter wheat is, however, grown. In fact, the dry-farming activities
of this section are devoted almost wholly to the growing of winter wheat.
The stubble is. not usually ploughed until spring, the land being very
dry and hard in the fall. The stubble also keeps the winter snows from
drifting and thus holds the precipitation on the land. As soon as the

8 Studies in the Water-requirement of Corn, Nebraska Agricultural Experiment
Station, Bulletin 128, 1912.

7 Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L., Water-requirement of Plants, I., U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 284. p. 45

270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

spring rains have ceased, the stubble and the early growth of weeds
are turnedunder, and the land is kept fallow until the following
autumn. The low rainfall during the summer makes it possible to
destroy the weed-growth and maintain an efficient surface-mulch at
a comparatively low cost. In the autumn, wheat is again sown. The
crop makes a good part of its growth while the temperature is cool
and the evaporation low, and in addition to the stored moisture has the
advantage of the seasonal precipitation during its growth period.

One serious difficulty in dry-farming operations in regions of winter
rainfall occurs in connection with the seeding of winter wheat on fallow
land. The surface-mulch of the fallow is often dust-dry in the fall to
a depth of 4 inches or more. If the farmer drills his grain in the
dust, the seed remains inert until a rain occurs. If the first rain is
insufficient in amount to soak through the dry mulch to the damp soil
below, the seeds germinate, but the rootlets of the seedling plants do
not reach the stored moisture below the intervening dry layer, and the
plants soon die. On this account, farmers usually wait for fall rains
before sowing wheat. If the seeding is thereby delayed until late in
the fall, and freezing weather follows, the young plants are injured and
weakened. And if this is followed by an ‘ open winter,’ so that the
wheat plants are not protected by a covering of snow, ‘ winter killing’
is often very severe, and the crop is practically a failure.

Drilling the wheat to a depth sufficient to place the seed in moist
soil would appear to be a possible solution of this problem, but this is
often found impracticable, and the seedling plants have great difficulty
in forcing their leaves to the surface. It is possible that a solution of
the difficulty may be found in a seed-drill which has recently been
developed, which throws the dry surface-soil in ridges, and plants the
grain in moist soil at moderate depths in the intervening furrows. This
plan is not practicable in windy regions, for the furrows would soon
fill with dry soil.

In striking contrast with Intermountain practice, spring wheat is
grown extensively in the Great Plains, especially in the central and
northern part. The spring-sown crop escapes the dry fall and all
danger from winter-killing, while the land, having been recently
worked, is in better condition to absorb the summer rainfall. Inter-
tilled crops are also grown to a much greater extent than in the
Intermountain district, maize being especially popular in the northern
part of the Great Plains, and the non-saccharine sorghums (milo, kafir,
sorgo) in the southern part. The intertilled crop has in many sections
largely taken the place of fallow, spring wheat now being extensively
grown on disked corn-land.

Fallow.is used extensively in the Great Plains, but the experiments
by the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture, under the direction of E. C.
Chilcott,’ have shown that alternate cropping and summer tillage in
many sections is less profitable than simple three-year rotations,
especially those in which spring wheat is grown on disked corn-land, and
even less profitable than continuous cropping. Summer tillage is not

8 A Study of Crop Rotations and Cultivation Methods for the Great Plains Area,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 187, p. 8, 1910.

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 271

so well adapted to a summer rainfall as to a winter precipitation, for the
summer rains repeatedly pack the mulch, which necessitates frequent
cultivation to keep the land in a receptive condition and to destroy
the weeds which spring up after each rain. Summer tillage, however,
affords some insurance against total loss of a crop during a dry season,
which means disaster to the farmer with work-animals and cows to feed,
and this element of insurance will doubtless always be a factor with
the small farmer, even if summer tillage does not give the greatest
returns.

Owing to the frequent high winds in the Plains, the blowing of the
mulch on summer-tilled land sometimes becomes a serious problem.
It is highly important in fallowing the Plains to keep the surface of
the soil in a rough condition; in other words, to maintain a clod-mulch
on the fallow rather than a dust-mulch, a practice which is also
advantageous in the absorption of rainfall. On lands subject to
blowing, the practice of cultivating in strips is sometimes followed.
The strips are laid out at right angles to the prevailing winds, and
alternating strips are planted to grain or an intertilled crop. Jardine ®
has recently emphasised the value of the lister in checking blowing in
extreme cases. This implement opens a broad shallow furrow,
throwing the dirt on both sides. Groups of two or three furrows each
are listed at distances of from five to twenty rods across the field at
right angles to the wind. The lister tends to form clods, while the
disk harrow, except in moist ground, tends to pulverise the soil, and
this must always be avoided in soils subject to blowing.

Depth of Root System in relation to Storage of Soil Moisture.

The great depth to which the roots of many of our cultivated
plants extend has a very important bearing on the practicability of
storing moisture in the soil. Burr’? has found that oats, spring
wheat, barley, and corn growing on the loess soils of Hastern Nebraska
use the water to a depth of 4 feet or more, while winter wheat
feeds.to a depth of 6 or 7 feet. Excavations. made in winter-
wheat plats in Utah showed the root system to extend to a depth of
7 feet.**

In a soil which can store 6 per cent. of ‘ growth water,’ there
would be available in a section 6 feet in depth 600 tons of water
per acre, or enough for the production of thirteen bushels of wheat
in the central Great Plains. For a root penetration of 4 feet, this
amount would be reduced approximately one-third.

When the system of alternate cropping and fallowing is employed,
water seldom moves below the zone occupied by the roots of the
wheat plant. This has taken place, however, at the Dickinson experi-
mental farm in western North Dakota. The water which moves below
the feeding zone is practically lost to the plant, and remains undisturbed

9 Jour. Am. Soc. Agron. 5, 213, 1913.

10 Research Bulletin No. 5, Nebraska Experiment Station, 1914.

1 Merrill, Bulletin 112, Utah Experiment Station, 1910.

™ Briggs and Shantz, ‘Relative Water-requirement of Plants,’ Jour. Agri-
cultural Rescarch, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 3, 1, 1914.

272 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

from year to year. An argument often advanced in favour of deep
ploughing is that the depth of root penetration is thereby increased.
The futility of this argument so far as dry-farm soils are concerned
becomes evident when it is realised that the normal penetration of roots
in the Intermountain and Great Plains soils is far below any depth
that could possibly be reached with the plough. Deep ploughing may
possibly increase the absorption-rate of rainfall when the precipitation-
rate is so high as to saturate the surface soil temporarily, but this effect
can also be secured by leaving the surface rough and corrugated when
cultivating. Many of the field tests of the Office of Dry-Land Agricul-
ture have failed to show any increase in yield from deep ploughing,
an operation which means an added expense to an industry in which
economy in labour must be rigidly exercised to show a reasonable
profit.
Loss of Water from Weeds.

A relatively small proportion of the total annual rainfall is con-
served in the fallow. The maximum quantity of stored moisture
available for the crop seldom exceeds 4 inches of rainfall in section’
where the annual rainfall ranges from 13 to 18 inches.
This low efficiency is due in part to loss from run-off, but mainly to
surface evaporation and to loss through the transpiration of weeds.
Numerous measurements have shown that a rainfall of less than one-
half-inch does not contribute to the permanent store of moisture in
the soil unless the surface soil is already wet from previous rains.
If the rainfall penetrates the soil below a depth of 6 inches, its rate
of loss due to evaporation is low. But if the fallow is weedy, the
stored water is lost through the transpiration of the plants almost as
rapidly as if the moist subsoil were freely exposed to the air. The
water-requirement of weeds is fully as high as some of our most
valuable crop plants. For example, pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus),
tumble-weed (Amaranthus grecizans), and Russian thistle (Salsola
pestifer) have a water requirement as high as the millets and sorghums,
while sunflower (Helianthus petiolarus) and lamb’s quarters (Chene-
podium album) rank higher than many of the legumes.1* The dry-
farmer can, therefore, produce a valuable forage or grain crop with
no greater expenditure of water per pound of dry matter than is lost
through the weeds on his fallow.

Determinations by W. W. Burr? in Nebraska, R. W. Edwards 1°
and J. G. Lill!® in Kansas, and C. B. Burmeister 1° in Texas, all
unite in showing that the evaporation loss from land from which the
weeds are sliced off with a hoe is but little greater than from culti-
vated plants. In other words, cultivation is effective in conserving
water mainly through the destruction of weeds rather than in the re-
duction of surface evaporation. This is well illustrated by Lill’s
measurements at Garden City, Kansas, as shown in fig 3. The

18 Briggs and Shantz, Jour. Agricultural Research, U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, 8, 60, 1914.

14 Research Bulletin No. 5, Nebraska Experiment Station, p. 61, 1914. In co-
operation with the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture and Biophysica] Investigations.

1 Office of Dry-Land Agriculture in co operation with the Office of Biophysical
Investigations.

273

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES.

=
Ni

Peoe Begavev usw age gaune

*, while the

at in comparison with a plat the surface
It will be seen that the mulched plat

depth of 3 feet.

of which has been scraped with a hoe to cut the weeds, and with a plat on

which the weeds were allowed to grow.
and the scraped plat differ little in effectiveness in conserving water

weeds reduce the moisture content to a

Fig. 3.—Loss of moisture from a mulched p
1914.

974 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

moisture content of the mulched plat did not differ markedly from the
plat on which the weeds were kept sliced off with a sharp hoe; while
the plat on which the weeds were allowed to grow was dried out to
a depth of 3 feet.

A striking example of the loss of moisture from weeds is also
shown in experiments by P. V. Cardon, conducted at Nephi, Utah.'®
Winter wheat was grown on four plats by the summer fallow system,
one-half the plats being in wheat each year. Two plats were fall-
ploughed each year, and during the following summer, one plat was
cultivated to destroy the weeds, while the other was left untouched
except to clip the weeds in time to prevent the seeds maturing. In
the autumn both plats were sown to winter wheat. The experiment
was conducted for four years, and during this time the yield from the
cultivated plat averaged four bushels more per acre than from the
weedy plat.

The loss of moisture in these plats as the season advanced, due to
the demand made by the weeds, is illustrated in the accompanying
graphs, fig. 4. That this loss is primarily due to the weed cover and
not to direct evaporation is supported by the fact that in other experi-
ments at this station spring-ploughed uncultivated fallow on which the
weed-growth was slight was practically as effective as cultivated fallow
in conserving moisture. The average moisture content (6 feet in
depth) of the weedy Nephi plat was at the time of the spring sampling
0°8 per cent. below the cultivated plat, and at the time of the Fall
sampling 4°5 per cent. below the cultivated plat. This loss in moisture
during the summer is equivalent to 3°5 inches of rainfall stored in the
soll. This amount of water is sufficient, according to the water-
requirement measurements of Briggs and Shantz,!7 to produce ten
bushels of wheat per acre at Akron, Colorado, where the evaporation is
the same as at Nephi. In 1911 the actual increase in yield of the
cultivated plat over the weedy plat was eleven bushels per acre.
During the other years the yield was reduced by winter killing, so that
the water-supply was not the primary factor in determining production.
Surely no more convincing proof is needed of the necessity of keeping
fallow land free from weeds in regions where the moisture supply is
of primary importance.

Growth-water.

It has long been known that a part of the soil-moisture is held so
tenaciously that it is not available for the growth of plants. Sachs
in 1859 appears to have been the first to recognise that the percentage
of non-available moisture varies greatly with the type of soil. This is
# matter of fundamental importance in the interpretation of soil-
moisture observations, for the water unavailable for growth ranges
from 1 per cent. or less in sand to 80 per cent. or more in the heaviest

16 Office of Cereal Investigations in Co-operation with the Office of Biophysical
Investigations. See Tillage and Rotation Experiments at the Nephi sub-station, Utah,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 157, 1914.

VW Briggs, L. J.,and Shantz, H. L., ‘Relative Water-requirement of Plants,’ Journal
of Agricultural Research, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 8, 1, 1914.

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 275

— CULTNATED.
---- NOT CULTIVATED-WEEDY.

ON TANS DNie71eaS

“LIFTS NI HLATTI
‘OM TINGS YSIS

‘OM TAINS 77 e/

ee nee ae gat: day AMA ea | oY, Re
PER CENT Of MOISTURE IN SOIL.

Nic. 4.—-Loss of water from cultivated and weedy plats at Nephi, Utah, as the
season advances.

276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

types of clay.18 Obviously, then, the percentage of water in the soil
that is available for the growth of plants, or the ‘ growth-water’ as
Fuller 3° hag termed it, cannot be determined until this unavailable
residue is known.

Alway ?° has used the hygroscopic coefficient, i.e., the percentage
amount of water that a dry soil absorbs on exposure to a saturated
atmosphere, to represent the unavailable portion. Briggs and Shantz **
have measured the moisture-content at which plants undergo permanent
wilting when growing in a limited soil mass, protected from surface
evaporation. By permanent wilting is meant a condition from which
the plants cannot recover when exposed to a saturated atmosphere.*?
The percentage of moisture remaining in the soil under such conditions
has been termed the ‘ wilting coefficient’ of that particular soil, and
has been found to vary slightly with the kind of plant used as an indt-
cator. The ‘ wilting coefficient ’ in connection with a total moisture
determination provides a means for calculating the ‘ growth-water,’
the latter being the surplus above the wilting coefficient. By the aid
of such determinations it is possible to calculate the amount of stored
erowth-water—the bank-balance, so to speak, in the water account,
against which the crop may draw.

It is not necessary always to measure the wilting coefficient directly,
since it can be calculated from other physical properties of soils that
can be more readily measured. ‘Thus the moisture equivalent, hygro-
scopic coefficient, and mechanical composition have all been shown
to bear a linear relationship to the wilting coefficient.2* Of these
indirect methods, that based on the moisture equivalent 74 is the most
rapid and satisfactory. The latter represents the percentage of moisture
remaining in the soil when brought into equilibrium with a centrifugal
force 1,000 times that of gravity. The wilting coefficient is approxi-
mately one-half the moisture equivalent.

Where a small grain-crop has extended its root-system to a depth
of 4 feet or more, the moisture-content of the second and third feet
is sometimes reduced below the wilting coefficient. This is practically
sure to occur if the crop is suffering for water, for plants are able to
reduce the moisture-content far below the wilting coefficient while in a
wilted condition, or during the ripening process. But it appears also
to take place while the crop is still growing, provided the root-system
is in contact with growth-water in some other part of the soil mass.?°

18 Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L., The Wilting Coefficient yor Different Plants and
its Indirect Determination, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry,
Bulletin 230, 1912, pp. 56-59.

19 Botanical Gazette, 58, p. 513, 1912.

20 Journal of Agricultural Science, 2, 1908, p. 334. 21 Op. cit.

22 As the plant approaches a wilted condition its transpiration is reduced. Further-
more, aS soon as wilting occurs it is necessary to transfer the plant to a saturated
atmosphere, in order to determine whether the observed wilting is temporary or per-
manent. Consequently during the final stages of a wilting coefficient determination
the transpiration rate is greatly reduced.

°3 Briggs and Shantz, op. cit.

4 Briggs and McLane, Jour. Am. Soc. Agron. 2, 1910, p. 138.

» Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L., ‘Application of Wilting Coefficient Determi-
nations to Agronomic Investigations,’ Jour. Am. Soc. Agron. 8, 1911, p. 250.

277

STATES.

UNITED

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE

Akron, COLORADO, 1912.

Fatuow.

AKron, CoLoRADO, 1911.

Spring WuuEAt.

ET AEA AE HT

STU ALE
HUE TEV AT UMD MHBBEER HT ONTEOCUHUUOENLSHETUETE
BINT NTT

MWM~SBYSRRL IS OGSRK LSM ORFSRILLHO FRA ALLO BFRRLL oO“ As eeesee

ar ee ee ee
S % : ”

CE OTOH HUE

[MAY LJUNE | SULY |

g wheat and fallow plats at Akron, Colorado,

The dotted lines represent the wilting ccefficient for

to a depth of 6 feet.

Fig. 5.—Moisture conditicns in sprin
each foot-section.

ished the

oot-system is already establi

ure-content below the wiltin

the r
pplement the growth

where
crop is able to reduce the moist
and can use this to su

In other words,
from lower levels.

g coefficient,

-water that it 1s drawin

ley
to}

(See fig. 5, 1911.) On the other hand, crop-plants

278 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

show no tendency to send new roots into soil in which the moisture-
content is reduced to the wilting coefficient. (See fig. 6, 1911.)

An example of the application of the wilting coefficient to the inter-
pretation of moisture determinations is shown in the accompanying
measurements by W. M. Osborne *° at Akron, Colorado (fig. 5). The
change in moisture during the season in each foot-section to a depth of
6 feet is shown graphically by the solid lines. The dotted lines
represent the wilting coefficient for each foot-section. The first chart
(1911) represents the moisture conditions under a crop of spring wheat
during a dry season, the crop being practically a failure. It will be
seen that in the spring there was available moisture in small amounts
to a depth of 6 feet, the greater part being in the upper 3 feet.
The crop had removed the growth-water from the first foot by June 1;
from the second and third feet by June 15; from the fourth foot by
July 15; while the fifth and sixth feet still contained a limited amount
of growth-water at harvest time, although the moisture had been
reduced in each case.

The second chart (1912) shows the moisture conditions in the

same plat during the next summer while the land was in fallow. At
the time the spring samples were taken the moisture-content of the
surface foot of soil was practically up to the field-carrying capacity of
this soil. With the advent of the seasonal rains the surface foot began
to deliver to the section below. It will be noted that the change in
moisture-content does not take place simultaneously through the soil-
mass, but is progressive from foot to foot, each section delivering water
to the section below as it rises to its field-carrying capacity. When
the moisture supply is below a certain percentage, dependent upon
the soil in question, capillary adjustment in that soil is very slow.
_Plants in order to avail themselves of all the growth-water must
consequently develop a root-system which permeates the soil-mass
from which water is being drawn. In other words, when the moisture
supply is limited the capillary distribution becomes so slow as to be
effective only through very small distances. Plants having a coarse
root-system, such as maize, when used as indicator-plants, might be
expected to give a somewhat higher wilting coefficient than plants
with fine root-systems like the small grains, and this has been observed
to be the case.??

The first chart in fig. 6 represents the moisture conditions as
measured by J. C. Thysell?* in a barley plat at Dickinson, North
Dakota, during the dry season of 1911. This plat is normally seeded
to barley each year. Inspection of the chart will show that at the
beginning of the season the moisture-content of the second and third
feet was at the wilting coefficient, to which it had been reduced by
the preceding crop. A good supply of growth-water was present in
the fourth, fifth, and sixth feet of the soil, but the roots were unable

6 Office of Dry-Land Agriculture in Co-operation with the Office of Biophysical
Investigations.

27 Briggs and Shantz, op. cit.

8 Office of Dry-Land Agriculture in Co-operation with the Office of Biophysical
Investigations.

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 279

Bartery. Dickson, N.D., 1911. BarueEy. DrcKrson, N.D., 1913.

ds)
iS
i)
Gy
Rh
.

| 4PR. | Azar | JULY

Fic. 6.—Moisture conditions in a barley plat at Dickinson, North Dakota. The
dotted lines represent the wilting coefficient for each foot-section.

to penetrate the intervening dry layer, and the crop was a failure.
In 1912 the crop was destroyed by hail, so that the plat was virtually
in fallow during this season. The rainfall in 1912 was ample and the
soil was well supplied with water in the spring of 1913, as shown
in the second part of the chart. During this year a heavy crop of
barley was grown, which was produced in part with water present in

280 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF

the soil in 1911, but unavailable to the 1911 crop because the inter
vening soil was reduced to the wilting coefficient before the root
system was established. It would be difficult to interpret these
moisture conditions without the aid of the wilting coefficient determina-
tions, especially where the moisture-retentivity of the soil and sub-
soil is not the same, as in the case of the Dickinson soils.

The growth-water content at seedtime and harvest in two plats at
Akron, Colorado, is shown graphically in fig. 7 for six years. These
plats form part of the cultural experiments of the Office of Dry-Land
Agriculture, and are continuously cropped to spring wheat, A being
spring -ploughed and B fall-ploughed. The width of the shaded
portion in each foot-section shows the amount of growth-water. . It
will be noted that the growth-water was in every instance practically
exhausted at harvest-time, with the exception of the surface-foot, which
in some instances had been moistened by rains near the harvest
period. It also appears that at this station the time of ploughing has
little influence on the soil moisture-content.

Maintenance of the Fertility of the Dry-Farm.

The maintenance of fertility under a system of continuous grain-
farming, such as is practised in many dry-farming sections, bids fair
to become a more and more serious problem as the years advance.
‘The period of cultivation of much of the dry-farm land has been so
short as to afford no information on this point. In any event, it 1s
hardly a problem that can be taken up with the man who breaks the
virgin land. His first concern is for bread, and his chief desire is to
draw upon the resources of his land to its fullest capacity. It is only
after a marked decrease in production has occurred that he will listen
to measures designed to maintain the fertility of the soil. Happily,
grain-farming as ‘practised on some of the oldest dry-farms in Utah
does not yet appear to have diminished the productiveness of the soil.
This is doubtless due in part at least to the fact that the wheat has
been cut with a header (or more recently with a combined harvester),
which leaves most of the straw on the land. Stewart and Hirst *°
have found that the humus and nitrogen content of the surface soil of
the wheat lands farmed for ten years or more has not fallen below
that of adjacent virgin soils. In an earlier investigation, Stewart °°
found that the oldest wheat lands in Utah, under cultivation for fourteen
to forty-one years, either continuously or by summer-fallowing methods,
had showed no loss in humus or nitrogen in the surface-foot. The second
foot of the cultivated soils showed, however, a slightly lower nitrogen-
content than the virgin land. The yield also appears to have been
maintained.

A wanton waste of organic matter occurs in many dry-farming
sections in the northern Great Plains and in California. The stubble
is burned to make the ploughing easier and to destroy weed-seeds, and
the straw-stacks are burned in the field because they are in the path
of the ploughs. As the ploughing-season approaches, the horizon is

29 Jour. Am. Soc. Agron. 6, 49, 1914.
°0 Utah Experiment Station, Bulletin 109, 1910.

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 281]

often lighted at night in every direction by the flames of the burning
stacks. Even where the straw alone has been removed, grain-farming
in the Great Plains has resulted in a marked decrease in the nitrogen
and humus of the soil. Alway*! has shown that the cultivation of
the loess soils of Nebraska has been accompanied by a marked re-
duction in nitrates, total organic matter, and humus. He attributes

AVAILABLE SPRING AND Harvest Morsturr CONTENT. AKRON, COLORADO.

Dateof 1908 1909 1909 1910 1910 191) (91 1911 1912 1912 1912 1913 1913
Sompling g.27 4-7 8-25 3-17 710 4-8 6§-15 10-30 4-9 8-7 10-29 45 724

2
3
“SS
a4

Fie. 7.—Growth-water at seed-time and harvest in spring-ploughed (A) and fall-
ploughed (B) plats continuously cropped to grain.

PLAT A
a ww & ~@ mm f=

the greatest loss of these components to the washing or blowing away
of the surface soil. :
Snyder *? found that the loss of nitrogen from four Minnesota
grain-farms in ten years was from four to six times that removed
by the crops. This loss he attributes to the rapid breaking-up of the

*! Bulletin 111, Nebraska Experiment Station, 1909.
* Bulletin 94, Minnesota Experiment Station, 1906.

282 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,—1914.

humus under cultivation. Where legumes were grown, crop-rotations
practised, live-stock kept, and the farm-manure used, the nitrogen
content of the soil was maintained. This practice the dry- farmer of the
Great Plains must eventually adopt as far as his conditions will permit,
if a permanent agriculture is to be assured in these sections. The
American dry- farmer has much to learn from Australian practice in
the use of stock, especially sheep, on the dry-farm.

The Water-requirement of Different Dry-Farm Crops.

A word must be said in regard to the importance of considering
the water-requirement of crops grown on the dry-farm. Other things
being equal, those crops which are most efficient in the use of water
are obviously best adapted to dry-land conditions. The great success
of millet, sorghum, and maize in American dry-farming is due in part
at least to their remarkable efficiency in the use of w ater. ‘The amount
of water required for the production of a pound of dry matter of some
strains of alfalfa is four times that required by millet, where the two
crops are growing side by side. Different varieties of the same crop
often exhibit wide differences in water-requirement. The following
figures represent the range in water-requirement due to varietal differ
ences as measured by Briggs and Shantz ** in the Great Plains.

Taste IIT.— Varietal Range in the Water- pr urn ai different Crops.

| Pea water requir oa to pr wae one pound of ay Vy
i matter of the
Crop | Al
| Most efficient variety | Least efficient variety
| lb. oz. Ib. 02.
Millet ; ; : . 261 15 | 444 9
Proso 4 ‘ ; A 268 1 | 341 10
Sorghuny eo. mee 285 3 467 9
Maize ; : ; : 315 3 413 ~ 5
Wheat ; ; , : 473 8 5594
13 Pia Gees Some mene Sica Be 502. 4 578 13
Oats . ; ‘ A eas | 559 «8 622 9
Clover ‘ é : a 7389 9 805 8
Alfalfa : 3 : i 651 12 963 9

These wide crop and varietal differences in water-requirement
suggest great possibilities in the development of strains for dry-land
conditions. In fact, the measurement of the water-requirement affords
a novel and promising method of attack in the breeding and selection
of dry-land crops.

3 Jour. Agricultural Research, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 3, 58, 1914.

TRANSACTIONS OF ‘THE SECTIONS.

‘

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT “OF THE SECTION:
Professor F. T. Trouton, M.A., Sce.D., F.B.S.

MELBOURNE.

VRIDAY, AUGUST 14.

In the absence of the President, his Address was read by Professor
A. W. Porter, F.R.S. :—

We have lost since the last meeting of the Section several distinguished members
who have in the past added so much to the usefulness of our discussions. These
include Sir Robert Ball, who was one of our oldest attendants, and was President
of the Section at the Manchester Meeting in 1887; Professor Poynting, who was
President of the Section at Dover in 1899; and Sir David Gill, who was
President of the Association. at Leicester in 1907.

It seems appropriate at this meeting in the City of Melbourne to mention one
who passed away from his scientific labours somewhat previous to the last meet-
ing. I allude to W. Sutherland of ‘this city, whose writings have thrown so
much light on Molecular Physics and whose scientific perspicacity was only
equalled by his modesty.

This meeting of the British Association will be a memorable one as being
indicative, as it were, of the scientific coming of age of Australia. Not that the
maturity of Australian science was unknown to those best able to judge; indeed
the fact could not but be known abroad, for in England alone there are many
workers in science hailing from Australia and New Zealand, who have enhanced
science with their investigations and who hold many important scientific posts
in that country. In short, one finds it best nowadays to ask of any young
investigator if he comes from the Antipodes.

This speaks well for the Universities and their staffs, who have so successfully
set the example of scientific investigation to their pupils.

Radio-activity and kindred phenomena seem to have attracted them most of
late years, and it would perhaps have been appropriate to have shortly reviewed
in this address our knowledge in these subjects, to which the sons of Australasia
have so largely contributed.

Twenty-five years ago FitzGerald and others were speculating on the possi-
bility of unlocking and utilising the internal energy of the atom. Then came the
epoch-making discovery of Becquerel, to be followed by the brilliant work of
Rutherford and others showing us that no key was required to unlock this
energy—the door lay open.

We have still facing us the analogous case of a hitherto untapped source of
energy arising from our motion through the ether. All attempts, it is true, to
realise this have failed, but nevertheless he would be a brave prophet who would

286 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

deny the possibility of tapping this energy despite the ingenious theories of
relativity which have been put forward to explain matters away. There is no
doubt but that up to the present nothing hopeful has been accomplished towards
reaching this energy and there are grave difficulties in the way; but ‘Relativity ’
is, as it were, merely trying to remove the lion in the path by laying down the
general proposition that the existence of lions is an impossibility. The readiness
with which the fundamental hypothesés of ‘ Relativity ’ were accepted by many
is characteristic of present-day Physics, or perhaps, more correctly speaking,
is an exaggerated example of it.

Such an acceptance as this could hardly be thought of as taking place half-a-
century ago, when a purely dynamical basis was expected for the full explanation
of all phenomena, and when facts were only held to be completely understood if
amenable to such treatment; while, if not so, they were put temporarily into
a kind of suspense account, waiting the time when the phenomenon would
succumb to treatment based on dynamics.

Many things, perhaps not the least among them radio-activity, have conspired
to change all this and to produce an attitude of mind prepared to be content with
a much less rigid basis than would have been required by the Natural Philo-
sophers of a past generation. These were the sturdy Protestants of Science, to
use an analogy, while we of the present day are much more catholic in our
scientific beliefs, and in fact it would seem that nowadays to be used to anything
is synonymous with understanding it.

Leaving, however, these interesting questions, I will confine my remarks to a
rather neglected corner of physics, namely, to the phenomena of Absorption and
Adsorption of solutions. ‘The term Adsorption was introduced to distinguish
between Absorption which takes place throughout the mass of the absorbing
material and those cases in which it takes place only over its surface. If, for
instance, glass, powdered so as to provide a large surface, is introduced into a
solution of a salt in water, we have in general some of the salt leaving the body
of the solution and adhering in one form or other to the surface of the glass. It
is to this the term Adsorption has been applied. Physicists have now begun to
take up the question seriously, but it was to Biologists, and especially Physio-
logical Chemists, that most of our knowledge of the subject in the past was due,
the phenomenon being particularly attractive to them, seeing that so many of the
processes they are interested in take place across surfaces.

As far as investigations already made go the laws of Adsorption appear to be
very complicated, and no doubt many of the conflicting experimental results
which have been obtained are in part due to this, workers under somewhat
different conditions obtaining apparently contradictory effects.

On the whole, however, it may be said that the amount adsorbed increases
with the strength of solution according to a simple power law, and diminishes
with rise of temperature; but there are many exceptions to these simple rules.
For instance, in the case of certain sulphates and nitrates the amount adsorbed
by the surface of, say, precipitated silica only increases up to a certain critical
point as the strength of the solution is increased. Then further increase in the
strength of the solution causes the surface to give up some of the salt it has
already adsorbed, or the amount adsorbed is actually less now than that adsorbed
from weaker solutions. Beyond this stage for still greater concentrations of the
solutions the amount adsorbed goes on increasing as before the critical point was
reached.

There is some reason for thinking that there are two modes in which the salt
is taken up or adsorbed by the solid surface. The first of them results from a
simple strengthening of the solution in the surface layers; the second, which
takes place with rather stronger concentrations, is a deposition in what is
apparently analogous to the solid form. It would seem that the first reaches out
from the solid surface to about 10-8 cm.—which is the order of the range of
attraction of the particles of the solid substance.

The cause of the diminution in the adsorption layer at a certain critical value
of the concentration is difficult to understand. Something analogous has been
observed by Lord Rayleigh in the thickness of layers of oil floating on the surface
of water. As oil is supplied the thickness goes on increasing up to a certain
point ; beyond this, on further addition of oil, the layer thins itself at some

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 287

places and becomes much thicker at others, intermediate thicknesses to these
being apparently unstable and unable to exist. As helping towards an explana-
tion of the diminution in the adsorption layer, we may suppose that as the
strength of the solution is increased from zero, the adsorption is at first merely
an increased density of the solution in the surface layer. For some reason,
after this has reached a certain limit, further addition of salt to the solution
renders this mode of composition of the surface layers unstable, and there is a
breaking up of the arrangement of the layer with a diminution in its amount.
We may now suppose the second mode of deposition to begin to show its effect
with a recovery in the amount of the surface layers and a further building up of
the adsorption deposits.

On account of passing through this point of instability the process is
irreversible, so that the application of thermo-dynamics to the phenomenon of
adsorption is necessarily greatly restricted in its usefulness.

A possible cause of the instability in the adsorption layer which occurs at
the critical point may be looked for in the alternations in the sign of the mutual
forces between attracting particles of the kind suggested by Lord Kelvin and
others. Within a certain distance apart—the molecular range—the particles of
matter mutually attract one another, while at very close distances they obviously
must repel, for two particles refuse to occupy the same space. At some inter-
mediate distances the force must pass through zero value. It has for various
reasons been thought that, in addition, the force has zero value at a second dis-
tance lying between the first zero and the molecular range, with accompanying
alternations in the sign of the force. Thus, starting from zero distance apart
of the particles, the sign of the force is negative or repulsive; then, as the dis-
tance apart is supposed to increase, the force of repulsion diminishes, and after
passing through zero value becomes positive or attractive; next, as the distance
is increased the force diminishes again, and after passing through a second zero
becomes negative for a second time; finally, the force on passing through a third
zero becomes positive, and is then in the stage dealt with in capillary and other
questions,

As an instance of where these alternations of sign seem to be manifest, may
be mentioned the case of certain crystals when split along cleavage planes. The
split often runs along further than the position of the splitting instrument or
inserted wedge seems to warrant. This would occur if the particles on either
side of the cleavage plane were situated at the distance apart where the force
between them was in the first attractive condition, for then, on increasing the
distance between the particles by means of the wedge, the force changes sign and
becomes repulsive, thus helping the splitting to be propagated further out.

Assuming that a repulsive force can supervene between the particles in the
adsorption layer, through the particles becoming so crowded in places as to
reduce their mutual distances to the stage when repulsion sets in, we might
expect that an instability would be set up.

As already stated, a rise in temperature reduces in general the amount
adsorbed, but below the critical point the nitrates and sulphates are exceptional,
for rise in temperature here increases the amount adsorbed from a given solution.
This obviously necessitates that the isothermals cross one another at the critical
point in an Adsorption-Concentration diagram. This may perhaps account for
some observers finding that adsorption did not change with temperature. We
have another exception to the simple laws of adsorption in the case of the alkali
chlorides; this exception occurs under certain conditions of temperature and
strength of solution. The normal condensation into the surface layer is reversed
and the salt is repelled into the general solution instead of being attracted by
the surface. In other words, it is the turn of the other constituent of the
solution, namely, the water, to be adsorbed.

It is a very well known experiment in adsorption to run a solution such as
that of permanganate of potash through a filter of sand, or, better, one of
precipitated silica, so as to provide a very large surface. The first of the solution
to come through the filter has practically lost all its salt owing to having been
adsorbed by the surface of the sand.

I was interested in finding a few months ago that Defoe, the author of
‘ Robinson Crusoe,’ in one of his other books, depicts a party of African travellers

288 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

as being saved from thirst in a place where the water was charged with alkali
by filtering the water through bags of sand. Whether this is a practical thing
or not is doubtful, or even if it has ever been tried; for it is only the first part of
the liquid to come through the filter which is purified, and very soon the surface
has taken up all the salt it can adsorb, and after that, of course, the solution
comes through intact. It is interesting, however, to know that so long ago as
Defoe’s time the phenomenon of adsorption from salt solutions had been
observed. It is not so well known that in the case of some salts under the cir-
cumstances mentioned above, the first of the solution to come through the sand
filter is stronger instead of weaker. This, as already mentioned, is because
water, or at least a weaker solution, forms the adsorption layer.

Most of the alkali chlorides as the temperature is raised show this anomalous
adsorption, provided the strength of the solution is below a certain critical value
differing for each temperature. For strengths of solution above these values
the normal phenomenon takes place.

No investigations seem to have been made on the effect of pressure on adsorp-
tion. These data are much to be desired.

The investigation of adsorption and absorption should throw light on Osmosis,
as in the first place the phenomenon occurs across a surface necessarily covered
with an adsorption layer, and in the second place, as we shall see, the final con-
dition is an equilibrium between the absorption of water by the solution and that
by the membrane.

The study of the conditions of absorption of water throughout the mass of the
colloidal substance of which osmotic membranes are made is of much interest.
Little work has been done on the subject as yet, but what little has been done is
very promising

It is convenient to call the material of which a semi-permeable membrane is
made the semi-permeable medium. The ideal semi-permeable medium will not
absorb any salt from the solution, but only water, but such perfection is probably
seldom to be met with. If a semi-permeable medium such as parchment paper
be immersed in a solution, say, of sugar, less water is taken up or absorbed than
is the case when the immersion is in pure water. The diminution in the amount
absorbed is found to increase with the strength of the solution. It is at the
same time found that the absorption or release of water by the semi-permeable
medium according as the solution is made weaker or stronger is accompanied by
a swelling or shrinkage greater than can be accounted for by the water taken up
or rejected,

The amount of water absorbed by a semi-permeable medium from a solution
is found by experiment to depend upon the hydrostatic pressure. If the pressure
be increased the amount of water absorbed by the semi-permeable medium is
increased. It is always thus possible by the application of pressure to force the
semi-permeable medium to take up from a given solution as much water as it
takes up from pure water at atmospheric pressure.

It is not possible for a mass of such a medium to be simultaneously in con-
tact and in equilibrium with both pure water and with a solution all at one and
the same pressure, seeing that the part of the medium in contact with the pure
water would hold more water than that part in contact with the solution, and
consequently diffusion would take place through the mass of the medium.

If, however, the medium be arranged so as to separate the solution
and the water, and provided the medium is capable of standing the necessary
strain, it is possible to increase the pressure of the solution without increasing
the pressure of the water on the other side. Thus the part of the medium which
is in contact with the solution is at a higher pressure than that part in contact
with the pure solvent; consequently the medium can be in equilibrium with both
the solution and the solvent, for if the pressures are rightly adjusted the moisture
throughout the medium is everywhere the same.

The ordinary arrangement for showing osmotic pressure is a case such as we
are considering, and equilibrium throughout the membrane is only obtained when
the necessary difference in pressure exists between the two sides of the
membrane.

This condition would eventually be reached no matter how thick the mem-
brane was. It is sometimes helpful to think of the membrane as being very

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 289

thick. It precludes any temptation to view molecules as shooting across from one
liquid to the other through some kind of peepholes in the membrane.

The advantage of a thin membrane in practice is simply that the necessary
moisture is rapidly applied to the active surface, thus enabling the pressure on
the side of the solution to rise quickly, but it has no effect on the ultimate
equilibrium. ;

As far as that goes, the semi-permeable membrane or saturated medium
might be infinitely thick, or, in other words, there need be no receptacle or place
for holding the pure solvent outside the membrane at all. In fact, the function
of the receptacle containing the pure solvent is only to keep the medium moist,
and is no more or no less important than the vessel of water supplied to the
gauze of the wet-bulb thermometer. It is merely to keep up the supply of water
to the medium.

The real field where the phenomenon of osmosis takes place is the surface of
separation between the saturated semi-permeable medium and the solution.
Imagine a large mass of colloidal substance saturated with water and having a
cavity containing a solution. The pressure will now tend to rise in the cavity
until it reaches the osmotic pressure—that is, until there is established an equi-
librium of surface transfer of molecules from the solution into the medium and
back from the medium into the solution.

No doubt, the phenomenon as thus described occurs often in Nature. It is
just possible that the high-pressure liquid cavities which mineralogists find in
certain rock crystals have been formed in some such manner in the midst of a
mass of semi-permeable medium; the pure solvent in this case being carbon
dioxide and the medium colloidal silica, which has since changed into quartz
crystal.

In considering equilibrium between a saturated semi-permeable medium
and a solution there seems to me to be a point which should be carefully con-
sidered before being neglected in any complete theory. That is, the adsorption
layer over the surface of the semi-permeable medium. We have seen that solu-
tions are profoundly modified in the surface layers adjoining certain solids,
through concentration or otherwise of the salts in the surface layer, so that the
actual equilibrium of surface transfer of water molecules is not between the
unmodified solution and the semi-permeable medium, but between the altered
solution in the absorption layer and the saturated medium. Actual determina-
tions of the adsorption by colloids are much wanted, so as to be able to be quite
sure of what this correction amounts to or even if it exists. It may turn out to
be zero. If there is adsorption, however, it may possibly help to account for part
of the unexpectedly high values of the osmotic pressure observed at high con-
centrations of the solution, the equilibrium being, as we have seen, between the

turated medium and a solution of greater concentration than the bulk of the
iquid, namely, that of the adsorption layer. In addition, when above the
critical adsorption point, there may be a deposit in the solid state. This may
produce a kind of polarised equilibrium of surface transfer in which the molecules
which discharge from the saturated medium remain unaltered in amount, but
those which move back from the adsorption layer are reduced owing to this
deposit, thus necessitating an increase in pressure for equilibrium. If either
or both of these effects really exist, it would seem to require that the pressure
should be higher for equilibrium of the molecular surface transfer than if there
were no adsorption layer and the unaltered solution were to touch the medium,
but at the same time it should be remembered that there is a second surface
where equilibrium must also exist—that is, the surface of separation of the
adsorption layer and the solution itself. It is just possible that the two together
cancel each other’s action.

Quantitative determinations of absorption by solid media from solution are
hard to carry out, but with a liquid medium are not so difficult. Ether con-
stitutes an excellent semi-permeable medium for use with sugar solution, because
it takes up or dissolves only a small quantity of water and no sugar. <A series
of experiments using these for medium and solution has shown (1) that the absorp-
tion of water from a solution diminishes with the strength of the solution; and
(2) that the absorption of water for any given strength of solution increases with
the pressure. This increase with pressure is somewhat more rapid than if it

1914. o

290 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

were in proportion to the pressure. On the other hand, from pure water ether
absorbs in excess of normal almost in proportion to the pressure. Certainly this
is so up to 100 atmospheres. This would go to confirm the suggestion already
made that the departure from proportionality in the osmotic pressure is attri-
butable to absorption.

By applying pressure ether can be thus made to take up the same quantity of
water from any given solution as it takes up from pure water at atmospheric
pressure. It is found by experiment that this pressure is the osmotic pressure
proper to the solution in question.

Decidedly the most interesting fact connected with the whole question of
osmotic pressure, the behaviour of vapour pressures from solution, and the
equilibrium of molecular transfer of solutions with colloids, is that discovered
by van ’t Hoff, that the hydrostatic pressure in question is equal to what would
be produced by a gas having the same number of particles as those of the
introduced salt. Take the case of a mass of colloid or semi-permeable medium
placed in a vessel of water; the colloid when in equilibrium at atmospheric
pressure holds what we will call the normal moisture. By increasing the pressure
this moisture can be increased to any desired amount. Now, on introducing
salt the moisture in the colloid can be reduced at will. The question is, What
quantity of salt must be introduced just to bring back the amount of the
moisture in the colloid to normal? Here we get a great insight into the internal
mechanism of the liquid state. The quantity of salt required turns out to be,
approximately at least, that amount which if in the gaseous state would produce
the pressure. So that normality can be either directly restored by removing the
pressure or indirectly by introducing salt in quantity which just takes up the
applied pressure. That this is so naturally suggested that the salt, although
compelled to remain within the confines of the liquid, nevertheless produces the
same molecular bombardment as it would were it in the gaseous state, though of
course the free path must be viewed as enormously restricted compared with that
in the gaseous state. ,

Many have felt a difficulty in accepting this view of a molecular bombard-
ment occurring in the liquid state, but of recent years much light has been
thrown on the subject of molecular movements in liquids, especially by Perrin’s
work, so that much of the basis of this difficulty may be fairly considered as now
removed,

Quite analogous to the reduction from the normal of the moisture held by a
semi-permeable medium brought about by the addition of salt to the water, is
the reduction in the vapour pressure arising from the presence of a salt in the
water. The vapour pressure is likewise increased by the application of hydro-
static pressure, which may be effected by means of an inert gas. In both cases
the hydrostatic pressure which must be applied to bring back to normality is
equal to that which the added salt would exert if it were in the state of vapour,
or, in other words, the osmotic pressure.

The two cases are really very similar. In both there is equal molecular transfer
backwards and forwards across the bounding surface. In the one a transfer
from that solution to the semi-permeable medium and back from it into the
solution. In the other a transfer from the solution into the superambient vapour
and back from it into the solution.

The processes are very similar, namely, equal molecular transfer to and fro
across the respective surfaces of separation.

Thus we may in the case of osmotic equilibrium attribute the phenomenon
with Callender to evaporation, but not evaporation in its restricted sense, from
a free surface of liquid, but as we have seen from a saturated collodial surface
into the solution. This process might perhaps be better referred to as molecular
emigration, the term migration being already a familiar one in connection with
liquid phenomena.

The following Report and Papers were then read :—

1. Report of the Committee to Aid in Establishing a Solar Physics
Observatory in Australia.—See Reports, p. 74.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 291

2. Mount Stromlo Observatory. By P. Baraccut.

The Government of the Commonwealth, wishing to define a spot within the
Federal Territory the meridian of which should be adopted as the Prime Meri-
dian of Australia, to serve as the common longitude datum for all State surveys,
decided to mark the spot by erecting upon it a small astronomical observatory
which, if the selected site proved to be sufficiently good for the most delicate and
important class of astronomical observation and research, was to be expanded
and equipped as a modern observatory of the first order, including a department
for the study of the sun.

The site was selected in the year 1910; a concrete structure with an eighteen-
foot dome was subsequently erected, and a nine-inch refractor by Grubb, equa-
torially mounted, was installed in September 1911.

With this instrument astronomical observations, visual, photographic and
spectroscopic, were carried out during one week of each month in the year 1912
and till April 1913, after which sufficient evidence was collected to show that the
site was suitable for a first-class observatory.

Since then this observatory has remained inoperative pending the decision of
the Government as to its future.

In this paper the site of the observatory, the instruments, and the work done
were briefly described, with the object of placing sufficient information about this
matter before the British Association to enable it to recommend to the Common-
wealth Government the general lines on which this observatory should be
enlarged and equipped, and what should be the programme of its future work.

3. Proofs of the Sun’s Variability. By C. G. Axssor.

It has been shown by experiments of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa-
tory conducted simultaneously at Mount Wilson in California and Bassour in
Algeria, in the years 1911 and 1912, that the values of the intensity of the solar
radiation outside the atmosphere estimated by spectrobolometric observations at
the two stations on the same days are, within the limits of error, identical. The
measurements at the two stations agreed within an average deviation of about
1 per cent. It appeared, however, that the values of the solar constant of
radiation obtained deviated over a range of nearly 10 per cent. during the con-
tinuance of the expeditions. This deviation was observed at both stations,
so that if high values were obtained in California high values were obtained
simultaneously in Algeria, and vice versa. Professor Turner has computed, from
the observations, the coefficient of correlation between the results at the two
stations. He finds this coefficient to be 52 per cent. plus or minus 7 per
cent. if all the observations are used. Rejecting three observations of extreme
doubtfulness, the correlation coefficient rises to 60 per cent. This furnishes very
strong evidence of the variability of the sun, which appears to be irregular in
period and irregular in amplitude, but may range over a course of 5 per cent.
or even more within the lanse of a week.

Measurements of the solar constant of radiation have been conducted on
Mount Wilson in California by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for
about eight years, though unfortunately the observations have been confined to
the months of summer and autumn, when the sky is favourable there for them.
It is highly important that such work should be taken up at another station, or
preferably at several other stations, where favourable conditions of the sky
would be found in the other months of the year.

When the monthly mean values of the solar constant as obtained on Mount
Wilson are compared with the sun-spot numbers of Wolfer, it is found that
increased sun-spot numbers correspond with increased values of the solar radia-
tion and vice versa. Professor Turner has computed the correlation coefficient
for these two variables as depending upon fifty months of observations, and
finds this coefficient to be 53 per cent. plus or minus 7 per cent. Here also it is
seen that a strong proof of the variability of the sun’s radiation exists. It
appears therefore that the sun, besides varying from day to day in the manner
shown by the combined Algerian and Mount Wilson observations, also varies
from year to year in connection with the march of the sun-spot cycle.

292 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

In September 1913 a tower telescope, forming the image of the sun by the use
of mirrors without lenses, and yielding an image of about 9 inches in
diameter, was made ready in connection with the station of the Smithsonian
Astrophysical Observatory on Mount Wilson. The image of the sun is caused
to fall upon the slit of a spectrobolometer, which slit for this purpose is only
about three-eighths of an inch in height. By stopping the clock of the telescope
the solar image drifts centrally across the slit of the spectrobolometer, owing
to the diurnal rotation of the earth. There is thus produced, by automatic
registering of the indications of the bolometer, a curve of distribution of in-
tensity along the diameter of the sun’s disk. This curve takes the form of a
letter U. The length of the straight sides of the [J may be taken as represent-
ing the intensity of the solar radiation at the edge of the sun’s disk, and the
height of the U to the centre of the curve may be taken as representing the
intensity of the radiation at the centre of the disk. Thus a contrast of the
intensity of radiation along the diameter of the sun is made manifest. Obser-
vations were made on nearly fifty days of the year 1913 with this apparatus, and
on each day the distribution of intensity at seven different wave-lengths of the
spectrum between 3,700 fingstroms and 10,000 &ngstréms was determined by
making two curves at each wave-length. On the same days the solar constant
of radiation was determined at Mount Wilson.

Work with a similar object, but done in different ways, has been carried
on by Vogel, Pickering, Langley, Very, Schwarzschild and Villager, and Abbot
and Fowle. It is found by comparison of the distribution curves obtained at
Mount Wilson in 1913 with others obtained by Abbot and Fowle in 1907, that a
change of form of the distribution curve has occurred between these epochs.
The contrast of brightness between the centre and edge of the sun in the year
1907 was greater than the contrast found in the year 1913. This is verified at
all wave-lengths, but the change of contrast is greater for short wave-lengths
than for longer ones.

It further appears, by comparison of results of one day with another in the
year 1913, that a change of contrast of brightness is going on all the time,
similar in irregularity of period and amplitude with the variation of the sun’s
total radiation which was found by comparison of Mount Wilson and Bassour
observations. When the daily values of the solar constant of radiation obtained
in 1913 are compared with the distribution of brightness along the sun’s
diameter, it is seen that a close correspondence of variation occurs between the
two. This daily variation is of such a nature that when the solar constant values
increase the constant of brightness between the centre and edge of the sun
diminishes. The result is contrary to that which was indicated by a few
observations of Abbot and Fowle in the year 1908. It is believed on further
examination that the results of Abbot and Fowle in 1908 were made erroneous
by certain defects in the measurements of the solar constant of radiation on two
or three days. The new results come from nearly fifty days of observation, and
are quite definite in showing the connection between the variation of the radia-
tion of the sun and the variation of brightness along the sun’s diameter.

It appears, however, that the correlation between solar constant values and
contrast values between the years 1907 and 1913 is contrary in its sign to the
correlation between these variables exhibited by the daily march of values for
the year 1913. This may point to a greater complexity of the solar problem
than was at first indicated by the results of Abbot and Fowle. It may be that
the march of the sun-spot period attends an influence in one direction, while the
march of short-period fluctuations of the solar radiation from day to day attends
a change of contrast in the other direction.

4. Discussion on the Present State of the Problem of Australian
Longitudes. Opened by P. Baraccui.

In Mr. Baracchi’s paper were discussed the longitude values assigned to the
two Australian meridians of Port Darwin and Southport (Queensland); these
being, respectively, the terminals of the two chains of telegraphically deter-
mined longitudes carried eastward from Greenwich via India, Singapore, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 293

Port Darwin, in one case, and westward through Canada and the Pacific Ocean
to Southport (Queensland) in the other case.

It was also shown that the connection between these two meridians obtained
by means of the measured longitudinal arcs Port Darwin-Melbourne, Melbourne-
Sydney, and Sydney-Southport (Queensland) completes a whole longitude circuit
round the Earth, with a closing error of less than a hundred feet.

The reality of such a small error was questioned, chiefly on the ground that
larger discrepancies were found in the independent results of certain links which
have been measured more than once.

It was pointed out that in order to render the whole of this important longi-
tude circuit homogeneous and reliable a re-measurement should be made of the
arcs Madras-Singapore, Singapore-Port Darwin, and Port Darwin-Southport
(Queensland), adopting the highest refinements of modern practice and present
instrumental means.

The object of the paper was to enlist the sympathy of the British Association
in this matter, and to obtain its advice as to the most practical and efficient plan
of carrying out the work.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 18.
Joint Meeting with Section B (Chemistry).

Discussion on the Structure of Atoms und Molecules.

Sir Ernest RuruerrorD (abstract of remarks): In recent times there has
been an accumulation of convincing evidence of the independent existence of
the chemical atom. The atomic theory is no longer merely an hypothesis intro-
duced to explain the laws of chemical combination; we are able to detect and
count the individual atoms. We can determine the actual mass of an atom in
various ways, and know its value with considerable accuracy. The idea that the
atom is an electrical structure received a great impetus by the detection of the
electron by J. J. Thomson; and, moreover, the Zeeman effect showed that all
atoms must contain electrons. The atomic character of negative electricity is
well established; we always find the negative electron, however produced,
carrying a definite charge. We have, unfortunately, not the same certainty
with regard to the behaviour of positive electricity, for it cannot be obtained
except associated with a mass comparable with that of a hydrogen atom. In
J. J. Thomson’s model of the atom the positive electricity was supposed
(for mathematical reasons) to be distributed throughout a large sphere with the
negative corpuscles moving inside it. This hypothesis has played a useful part
in indicating possible lines of advance; but it does not fit in with more recent
discoveries, which point to a concentrated positive nucleus.

We have now two powerful methods that aid us in determining the inner
structure of the atom—the scattering of high-speed particles in transit through
matter, and the vibrations of the interior parts of the atom. In C. T. R.
Wilson’s photographs of the tracks of the a particles through a gas we notice
many sudden bends in the paths. In order to account for these deflections I
have found it necessary to believe that there is a concentrated nucleus in the
atom (having a certain number of units of charge), in which the main part of
the mass resides; outside this there are a corresponding number of electrons.
The whole dimensions of the nucleus are very small indeed compared with the
distance of the outer electrons. From the scattering experiments it appears
that the law of force right up to the nucleus is the inverse square law; no
other formula would give accordance with the observations. The radius of the
nucleus is of the order 10-'* cm. in the case of gold, and for a lighter element
it is smaller still. The approach of the a particle to the nucleus of the hydrogen
atom when the latter is set into very swift motion is exceedingly close—a
distance even less than the diameter of an electron. From _ this it is
probable that the hydrogen nucleus is simply the positive electron with a large
electrical mass due to the great concentration of the positive charge. Another

294. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A,

fact that appears from the scattering experiments is that the number of elec-
trons (outside the nucleus) is about half the atomic weight. There is now
fairly good evidence that, if the elements are numbered in order of atomic
weight, the numbers will actually express the charge on the nucleus. The rate
of vibration of the inner parts of the nucleus can now be measured by means
of the characteristic X-rays emitted. Each substance has several strong lines
in its X-ray spectrum, and as we pass from element to element in order of
atomic weight the frequencies of these change by regular jumps. H. G. J.
Moseley has investigated all the known elements in this way, and he is even
able to show at what points elements are missing, because at such points the
X-ray frequencies make a double jump. In this way he has found that between
aluminium and gold only three elements are now missing. It is deduced from
these considerations that there is something more fundamental in the atom than
its atomic weight, viz., the charge on the nucleus, and that this is the main
factor which controls the frequency of the interior vibrations, the mass having
only a slight influence.

There are certain elements with identical chemical properties, but different
atomic weights. Thus Radium-B (atomic weight 214) and lead (207) are
chemically inseparable and have the same y-ray spectrum. It is quite clear
that some new conception is required to explain how the atoms, having the
structure we have supposed, can hold together. N. Bohr has faced the diffi-
culty by bringing in the idea of the quantum in a novel way. At all events,
there is something going on in the atom which is inexplicable by the older
mechanics,

Professor Armstrone: Although chemists must admire as well as welcome
the bold attempt physicists are making to unravel the structure of the
elementary atom, they cannot yet with advantage discuss the conclusions
arrived at by their colleagues; the arguments used are so novel and daring, the
contentions so original, that at present they are not in a position to appreciate,
still less to criticise them effectively; in fact, the chemist’s office at the
moment must be mainly to point out the conditions that a theory must satisfy
to meet his requirements. He has long been prepared to believe that the
materials spoken of as elements may prove eventually to be compounds; indeed,
the relationships between them are so similar to those manifest between carbon
compounds, and of such a character, that it is almost necessary to believe in their
composite nature; but the views that are now advocated by physicists are
entirely different from any conceptions that chemists have ever entertained and
cannot easily be assimilated by them. Physicists, unfortunately, in the past
have held aloof from chemists; they have paid too little attention to their
methods and to their results; the movement now in progress is therefore to be
welcomed, as it must have the effect of leading the two parties in future to
work together to a common end. Hence the value of the present discussion,

It is doubtful if it be permissible at present to conclude that elements of
different atomic weight may and do exist which are indistinguishable chemi-
cally: the observations on which reliance is placed have been made with
quantities of material far too small to permit of such an inference; in the case
of the rare earth elements, although very large quantities of material have been
at the disposal of chemists, they have only slowly discovered differences by
which they are enabled to distinguish and separate them. Though the special
methods made use of by physicists are very powerful, they suffice only in
certain cases and have little chemical significance; when physicists resort to
chemical methods the work becomes subject to ordinary criteria.

The resemblance of the X-ray spectra of so many elements is undoubtedly
most significant, but to conclude, on such evidence, that all but very few of
the elements are discovered is scarcely justifiable; it may well be that most of
those that are known belong to a certain ‘preferred’ type and that a particular
series is nearly complete, the similarity of the spectra being perhaps due to the
presence of a radicle common to the series, much as in the case of a series of
related benzenoid compounds. In the case of carbon compounds, of the large
number of series possible, it is well known that certain types are formed
preferentially, being more stable or more readily produced than others. If the
so-called elements are compound substances, it may well be that the occurrence

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.) (Puate VI.

Barlow-Pope Model of Benzene.

The same, showing arrangement of space affinities.

Illustrating Discussion on the Structure of Atoms and Molecules.

(From Proc. Roy. Soc., 1914, Series A, Vol. 90, pp. 113, 146 ;
by permission of the Royal Society.)

[Zo face page 295.

TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION A. 295

and prevalence of a certain type is determined in a somewhat similar way—
that some one type has been preferred. :

Any theory of atomic structure to be satisfactory to chemists must take
fully into account the peculiar valency relationships that are manifest among
the elements, as the system of ‘structural’ formule now in vogue is based
solely upon these. The system is admittedly one of extraordinary perfection
and remarkably simple. In the case of organic compounds, the rules laid down
have been found to be applicable and to suffice in so many thousands upon
thousands of cases that it is impossible to doubt their general correctness; at
most it will be necessary eventually to translate them directly into some new
language. It should be pointed out, however, that so-called structural formule
are to be regarded as condensed symbolic expressions indicative of the general
behaviour of the compounds represented in terms of certain well-understood
conventions, rather than as actual representations of structure. For example,
it is customary to represent benzene by a regular hexagon, a symbol which is a
complete expression of the chemical behaviour of the hydrocarbon. But the six
carbon atoms are not to be thought of as arranged in a plane and in a ring in
the manner depicted by the symbol; such an arrangement is impossible if the
affinities of the carbon atom act tetrahedrally. The structure of benzene is
rather to be represented by a model in which six carbon atoms (represented by
six large spheres) are arranged three and three, in two superposed layers, union
taking place between an atom in one plane with a contiguous atom in the plane
above, which in turn is united to that in the plane below—so that the atoms
are connected in zigzag fashion; and the six hydrogen atoms are to be thought
of as severally united to the six carbon atoms in such manner that the hydrogen
atom is always in a plane different from that which contains the carbon atom
with which it is connected. If the ‘atoms’ in such a model are squeezed down
into one plane, the projection is practically identical with the ordinary ‘ centric’
symbol of benzene. The arrangement referred to is shown in the accompanying
figures (see Plate).

The fundamental assumption made by chemists, upon which their system
of structural formule is based, is that the hydrogen atom has unit valency—
that it is incapable of acting as a linking element. The whole of the evidence
available appears to be in favour of this view. The contention advanced
recently by Sir J. J. Thomson, that hydrogen may occur as a triatomic molecule,
Hs, is therefore unacceptable; until the existence of such a molecule has
been proved up to the hilt it will be impossible for chemists to admit its
existence. The artifice by which Sir Joseph Thomson has sought to reconcile
his interpretations with those of chemists practically involves the representation
of hydrogen as a dyad; if this conclusion were accepted it would be necessary
to double the valency of all other elements, a step which cannot be justified on
chemical evidence. It is in cases such as these that a better understanding

between chemists and physicists is required.
The variation of valency is probably the most perplexing phenomenon in
chemistry. It is doubtful if any element have a higher ‘true’ or fundamental
valency than carbon; the view sometimes put forward that certain elements may
function even as octads is based on evidence which in no way justifies such
an assumption. Not only will it be necessary to account for the variation in
valency from element to element but also for the fluctuations observed
especially in the case of the non-metallic elements. The variation seems to be
determined by some reciprocal relationship between the interacting elements,
valency apparently being a dependent variable rather than an absolute pro-
perty; thus, to quote examples, whilst the hydrocarbon, CHz, is non-existent
and cannot exist per se, the corresponding oxide, carbonic oxide, CO, is not
only stable but relatively inert, combining with other substances only under
special conditions; and the corresponding sulphur compound is so active that
it cannot exist independently, but at once undergoes polymerisation with ex-
plosive violence. Yet sulphuretted hydrogen occurs as a gas of simple mole-
cular composition, whilst water, being a liquid of relatively high boiling-point,
is presumably of considerable molecular complexity, so that it must be supposed
that the fundamental molecule OH, is a highly active material. No theory of

296 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

atomic structure will be acceptable unless it can account for variations such as
these.

Besides considering variations in atomic properties such as have been
referred to, it will be necessary also, in devising a theory of atomic structure,
to take into account the fact that valency is a ‘ directed function.’ The
tetrahedron apparently is a complete embodiment of the properties of the
carbon atom, in so far as these are due to directed forces, if the affinities of the
atom be thought of as proceeding from the centre of mass to the four apices.
Or if, instead of representing carbon by a sphere four times the volume of the
unit sphere representing the hydrogen atom, four unit spheres be piled in
tetrahedral form, the four hollows into which other similar spheres will fit
are in positions representing the directions in which affinity acts. The great
body of facts arrived at by studying optically active ‘asymmetric’ carbon
compounds are all compatible with such modes of representing carbon; more-
over, the hypothesis is the only one devised that sets the necessary limit to the
number of isomerides possible. What is true of carbon is true apparently of
other elements. But it is very noteworthy that the affinity of carbon atoms
for carbon atoms, as well as for those of many other elements, is extraordinarily
strong in comparison with that of other elements for each other; carbon has
properties which are altogether peculiar.

Fresh significance has been given to the problems of valency of late years
owing to the introduction, by Barlow and Pope, of the conception that it is to
be regarded as a function of the volume occupied by the atom. Assuming
that the atoms are closely packed, they have succeeded to an extent which is
altogether remarkable, by means of this hypothesis, in correlating crystalline
form with molecular structure. Regarding the sphere within which the in-
fluence of the hydrogen atom is exercised as unity, that of the dyad elements
is twice, that of the triad three times, that of a tetrad element such as
carbon four times, as great as that of the hydrogen atom. The halogens
appear to occupy the same relative volume as hydrogen. A large body of evi-
dence to this effect is to be found in a recent communication to the Royal
Society (‘ Proc. R. Soc.’ A, vol. 90, p. 111, 1914). Apparently, when an
element such as an atom of halogen is introduced in place of hydrogen, the
alteration in volume which attends the change is not simply due to the dis-
placement effected by the new atom: the alteration in composition involves
alterations in the spheres of influence of all the atoms in the molecule, so that
their relative volumes remain the same though their actual volumes may vary.

It is to be expected that many of the problems of molecular structure which
in the past could not be considered, especially in the case of inorganic com-
pounds, will now be amenable to treatment from the crystallographic side.
The view originally put forward by Lavoisier and elaborated by Berzelius, that
acids such as sulphuric acid are compounds of an acid oxide with ‘ water,’ may
be referred to as a case in point (see ‘Proc. R. Soc.’ A, vol. 90, p. 73, 1914).

In view of the production of helium in so many cases of ‘atomic’ disrup- ~
tion, it must not be forgotten that the problems of ‘elementary’ atomic struc-
ture still require study on the chemical side. It is not to be supposed that they
are no longer amenable to chemical treatment and that they are ripe for purely
physical treatment.

Professor Hicks: Professor Rutherford has approached the question chiefly
from the side of radioactive phenomena, whilst Professor Armstrong has dealt
with certain stereographic properties of the molecule which physicists must
take account of in forming any theory of the structure of the atom itself. I
propose to draw attention to certain aspects of the problem when approached
from the spectroscopic side, i.e., from consideration of the atom as a configura-
tion capable of emitting definite sets of free vibrations. Before doing so,
however, I should like to offer some criticism with reference to a point raised
by Professor Rutherford, viz., the actual value of the effective nuclear charge
in any case. Moseley’s law indicates that they are consecutive multiples for the
consecutive elements in the periodic table, and they are known if that for one,
say He, is known. What evidence we have seems to me rather to weigh in
favour of He having an atomic number 4 in place of 2 which is assumed by
Rutherford, Bohr, and Moseley himself. That it is at least 2 is clear from

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 297

the double charge on the a particle, but it does not follow when two of the
movable electrons are freed that nine are left bound with the nucleus. The
supposition that the atomic number for H is 1 and for He is 2, means that
there are no intermediate elements between them. But there are several con-
siderations which point to the existence of 2. (1) Nicholson has given very
weighty reasons for supposing that the lines observed in the corona and in
nebulz are due to two elements whose atomic weights lie between those of
H and He, which he has called respectively Coronium and Nebulium. Their
nuclear charges, however, are 4 and 5, which would make He 6. (2) Rydberg
has proposed a theory of the constitution of the periodic table which has been
remarkably justified in one respect by Moseley’s measurements, in so far that
it requires 32 elements between Kr and Ra-Em in place of 36 as hitherto
supposed. The same reason which requires these 32 elements also requires
2 between H and He. (3) In the July number of the ‘ Philosophical
Magazine’ Rydberg has discussed Moseley’s measurements of the frequencies
of the Barkla K and L series, and finds that if N—the atomic number—be
based on 4 for He, the frequencies of the lines can be represented by the follow-
ing scheme :—

K(a) and K(8) by P(N —3)? P(N- 3:5)?

L(a) and L(8) ,, P(N-—3x 3)? P(N —8 x 3:5)?

L(y) and L(8) ,, P(N-4x3)? P(N-4x3°5)?

but that such an arrangement is impossible if N be based on any other number
than 4 for He. More exact numbers, however, are needed before these relations
can be regarded as established.

We already know certain definite facts as to the constitution of an atom.
They are :—

(1) All atoms contain electrons as a part of their constitution. Of these
they can apparently lose a certain number without altering their chemical
identity, whilst in the case of radioactive elements the loss of other sets
changes them into different elements. We shall doubtless be justified in the
assumption that the same law extends to all elements.

(2) There exist also positively charged nuclei associated with the atomic
mass, containing multiples of the fundamental electric charge, and the evidence
tends to show that the chemical nature of the element is determined by this
multiple.

(3) In the case of a certain number of substances there are found associated
magnetic doublets whose moments are multiples of a definite quantity, called
by Weiss the magneton. It appears legitimate to suppose that the same
phenomenon may exist in other elements, though whether the magneton has an
independent existence or is a consequence of electronic motion is an open ques-
tion. If the latter, an explanation of the multiple quality will have to be
sought for.

Any theory of atomic structure must, then, be a theory of the way in which
the atom is built up of these fundamental quantities. So far there are two
types : (1) Thomson’s theory of an extended positive nucleus within which the
electrons revolve in Saturnian systems; (2) Rutherford’s theory of an extremely
small nucleus with electrons in planetary or Saturnian orbits. Neither of them,
however, has shown the slightest aptitude in explaining the series laws of
spectra. The actual structure must be a much more complicated one than is
assumed in either. Unfortunately the complete mathematical treatment of the
simplest case is one of extreme difficulty. We may, however, I believe, make
one very important first step, viz., as to the direction in which to look for the
source of the energy emitted in spectral radiations. This energy may arise
either from small vibrations about a stable state or from change from one
stable state to another. In both cases the stable states must be such as to
lose no energy, and must therefore be in static equilibrium, or their relative
motions must be such as to produce no change in an external field relative to
itself{—such as, for instance, a charged sphere moving with uniform velocity.
In the first case the energy would be made up of extremely small amounts from
all the atoms, and an increase in intensity would be due to increased ampli-

298 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

tudes. In the second case it is made up by relatively large amounts from a
proportion only of the systems, and an increase would be due to a larger
proportion of atoms changing from one system to another. In the first case,
although the constancy of period follows as a matter of course, it is difficult
to see how the conditions of Planck’s quanta can be met, and that the ideas
lying at the base of his theory are well founded there can be little doubt.
In the second case the energy for each line is transferred in the same amount,
and the constancy of the frequency follows at once from Planck’s theory.
These general considerations seem to point to the conclusion that the cause of
spectral emission is change from one configuration to another of less internal
energy. But there is experimental evidence pointing in the same direction.
Stark has shown that the series lines in a spectrum are due to molecules which
have lost one or more electrons. For instance, doublet series are due to
molecules which have lost one electron, triplets two, &c., and we should there-
fore expect the energy emitted to be given out by their recombination to the
neutral state. Since in general the larger proportion of spectral lines—both
are and spark—are either series or. seem to be closely related to series lines, it
would appear that change of state is one of the chief causes of radiation.

A further consideration pointing in the same direction is afforded by the
fact that the formule to which series lines conform give the frequency itself,
and not the square of the frequency, which latter is always the case when the
forces of displacement are proportional to the displacements themselves. As
Rayleigh has pointed out, the former case requires forces proportional to the
velocities, and hence suggests motion in magnetic fields. Now we know these
fields exist, and as a fact the only theory which reproduces Rydberg’s formulz
is that of Ritz, depending only on magnetic fields. Unfortunately electrostatic
fields exist and must be taken account of. If we could conceive of shells of
constant magnetic force produced by electric charges moving in such a way
that the electric forces between the moving charges themselves are annulled, we
should have made a first step towards forming a basis of a satisfactory theory.
That such motions are possible is rendered probable from consideration of
Maxwell’s classical case of two uniformly charged parallel plates moving
parallel to one another with the velocity of light. The great desideratum in
the present state of the question is, not attempts at forming a complete theory,
but mathematical discussions of as many simple cases as possible, in order to.
obtain a clearer comprehension of what such systems may be expected to
explain. From this point of view the recent most suggestive paper of Conway
on ‘ An Electromagnetic Hypothesis as to the Origin of Series Spectra’? is of the
greatest value. We want more of a similar nature.

Whilst, however, in all probability the greater portion of a spectrum is due
to changes of configuration, it does not necessarily follow that lines related to
the series are the only ones emitted. In fact, the high-frequency vibrations
discovered by Barkla and measured quite recently by Moseley are clearly a case
in point. Nicholson has determined recently the frequencies of small oscilla-
tion of electrons revolving round positively charged nuclei on the basis of the
Rutherford theory. More especially he finds that the sets of lines observed in
the corona and in nebule fit in very exactly for elements in which the nuclear
charges are respectively 4 and 5, and the lines are due to neutral atoms
and also to atoms which have lost or gained one or two or more electrons. The
agreements are so close and so numerous as to leave little doubt of the general
correctness of the theory. But the lines are certainly not connected in any way
with the series type of line. Their appearance is probably due to the vast
number of atoms in the corona and nebule in the line of sight all emitting
vibrations, whilst the absence of the series type may be due to the rarefaction
of the gas causing comparatively few changes from one configuration to another.
Nicholson’s theory stands alone as a first satisfactory theory of one type of
spectra. Unfortunately this type contains so few examples that if they exist in
other elements they have not been noticed. It affords considerable evidence
that Rutherford’s theory approximates to the actual case when the nuclear
charge is a small multiple of the fundamental charge. Several attempts have

* Phil. Mag. xxvi. p. 1010, December 1913,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 299

been made to apply Planck’s theory of radiation to the explanation of the laws
of spectra. The most ingenious and suggestive is that of Bohr. It is based on
the Rutherford atom, but throws no further light on the structure of the atom
itself, as the mechanism of radiation is totally unexplained, and it is this
which we are in search of. The most remarkable result is the derivation of the
value of Rydberg’s constant from known electric constants, and Planck’s con-
stant. This result has certainly caught the scientific imagination, and one feels
convinced, especially on a first reading of his paper, that there is some truth
at the bottom of his theory. But Lindemann has pointed out, by consideration
of dimensions, that a large number of theories would give values in which the
various constants enter in the same way. In Bohr’s theory the exactness of the
numerical relation depends on an apparently arbitrary assumption as to the
frequency of the energy emitted when an electron is combined. It is true that
later he attempts to justify this by making his formula conform to certain
observed properties of series. But with the introduction of this his value of
Rydberg’s constant ceases to be a direct deduction from his theory. Moreover,
in doing so he assumes the frequency of an electron to be proportional to its
angular velocity, which can only be the case for one electron—i.e., for an atom
built on a planetary system, and not on a Saturnian, as is his. Nicholson has
recently criticised the theory on other grounds, and as he is to take part in the
discussion I will leave this point to him. From the spectral point of view the
weightiest objection would seem to be that it is capable only of giving a
formula of the Balmer type—which holds for hydrogen alone. In the best-

known series types, the P, 8, and D depend on formule of the type pe ea)
The wdepend on atomic constants, and are always considerable for elements of
large atomic weight. As the atomic weight diminishes we get the following
general changes:—In P, pm decreases to 1; in D it increases to 1; in § it
approaches the value ‘5. In other words, for P and D the formule approach a
Balmer type. For H it is indistinguishable from Balmer’s. For He, though
approaching Balmer’s, it is decisively not 1. As a fact, Béhr’s theory does
not represent any of the six known series of He, but he postulates that certain
lines hitherto allotted to H belong really to He. Moreover, he supposes He to
have 2 electrons, whereas, as I have attempted to show above, the number
is more probably 4. Fowler has recently presented a paper to the Royal
Society in which he supports Béhr’s allocation on observational grounds, but as
it is not yet (August) published it is not possible to weigh the evidence. In
concluding, I should like to say that although I have criticised certain parts of
Bohr’s theory adversely, no one can admire more its ingenuity and great
suggestiveness.

Mr. H. G. J. Mosety explained the results of his classification of elements
by their X-ray spectra. The frequency of the principal line in the X-ray
spectrum is represented very closely by the formula

yt=K (N—B)

where K and B are constants, and N an integer increasing by a unit as we pass
from element to element up the periodic table. If we take this atomic number
N as ordinate, and the square root of the principal frequency as abscissa, the
different elements will therefore give points lying approximately on a straight
line. The secondary frequencies will at the same time give points on other
straight lines. The order of the elements determined by N is nearly that of
increasing atomic weight; there are one or. two exceptions, and in such cases the
order given by N, and not the atomic weight, is evidently the correct order cor-
responding to chemical properties. For example, the atomic weight gives the
order Cl, K, A, whereas the X-ray frequency gives the order Cl, A, K. The
latter is the order required by the periodic table. There are between aluminium
and gold four missing elements, indicated by the double jump of N required to
make the formula fit. These correspond generally to gaps indicated also by the
periodic law.

Professor Nricuotson : I prefer not to introduce new difficulties, which would
ouly make the discussion too long, and will therefore confine my remarks to

300 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

those points on which my opinion has been invited by Professor Hicks.
Firstly, with regard to Béhr’s theory, such criticisms as I have made are in the
main mathematical, and therefore unsuitable for a joint discussion between
physicists and chemists. But I can give a statement of the present position
of the theory as it appears to me. When Bohr’s theory is applied to a single
nucleus of strength e or 2e, with a single rotating electron, it is remarkably
successful in its deduction of the hydrogen series spectrum and of the Pickering
series which it ascribes to helium. Its most striking success is, I think, not
the very accurate deduction of the universal constant of spectra, but its appli-
cation by Professor Fowler in his Bakerian lecture to a determination of the
mass of an electron, on the supposition that the Pickering series comes from
helium. The accuracy of this value cannot be ignored. But analysis shows
that it is quite impossible to go further, and to derive the usual helium
spectrum. I mean that in order to do so we must abandon at least one of
Bohr’s premises which is vital to the deduction of the hydrogen formula.
This fact is capable of rigorous demonstration, as is also the fact that, under
the inverse square law, which Sir Ernest Rutherford has shown experimentally
to be valid, Rydberg’s constant is not a feature of more complex atoms on this
theory.

There is also an experimental difficulty. Whatever its origin, the Pickering
series should be accompanied by an ultra-violet one in the Schumann region.
This series has been found by Professor Lyman in the hydrogen spectrum,
whereas helium appears to have no Schumann spectrum. Professor Lyman is
repeating these experiments, in view of their importance, but the balance of
experimental evidence is against Bohr’s theory at present.

I am inclined to agree with Mr. Moseley that my nebular and coronal
elements may not be chemical elements in the ordinary sense. This opinion,
that they are sub-elements, or bases of ordinary elements, will be found in my
papers. Bourget, Buisson, and Fabry’s experiments, described in the
“Comptes Rendus,’ show that these substances have the atomic weights which
I calculated theoretically from their spectra, so that their existence appears
to be real. Moreover, as in my papers, ordinary elements with series spectra
can apparently only be formed from them by an alteration in the nucleus which
does not affect its total charge. Evidence is accumulating to show that the
nuclear structure may play an important part in series spectra, and therefore
I am not inclined to agree with Professor Rutherford that the nucleus of a
hydrogen atom is necessarily the positive electron. It seems to be more
complicated. But with everything else in his admirable opening address I
must express a general agreement. I must finally agree with Mr. Moseley that
any ultimate atomic theory must involve Planck’s 4. In my own papers this
was regarded as an angular momentum, as subsequently also by Bohr. The
necessity for it is easily seen. For we only have one dynamical relation between
the radius of the atom and the angular velocity of its electrons. Without
the introduction of some new universal constant such as / no atom has any-
thing in its nature which compels a definite size, and definite unchanging
properties.

Professor H. Basserr said that, as the number of elements which came
before neon seemed of considerable importance in connection with the
theoretical treatment of the constitution of the atom, it might be worth while
considering whether the periodic law gave any hints on the matter. It was
well known that Lothar Meyer’s atomic volume curve clearly demonstrated
that, although the properties of the elements were periodic functions of their
atomic weights, the periodicity was not of such a simple character as at first
supposed by Newlands. Leaving out hydrogen for the moment, it was found
that there were two short periods of eight elements each, beginning with neon
and argon, and ending with fluorine and chlorine respectively, followed by two
long periods of 18 elements—that was to say, of (2X8)+2 elements. These two
long periods were followed by one very much longer period and a portion of a
second. Unfortunately this very long period was so far incompletely known,
and it was not certain how many elements it contained; but this much could
be said, namely, that it contained approximately twice as many elements as
one of the long periods, and possibly 38 elements, which would be (2x18)+2

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 301

elements. Now, going back to the region in which hydrogen was situated, one
was tempted to suggest that this gas was the only known representative of an
extra short period of three elements. Doubling this number and adding two
one obtained eight—the number of elements in each of the known short periods.
Doubling eight and adding two one obtained eighteen—the number of elements
in each of the long periods, and so on. Although such treatment of the matter
might appear like playing with figures, it seemed to the speaker of some interest.

Professor Kerr Grant summarised the difficulty as to the stability of a
system consisting of one nucieus and one electron. It was difficult, too, to
account for the non-magnetic character of the hydrogen atom with this struc-
ture. Magnetism, however, depended probably more on molecular than on
atomic structure.

Sir E. Ruruerrorp (replying) said that the chemical inseparability of certain
isotopes was, indeed, derived from experiments with small quantities, but the
methods used were very delicate. The separation of Radium D from lead was
a most important problem; there seems evidence that different leads exist,
having different atomic weights. The difficulty of stability is common to all
theories-of the atom; but what it points to is that there is something wrong
with the theory of electromagnetic radiation—not of the atom.

The following Paper was then read :—

On Salts coloured by Cathode Rays. By Professor E. GotpstrEin.
See Reports, p. 250.

The following Papers were read in Section A :—

1. Note on the Magneton as a Scattering Agent of a and B Particles.
By Professor W. M. Hicks, F.R.S.

Weiss has proved the existence of elementary magnetic magnets—or their
equivalent—as a constituent of the atoms of matter. These magnetons should
act as very effective scatterers of a and @ rays, but the mathematical difficulties
of a complete discussion of the scattering by a single electron are probably
extremely great. The particular case where the electrons move in an equatorial
plane of the magneton admits, however, of a complete mathematical solution,
and may be useful as throwing some light on the nature of the scattering to be
expected. It is essentially a question of the orbits of charged particles coming
from an infinite distance, and in the paper the nature and distribution of these
are explained. Incidentally also a theory of combined electrons appears.

2. Demonstration of a Mechanical Analogue of Wireless Telegraphic
Circuits. By Professor T. R. Lytn, F.R.S.

3. On the Thermal Conductivity of Air. By Professor T. H. Lay
and BE. O. Herens.

4. The General Magnetic Survey of Australia. By EK. Kipson.

302 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 19.
Discussion on Antarctic Meteorology. Opened by G. C. Stupson, D.Sc.

1. A brief résumé was given of the general circulation in the atmosphere
over the Southern Hemisphere as taught by :

(a) the text-books.

(b) Dr. Lockyer in his paper ‘Southern Hemisphere Surface Air Circulation.’

Dr. Lockyer suggests an intense anticyclone over the Antarctic Continent,
from which cold air feeds into a series of large cyclones circulating the southern
ocean and having their centres near to 60° S. The cyclones are supposed to be
so large that while their southern extremities sweep over the edge of the
Antarctic Continent their northern extremities reach to latitude 40° S., and so
dominate the weather of Tasmania and New Zealand, and to some extent that
of South Australia.

Professor Meinardus’s scheme also includes a series of cyclones travelling
from west to east over the southern ocean; but he gives strong reasons against
the presence of an anticyclone over the southern continent. His chief objection
to such an anticyclone is that anticyclonic conditions are accompanied by an
excess of evaporation over precipitation; hence it would be impossible to account
for the excess of precipitation which gives rise to the large glaciers and snow- ~
fields which discharge the known large quantities of ice.

2. The simultaneous observations made at Cape Evans, Cape Adare, and
Framheim were then considered to investigate the processes which are at work
in the Ross Sea area. Diagrams showing the mean temperature distribution
both horizontally and vertically were examined, and the curves of barometric
pressure and wind at the different stations compared. The chief con-
clusions of the investigation are as follows: The high south-easterly winds—
commonly called blizzards—are not caused by cyclones passing into the
Ross Sea, but are the result of the large differences of temperature
which exist in the lower atmosphere over the Barrier and the Ross Sea. The
cloud observations show that air feeds into the Antarctic at high levels, and
passes north again in the blizzards. Meinardus’s objection that in such a
circulation of air precipitation would not exceed the evaporation was shown
not to hold, because of the great cooling of the air due to radiation. The air
while sinking loses so much heat by radiation that, when forcibly made to rise
in the blizzards, saturation is reached at a much lower level than that at which
the air entered. Thus anticyclonic conditions are consistent with an excess of
precipitation.

3. The existence of a belt of cyclones between the Antarctic Continent and
Australia was then considered. Curves on which barometer and wind obser-
vations made at the ‘Gauss’ winter quarters are plotted were shown. From
them it was seen that during the passage of deep waves of pressure there
is practically no variation of the wind direction at that station. In most
cases the wind blows a gale from the east both while the barometer falls rapidly
and while it makes an equally rapid recovery. At present it appears quite impos-
sible to reconcile the wind and barometer observations with any system of
circulation of wind about a centre of low pressure moving from the west to the
east. Further the simultaneous barometer observations at Melbourne, the Bluff
(New Zealand), and Cape Adare were examined without finding any certain
indication of the same cyclone affecting the northern and southern stations.

4. The monthly departures from normal of pressure at Cape Evans were
compared with corresponding values for stations in Australasia, and an important
negative correlation was found.

5. In conclusion the importance of a permanent meteorological station on
the Antarctic Continent was urged.

The following Report and Papers were then read :—

1. Report of the Seismological Committee.—See Reports, p. 41.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 303

2. On the Change of Thermal Conductivity during the Liquefaction of
a Metai. By Professor A. W. Portsr, F.R.S., and F. Simeon.

3. Experiments on the Active Deposit of Radium. By Hi. Weuuiscu.

SYDNEY.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Origin and Nature of the y Rays from Radium. By Professor
Sir E. Ruruerrorp, F.R.S.

2. athe Distribution in Space of the Stars near the North Pole.
By Dre Bs Ws-Dysony F.L.S.

3. The Action of the Juice of Euphorbia peplus on a Photographic
Plate. By J. M. Perrm and H. G. Cuapmay.

The dried milky juice of Huphorbia peplus acts on a sensitive photographic
plate in the dark. If a photographic plate, separated by a space of 3 mm., is
exposed for fourteen days to the dried juice spread in the form of letters on
glass, sharp images of the letters appear as positive impressions on the plate on
development in the ordinary way. Faint images are formed by exposures for
such short periods as twenty-four hours, and deeper impressions, but still sharp
and well-defined, by exposures up to thirty- -one days. The impressions on the
plate are more marked when the separation is diminished to 1 mm., and no
impression appears when the separation is increased to 12 mm. The images are
characteristically well defined, though there is slight diffusion around each letter.

If a piece of black paper, impervious to light, be inserted between the letters
and the plate, the images appear as well defined as when the paper is absent.
The intervention of paraffined tissue paper fails to prevent the appearance of the
image on the plate. Images are seen when thin aluminium foil and gold leaf are
used to separate the plate from the letters. The impression can be obtained
through thin sheet glass. When a strong current of air is passed between the
letters and the plate during the exposure, the image appears sharp and no
evidence of diffusion in the direction of the current can be made out.

On examining the dried juice with a sulphide screen no scintillation of
particles can be seen. ° On testing the dried juice in a gold leaf electroscope
there is no apparent increase in the rate of discharge of ionised gases. With a
sensitive electrometer no action of the dried juice on ionised air could be
detected.

On heating the dried juice, the photographic action is not diminished after
several hours’ heating to 200° C. When charred to a black mass the juice has a
diminished action on the plate, and when incinerated to a white ash the ash
retains a feeble action.

This photographic action has been noted with all specimens of Huphorbia
peplus examined by us from many localities, some at least a hundred miles apart.
The dried juice retains its action unchanged, so that the original sample, dried
and mounted five years ago, is as active as ever.

The juices of many other species of Euphorbia, and of other plants with
similar latex-bearing tubes, have no comparable action on the photographic plate.

4. Photo-electric Effect in Selenium. By Professor O. U. Vonwiter.

304 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

5. The Pressure wpon the Poles of a Carbon Arc. By Professor
W. G. DUvrrieLp.

6. The Attractions of Ellipsoidal Shells.
By Professor A. Gray, I’.R.S.

MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Discontinuities in Meteorological Phenomena. By Professor
H. H. Turner, F.R.S.

2. The Oblate Shape of the Stellar System. By Professor A. §.
Eppineton, I'.R.S.
3. An Absolute Determination of the Thermal Conductivity of Air.
By BH. O. Herens and T. H. Lasy.

4. The Nature of y Rays. By T. H. Lasy and W. Sruarr.,

5. Length and Electrical Resistance of Steel Tapes. By T. H. Lasy
and G. EK. Apams.

6. A Map of the Principal Harthquake Origins of the S.W. Pacific.
By G. Hoasen.

7. Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.—See
Reports, p. 69.

8. Report on the International Tables of Physical and Chemical
Constants.

9. Report on the Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—See Reports,
p. 7o.

10. Report on the Disposal of Copies of the Binary Canon.—See
Reports, p. 102.

11. Interim Report on Radiotelegraphic Investigations.—See Reports,
p. 70.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 305

TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
Jot Meeting with Section G (Engineering).

Discussion on Wireless Telegraphy. Opened by
Sir Outver Lopes, F.R.S.

The following Papers were then read in Section A :—

1. Some Measurements of the Wave-length in Air of Electrical Vibra-
tions associated with a Thin Straight Terminated Rod. By
Professor J. A. PouLock.

2. High-Frequency Spectra. By H. G. J. Mosetey.

3. On the Scattering of Light by Small and Large Particles of
Conducting and Non-conducting Substances. By Professor
ALFRED W. Porter, F’.R.S., and E. TauBot Paris, B.Sc.

The work summarised herein is a continuation of an investigation by Porter
and Keen’ on the diffraction of light by particles comparable with the wave-
length. In that work the scattering was produced by a sulphur suspension, and
observations were restricted to the transmitted light. In the present paper the
degree of polarisation has been determined (by means of a double-image prism
and nicol) for the light scattered in different directions; and suspensions of
silver and copper have been investigated as well as suspensions of sulphur. The
metallic suspensions were made by the method of Pieroni,” which we have found
to give stable suspensions.

The results for sulphur particles show a good general agreement with the
theoretical values calculated by Lord Rayleigh,® but exact comparison is_ not
possible owing to the difficulty of determining the size of the particles. In the
case of the silver particles comparison with theory is easier, because the total
amount of silver present can be so readily determined chemically, the number
of particles per unit volume can be counted, and thence their size can be
calculated. Measurements of the size were also made by Perrin’s method, i.e.,
by counting the number of particles in each of two layers a small vertical
distance apart, and attributing the difference (as in an atmosphere of gas) to
the total weight of particles in the intervening space. Both methods give
practically the same results.

Complete curves have been obtained for the polarisation for different-sized
particles in different directions. Mention will be made here only of the direction
of maximum polarisation for silver suspensions for light of wave-length 550up.
This is shown in the following table :—

. 3 Direction of max. | Relative electric
Diameter of particles. | polarisation. conductivity.
fu |

80 | 90° | --

| 98 90° | 2-96

108 98°-36' 3-70

131 1099-54 4:12

164 113°-36' | —

310 130°-30' —

{

1 Proc. Roy. Soc. A, Vol. 89, 1914.
2 Garetta, 48 (1), 197 (1913).
3 Proc. Roy. Soc. A, Vol. 84, 25 (1910).
1914. x

306 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

According to J. J. Thomson,* the direction of maximum polarisation for
perfectly conducting particles should make 120° with the incident light. From
the above table it appears that for very small particles this angle is 90°, as it
would be for dielectric particles (a fact which we find was previously observed
by Professor R. Threlfall*), but that it increases as the diameter of the particle
increases to a value above the theoretical limit.

Measurements were also made of the electrical conductivity of the sus-
pensions. Since the average distance between the particles was about 100 times
their diameter, Maxwell’s theory of the conductivity of compound media is
applicable. The conductivity was measured in every case for concentrations
containing the same amount of silver and other bodies per unit volume, but
differing only in the size of the particles. In these circumstances the con-
ductances should be the same unless there is a difference in the conductivity of
the silver particles. It will be seen that the conductivity of the mixture in-
creases as the particles increase in size. It would seem, therefore, that the
anomalous behaviour of the silver is due to a real change in resistance with size,
and is not simply a consequence of the fact that Thomson’s theory is limited to
the cases for which the conductivity is sufficiently large. ;

No numerical Calculation has previously been made for large particles. By
transferring Thomson’s equations so as to express the result in terms of the same
functions which have been calculated by Lord Rayleigh for fairly large values
of the argument, his work becomes available for the present problem; and one
of us (EH. T. P.) has calculated the degree of polarisation of the light scattered
in different directions for perfectly conducting particles for which gies
=unity, when A=wave-length of the light. The maximum polarisation corre-
sponds to an angle for about 108°. The value indicated by our experiments
lies between 110° and 120°, but further experiments are necessary to fix it more
exactly.

It is not difficult to suggest a reason for the diminution of the conductivity
with size. Separated molecules, as in a vapour, are perfectly non-conducting ;
we conclude that there are then no free electrons. Aggregation of molecules
of silver as in a solid gives rise to free electrons (and consequent conductivity)
owing to the mutual action of the molecules upon one another. In small particles
the number of free electrons may be proportionately less than for silver in mass.

It must not be forgotten, however, that a colloid particle in its medium is
surrounded by a double layer consisting of polarised molecules of the medium,
and it is quite possible that it is this polarised layer of a dielectric medium
which modifies the optical properties of the silver.

4. On the Viscosities of the Halogens in the Gaseous Slate.
By A. O. Ranxrng, D.Sc.

In this paper various methods which have been used for measuring the
viscosities of the vapours of Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine at a number of
different temperatures were described.

The relations between the viscosities of these three gases were discussed. The
laws are similar to those which the author has previously shown to apply to
the group of inert gases.

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.

1. Symbolic Solution of Linear Partial Differential Equations of the
Second Order. By T. W. Cuaunpy, M.A.

STATEMENT OF RESULTS.

2 .
Take equation in form goes + Be +B Be + yz=0, where a, B, y denote functions
dady da by
: 5 da 5B as)
of x,y. The invariants h, k are — + aB—y=h, — +oB-y=k.
ox by

4 Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism, p. 449. ° Phil. Mag., 1894.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 307

Introduce symbolic operators 4 y= ral (k—h)dva+ as h)
x

y
1
A,= ‘| (—k)dyB + 7)
y

@
.
ll
~
+
Pa
Db
<
+
fs,
co]
b
oN)
—"
eo
+

Then a symbolic solution appears as

x y
= [ax = [aay
ec O,Hz)+e 0, H(u)

where 4, w are arbitrary functions of their arguments. Here the arbitrary elements
enter in an infinite series of their derivative.
We may deduce a form of solution in which ¢, p enter in finite terms, namely—

ay
= Bdx (6 —A)
Ty sey Sle

_— Bu. a
+e woe,]°

y=0

(8. “Meda ]
eal dt

Applying these results to the equation S=z we obtain a solution
y x
2= | p(t). J {iy — t)a} dt + | V(t).Jd {(x—t)y} dt+C.J(ay)
) to)
u wu wr

where C is a constant and J(u) =1 + ap + 1 #oaes (n!)? +

2. Properties of Algebraic Numbers Analogous to Certain Properties of
; Algebraic Functions. By Professor J. C. Freups, F.R.S.

Suppose ¢ to be a root of an integral algebraic equation f(x) = 0 of degree n in x
and irreducible in the domain of the rational numbers. Where p is a prime f(x)
may, however, happen to be reducible in the domain of the p-adic numbers. As-
suming the number of the irreducible p-adic factors to be r we write f(x) = f,(x)
....f,(z), where the coefficients of the powers of x in f,(x),... f(x) are p-adic numbers.

Consider R(e) any rational function of «. It may be written as a polynomial
of degree n—1 in ¢ and satisfies an algebraic equation F (X) = 0, where we have
F(X) = F(X)... F(X). The factors F(X), ... F(X) here have p-adic
coefficients and are co-ordinated with the factors f,(z), . . . j.(v) of f(z). The
degrees of the factors f,(z), . . . f,(x), as also those of the factors F(X), .. .,
F,(X) will be certain integers n, .. ., n, respectively. The constant terms in the
factors F(X), . . . F(X) we name the p-adic partial norms of R(«). The
order numbers relative to p of the p-adic partial norms of R(<) divided by m,.. .,

x 2

308 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

my respectively we call the orders of coincidence of R(e) with the p-adic factors of
the fundamental equation f(x) = 0.

The coefficient of «"-1 in the number R(e) we call its principal coefficient. The
orders of coincidence of such number relative to the prime p will be integral multiples
of certain numbers 1/y,,..., 1/y,, where »,,.. ., v, are factors of n,, . . ., n,
respectively. We consider the aggregate of numbers R(e) possessing an assigned
set of orders of coincidence relative to p. The necessary and sufficient condition
that the principal coefficient in the aggregate be integral is that the assigned orders
of coincidence have a certain set of values. This particular set of orders of co-
incidence defines adjointness relative to the prime p with regard to the fundamental
equation.

i If we start out from a sufficiently general rational form R(e) with its coefficients
represented in p-adic form and impose on it the conditions requisite in order that it
may possess a certain set of orders of coincidence relative to the prime p, these con-
ditions take the form of a succession of independent congruences relative to the
prime p imposed on the coefficients of the powers of p in the p-adic coefficients of
the powers of «. We find a formula for the number of these conditions. We also
assign sets of orders of coincidence 7,”),... za corresponding to all primes

p, these orders of coincidence being 0 with the exception of a finite number among
them. Such a system of orders of coincidence we call a basis of coincidences. We
define complementary adjoint bases of coincidences and derive the analogue of the
complementary theorem in the theory of the algebraic functions.

3. The Green’s Function for the Equation 7?u + k?u = 0.
By Professor H. 8. Carsnaw.

4. The Evolute of the Limacon.
By Professor W. H. H. Hupson, M.A., LL.M.
The equation of the Limagon is taken in the form r=a (1+ cos 6), a will be

made 1, and the abbreviations used 1—e? =f, 1—4e?=k, e(1+e) /(1-++2c) =e,
e(1—e) / (l1—2e)=c’.

e=-3 €=3
D
D \
ee
Cc Cc
C co Cc
D’ os
D

The Limacon is symmetrical about the x- axis; so therefore is its evolute.

(1) When e=0, the Limacon is a circle ; the evolute is a point, the centre of the
circle.

(2) When 4 >e>0,theevolute is a closed curve with four cusps pointing outwards.
These cusps are D,(ef, e?/f), D',(e f,-e Wf), C,(c,0), C’, (c’,0). _ All four lie on the
circle y?+(a—c) (vc—c')=0. Ase increases, this at first star-like figure grows larger,
the total height approaches 4/3/4 as e approaches 4, the breadth (parallel to the
x- axis) increases indefinitely. ;

(3) When e=}, c’ becomes 0, the height becomes /3/4. The cusp C’ is at

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

Ce 2

309

310 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

infinity. the other three lie on the straight line x = 3/8, which may be regarded as a
circle of infinite radius ; the w- axis may be regarded as two coincident asymptotes.

(4) When 1 >e>4, there are two asymptotes making equal angles with the x- axis.
As eé increases from 4 to 1 the angle between the asymptotes increases from 0° to 180°,
their intersection, V, moves from (—oo, 0) to the origin; the cusp C’ precedes V
from (—co, 0) to (0, 0); the distance D D’ increases to a maximum 44/3/9 when
e = /(2/3), and then dwindles to 0.

(5) When e =1, the Limacon is a cardioid, the evolute is also a cardioid ; it passes
through the origin, its cusp C is at (2/3, 0); the three cusps C’, D, D’, coincident at
the origin, become a simple point on the cardioid.

(6) When e>1, the cusps D, D’ have disappeared, the cusps C, C’ point inwards,
the curve is closed, the shape of the curve does not change much as e increases, the
distance C C’ diminishes from 2/3 to 4, the total height (parallel to the y- axis) increases
from 4/3/2 to 1, the breadth, now less than the height, diminishes from 3/4 to 1/2.

(7) When c=, the evolute is altogether at infinity; the difference c—c’ is
found to be finite and equal to 4, likewise the height, 1, the breadth, 1/./2; the position
of the breadth, 3/./2, above and below C C’ enable an illustrative figure to be drawn.
It is symmetrical about its central ordinate.

Diagrams are given to illustrate these cases, except (1), which needs no diagram.
(2) e=°3, the star elongated.

(3) ¢ = 4, with three cusps in a straight line.

(4) e=43, with the four cusps at the corners of a square.

(5) e=1, where three cusps are hidden in one point.

(6) e=2, the evolute of the Trisectrix.

(7) ¢ = 9, with double symmetry.

é€ = co

The equation of the evolute is

i { P+ (e—e) (a—c’) \ "4.276%? (y2+a®—eax)?=0.

5. On the Algebraic Theory of Modular Systems (or Modules of
Polynomials). By F. 8. Macauuay, M.A.
The theory of modules of polynomials is still only in its infancy, although

it may claim an age of 185 years, its origin dating from the ‘Théorie
Générale des Equations Algébriques,’ par M. Bézout, de l’Académie Royale des

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 311

Sciences, M.DCC.LXXIXx. Its status and importance were made apparent by
Kronecker’s theory of Divisor Systems.

The central problem (of which no satisfactory solution has yet been given)
is to find one or several ways of expressing the complete conditions that a
polynomial F must satisfy in order that it may be capable of taking the form

Be XW, tn 5, tong

where F,, F,,..., Fx are given polynomials (in general non-homogeneous) in
m variables z,, 2,,..., 2%”, and X,, X,,..., Xx are any polynomials in the
same variables, not given. The whole system of polynomials F is called a
module (of polynomials), and is regarded as a single entity or class, and is
symbolised by a letter M. Each F is called a member of M, and the set of
polynomials F,, F,,. .. , Fx is called a basis of M.

A module M is considered from its two conjugate aspects, viz. (i) its content

as represented by its members, and (ii) its content as represented by its modular

“equations, i.e., the linear equations which are identically satisfied by the
coefficients of each and every member F of M. (ii) has received little attention
hitherto. Hither (i) or (ii) gives a complete representation of the module; but
the difficulty is to obtain (ii) from (i) and vice versa. In combination (i) and (ii)
give a very complete view of a module and afford together a simple answer to
most general questions. Thus the members of the G.C.M. of any number of
modules consist of all the members of all the modules; the modular equations
of the L.C.M. of any number of modules consist of all the modular equations
of all the modules; the members of the product MM’ of two modules M and
M’ can be obtained at once from the members of M and M’; and the modular
equations of a residual M/M’ can be obtained at once from the modular
equations of M and the members of M’.

The most important types of modules were considered ; these are the unmixed
module, prime module (corresponding to a prime number in arithmetic), primary
module (corresponding to a power of a prime in arithmetic), simple module (that
is, a module containing one point only), module of the principal class, perfect
module, and closed module. The method of obtaining the modular equations
from a basis of the module was discussed, and also the resolution of a module
into primary modules.

6. A Theory of Double Points. By F. 8. Macaunay, M.A.

BRISBANE.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 22.

Professor E. W. Brown, F.R.S., Vice-President of the Section, delivered the
following Address :—

To one who has spent many years over the solution of a problem which is
somewhat isolated from the more general questions of his subject, it is a satisfac-
tion to have this opportunity for presenting the problem as a whole instead of in
the piecemeal fashion which is necessary when there are many separate features
to be worked out. In doing so, I shall try to avoid the more technical details of
my subject as well as the temptation to enter into closely reasoned arguments,
confining myself mainly to the results which have been obtained and to the
conclusions which may be drawn from them.

In setting forth the present status of the problem, another side of it gives one
a sense of pleasure. When a comparison between the work of the lunar theorist
and that of the observer has to be made, it is necessary to take into consideration
the facts and results obtained by astronomers for purposes not directly connected
with the moon : the motions of the earth and planets, the position of the observer,
the accuracy of star catalogues, the errors of the instruments used for the
measurement of the places of celestial objects, the personality of the observers—

312 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

all these have to be considered; in fact, almost every one of the departments of
the astronomy of position must be drawn upon to furnish necessary data. The
time has now arrived when it may perhaps be possible to repay in some measure
the debt thus contracted by furnishing to the astronomer, and perhaps also to the
student of geodesy and, if I may coin a word, of selenodesy, some results which
can be deduced more accurately from a study of the moon’s motion than in any
other way. A long-continued exploration with few companions which ultimately
leads to territories where other workers have already blazed paths gives the
impression of having emerged from the thick jungle into open country. The
explorer can once more join forces with his brother astronomers. He can
judge his own results more justly and have them judged by others. If,
then, an excuse be needed for overstepping the limits which seem, by silent
consent, to have been imposed on those who devote themselves to lunar problems,
it consists in a desire to show that these limits are not necessary and that a study
of the motion of the moon can be of value and can contribute its share to the
common funds of astronomy. .

The history of the motion of the moon has been for more than two centuries
a struggle between the theorists and the observers. Ever since the publication
of the ‘Principia’ and the enunciation of the law of gravitation by Isaac
Newton, a constant effort has been maintained to prove that the moon, like the
other bodies of the solar system, obeyed this law to its farthest consequences.
While the theory was being advanced, the observers were continually improving
their instruments and their methods of observing, with the additional advantage
that their efforts had a cumulative effect : the longer the time covered by their
observations, the more exact was the knowledge obtained. The theorist lacked
the latter advantage: if he started anew he could only use the better instru-
ments for analysis provided by the mathematician. He was always trying to
forge a plate of armour which the observer with a gun whose power was increas-
ing with the time could not penetrate. In the struggle the victory rarely failed
to rest with the observer. Within the last decade we theorists have made
another attempt to forge a new plate out of the old matgrials; whether we have
substantially gained the victory must rest partly on the evidence I have to place
before you to-day and partly on what the observer can produce in the near future.

There are three well-defined periods in the history of the subject as far as a
complete development of the moon’s motion is concerned. From the publication
of the ‘Principia’ in 1687, when Newton laid down the broad outlines, until the
middle of the eighteenth century, but little progress was made. It seems to have
required over half-a-century for analysis by symbols to advance sufficiently far
for extensive applications to the problems of celestial mechanics. Clairaut and -
d’Alembert both succeeded in rescuing the problem from the geometrical form
into which Newton had cast it and in reducing it to analysis by the methods of
the calculus. They were followed by Leonard Euler, who in my opinion is the
greatest of all the successors of Isaac Newton as a lunar theorist. He initiated
practically every method which has been used since his time, and his criticisms
show that he had a good insight into their relative advantages. A long roll of
names follows in this period. It was closed by the publication of the theories of
Delaunay and Hansen and the tables of the latter, shortly after the middle of
the nineteenth century. From then to the end of the century the published
memoirs deal with special parts of the theory or with its more general aspects,
but no complete development appeared which could supersede the results of
Hansen.

My own theory, which was completed a few years ago, is rather the fulfilment
to the utmost of the ideas of others than a new mode of finding the moon’s
motion. Its object was severely practical—to find in the most accurate way and
by the shortest path the complete effect of the law of gravitation applied to the
moon. It is a development of Hill’s classic memoir of 1877. Hill in his turn
was indebted to some extent to Euler. His indebtedness would have been
greater had he been aware of a little-known paper of the latter, ‘Sur la Variation
de la Lune,’ in which the orbit, now called the variation orbit, is obtained, and
its advantages set forth in the words: ‘ Quelque chimérique cette question j’ose
assurer que, si l’on réussissoit 4 en trouver une solution parfaite on ne trouveroit
presque plus de difficulté pour déterminer le vrai mouvement de la Lune réelle.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 313

Cette question est donc de la derniére importance et il sera toujours bon d’en
approfondir toutes les difficultés, avant qu’on en puisse espérer une solution
complete.’ x

In the final results of my work the development aims to include the gravita-
tional action of every particle of matter which can have a sensible effect on the
moon’s motion, so that any differences which appear between theory and observa-
tion may not be set down to want of accuracy in the completeness with which
the theory is carried out. Every known force capable of calculation is included.

So much for the theory. Gravitation, however, is only a law of force: we
need the initial position, speed, and direction of motion. To get this with
sufficient accuracy no single set of observations will serve; the new theory must
be compared with as great a number of these as possible. To do this directly
from the theory is far too long a task, and, moreover, it is not necessary. In the
past every observation has been compared with the place shown in the ‘ Nautical
Almanac’ and the small differences between them have been recorded from day
to day. By taking many of these differences and reducing them so as fo
correspond with differences at one date, the position of the moon at that date
can be found with far greater accuracy than could be obtained through any one
observation. At the Greenwich Observatory the moon has been observed and
recorded regularly since 1750. With some 120 observations a year, there are
about 20,000 available for comparison, quite apart from shorter series at other
observatories. Unfortunately these observations are compared with incorrect
theories, and, in the early days, the observers were not able to find out, with the
accuracy required to-day, the errors of their instruments or the places of the
stars with which the moon was compared. But we have means of correcting the
observations, so that they can be freed from many of the errors present in the
results which were published at the time the observations were made. We can
also correct the older theories. They can be compared with the new theory and
the differences calculated: these differences need not even be applied to the
separate observations, but only to the observations combined into properly chosen
groups. Thus the labour involved in making use of the earlier observations is
much less than might appear at first sight.

For the past eighteen months I have been engaged in this work of finding the
differences between the old theories and my own, as well as in correcting those
observations which were made at times before the resources of the astronomer
had reached their present stage of perfection. I have not dealt with the observa-
tions from the start : other workers, notably Airy in the last century and Cowell
in this, have done the greater part of the labour. My share was mainly to
carry theirs a stage further by adopting the latest theory and the best modern
practice for the reduction of the observations. In this way a much closer agree-
ment between theory and observation has been obtained, and the initial position
and velocity of the moon at a given date are now known with an accuracy com-
parable with that of the theory. I shall shortly return to this problem and
exhibit this degree of accuracy by means of some diagrams which will be thrown
on the screen.

I have spoken of the determination of these initial values as if it con-
stituted a problem separate from the theory. Theoretically it is so, but prac-
tically the two must go together. The increase in accuracy. of the theory
has gone on successively with increase in accuracy of the determination of
these constants. We do not find, with a new theory, the new constants from
the start, but corrections to the previously adopted values of these constants.
In fact, all the problems of which I am talking are so much inter-related that
it is only justifiable to separate them for the purposes of exposition.

Let us suppose that the theory and these constants have been found in
numerical form, so that the position of the moon is shown by means of
expressions which contain nothing unknown but the time. To find the moon’s
place at any date we have then only to insert that date and to perform the
necessary numerical calculations. This is not done directly, on account of the
labour involved. What are known as ‘Tables of the Moon’s Motion’ are
formed. These tables constitute an intermediate step between the theory and
the positions of the moon which are printed in the ‘Nautical Almanac.’
Their sole use and necessity is the abbreviation of the work of calculation

314 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

required to predict the moon’s place from the theoretical values which have
been found. For this reason, the problem of producing efficient tables is not
properly scientific: it is mainly economic. Nevertheless, I have found it
as interesting and absorbing as any problem which involves masses of calcula-
tion is to those who are naturally fond of dealing with arithmetical work.
My chief assistant, Mr. H. B. Hedrick, has employed his valuable experi-
ence in helping me to devise new ways of arranging the tables and making
them simple for use.

A table is mainly a device by which calculations which are continually
recurring are performed once for all time, so that those who need to make
such calculations can read off the results from the table. In the case of the
moon, the tables go in pairs. Each term in the moon’s motion depends on an
angle, and this angle depends on the date. One table gives the value of the
angle at any date (a very little calculation enables the computer to find this),
and the second table gives the value of the term for that angle. As the
same angles are continually recurring, the second table will serve for all time.

We can, however, do better than construct one table for each term. The
same angle can be made to serve for several terms and consequently one table
may be constructed so as to include all of them. In other words, instead
of looking out five numbers for five separate terms, the computer looks out
one number which gives him the sum of the five terms. 'The more terms
we can put into a single table the less work for the astronomer who wants
the place of the moon, and therefore the more efficient the tables. A still
better device is a single table which depends on two angles, known as a
double-entry table; many more terms can usually be included in this than in a
single-entry table. The double interpolation on each such table is avoided
by having one angle the same for many double-entry tables and interpolating
for that angle on the sum of the numbers extracted from the tables.

The problem of fitting the terms into the smallest number of tables is a
problem in combinations—something like a mixture of a game at chess and a
picture-puzzle, but unlike the latter in the fact that the intention is to produce
ease and simplicity instead of difficulty. This work of arrangement is now
completed and, in fact, about five-sixths of the calculations necessary to form
the tables are done; over one-third of the copy is ready for the printer,
but, owing to the large mass of the matter, it will take from two to three
years to put it through the press. The cost of performing the calculations
and printing the work has been met from a fund specially set aside for the
purpose by Yale University.

A few statistics will perhaps give an idea of our work. Hansen has
300 terms in his three co-ordinates, and these are so grouped that about a
hundred tables are used in finding a complete place of the moon. We have
included over 1,000 terms in about 120 tables, so that there are on the average
about eight terms per table. [In one of our tables we have been able to
include no less than forty terms.] Each table is made as extensive as possible
in order that the interpolations—the bane of all such calculations—shall be
easy. The great majority of them involve multiplications by numbers less
than 100. There are less than ten tables which will involve multiplications by
numbers between 100 and 1,000 and none greater than the latter number. The
computer who is set to work to find the longitude, latitude, and parallax of the
moon will not need a table of logarithms from the beginning to the end of
his work. The reason for this is that all multiplications by three figures or
less can be done by Crelle’s well-known tables or by a computing machine.
But Mr. Hedrick has devised a table for interpolation to three places which
is more rapid and easy than either of these aids. It is, of course, of use
generally for all such calculations, and arrangements are now being made for
the preparation and publication of his tables. The actual work of finding the
place of the moon from the new lunar tables will, I believe, not take more
time—perhaps less—than from Hansen’s tables, as soon as the computer has
made himself familiar with them. Fortunately for him, it is not necessary
to understand the details of their construction: he need only know the rules
for using them.

I am now going to show by means of some diagrams the deviations of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 315

moon from its theoretical orbit, in which, of course, errors of observation are
included. The first two slides exhibit the average deviation of the moon from
its computed place for the past century and a half in longitude.? The averages
are taken over periods of 414 days and each point of the continuous line
shows one such average. The dots are the results obtained by Newcomb from
occultations; the averages for the first century are taken over periods of
several years, and in the last sixty years over every year. In both cases the
same theory and the same values of the constants have been used. Only
one empirical term has been taken out—the long-period fluctuation found by
Newcomb having a period of 270 years and a co-efficient of 13/. I shall show
the deviations with this term included, in a moment.

The first point to which attention should be drawn is the agreement of the
results deduced from the Greenwich meridian observations and those deduced
from occultations gathered from observatories all over the world. There can be
no doubt that the fluctuations are real and not due to errors of observation.
A considerable difference appears about 1820, for which I have not been able to
account, but I have reasons for thinking that the difference is mainly due to
errors in the occultations rather than in the meridian values. In the last sixty
years the differences become comparatively small, and the character of the
deviation of the moon from its theoretical orbit is well marked. This deviation
is obviously of a periodic character, but attempts to analyse it into one or two
periodic terms have not met with success; the number of terms required for
the purpose is too great to allow one to feel that they have a real existence,
and that they would combine to represent the motion in the future. The
straight line character of the deviations is a rather marked peculiarity of the
curves.

The actual deviations on a smaller scale are shown in the next slide; the
great empirical term has here been restored and is shown by a broken line.
The continuous line represents the Greenwich meridian observations; the dots
are Newcomb’s results for the occultations before 1750, the date at which the
meridian observations begin. With a very slight amount of smoothing,
especially since 1850, this diagram may be considered to show the actual
deviations of the moon from its theoretical orbit.

The next slide shows the average values of the eccentricity and of the
position of the perigee.? The deviations are those from the values which I have
obtained. It is obvious at once that there is little or nothing systematic about
them; they may be put down almost entirely to errors of observation. The
diminishing magnitude of the deviations as time goes on is good evidence for
this; the accuracy of the observations has steadily increased. The coefficient
of the term on which the eccentricity depends is found with a probable error of
0/-02, and the portion from 1750 to 1850 gives a value for it which agrees with
that deduced from the portion 1850 to 1901 within 0/-01. The eccentricity is
the constant which is now known with the highest degree of accuracy of any
of those in the moon’s motion. For the perigee there was a difference from
the theoretical motion which would have caused the horizontal average in the
curve to be tilted up one end over 2” above that at the other end. I have taken
this out, ascribing it to a wrong value for the earth’s ellipticity; the point will
be again referred to later. The actual value obtained from the observations
themselves has been used in the diagram, so that the deviations shown are
deviations from the observed value.

The next slide shows the deviations of the mean inclination and the motion
of the node, as well as of the mean latitude from the values deduced from
the observations.* In these cases the observations only run from 1847 to 1901.
Tt did not seem worth while to extend them back to 1750 for it is evident
that the errors are mainly accidental, and the mean results agreed so closely
with those obtained by Newcomb from occultations that little would have been

1 Monthly Notices R.A.S., vol. 73, plate 22.

* Tables II., III. of a Paper on ‘The Perigee and Eccentricity of the
Moon,’ Monthly Notices R.A.S., March 1914.

° «The Mean Latitudes of the Sun and Moon,’ Monthly Notices R.A.S.
Jan. 1914; ‘The Determination of the Constants of the Node, the Inclination,
the Earth’s Ellipticity, and the Obliquity of the Ecliptic, id. June 1914.

316 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

gained by the use of the much less accurate observations made before 1847.
The theoretical motion of the node differs from its observed value by a
quantity which would have tilted up one end of the zero line about 0//-5 above
the other; the hypothesis adopted in the case of the perigee will account for
the difference.

The mean latitude curve is interesting. It should represent the mean
deviations of the moon’s centre from the ecliptic; but it actually represents the
deviations from a plane 0/-5 below the ecliptic. A similar deviation was found
by Newcomb. Certain periodic terms have also been taken out. ‘The explana-
tion of these terms will be referred to directly.

The net result of this work is a determination of the constants of eccen-
tricity, inclination, and of the positions of the perigee and node with practical
certainty. The motions of the perigee and node here agree with their theoretical
values when the new value of the earth’s ellipticity is used. The only out-
standing parts requiring explanation are the deviations in the mean longitude.
If inquiry is made as to the degree of accuracy which the usual statement of the
gravitation law involves, it may be said that the index which the inverse
square law contains. does not differ from 2 by a fraction greater than
1/400,000,000. This is deduced from the agreement between the observed and
theoretical motions of the perigee when we attribute the mean of the differences
found for this motion and for that of the node to a defective value of the
ellipticity of the earth.

I have mentioned the mean deviation of the latitude of the moon from the
ecliptic. There are also periodic terms with the mean longitude as argument
occurring both in the latitude and the longitude. My explanation of these was
anticipated by Professor Bakhuysen by a few weeks. The term in longitude had
been found from two series of Greenwich observations, one of 28 and the other
of 21 years, by van Steenwijk, and Professor Bakhuysen, putting this with the
deviations of the mean latitude found by Hansen and himself, attributed them
to systematic irregularities of the moon’s limbs.

What I have done is to find (1) the deviation of the mean latitude for
64 years, (2) a periodic term in latitude from observations covering 55 years,
and (3) a periodic term in longitude from observations covering 150 years,
the period being that of the mean longitude. Further, if to these be added
Newcomb’s deviations of the mean latitude derived (a) from immersions and
(6) from emersions, we have a series of five separate determinations—separate
because the occultations are derived from parts of the limb not wholly the same
as those used in meridian observations. Now all these give a consistent shape
to the moon’s limb referred to its centre of mass. ‘This shape agrees qualita-
tively with that which may be deduced from Franz’s figure.

I throw on the screen two diagrammatic representations * of these irregu-
larities obtained by Dr. F. Hayn from a long series of actual measures of the
heights and depths of the lunar formations. The next slide shows the
systematic character more clearly. It is from a paper by Franz.° It does not
show the character of the heights and depths at the limb, but we may judge
of these from the general character of the high and low areas of the portions
which have been measured and which extend near to the limbs. I think there
can be little doubt that this explanation of these small terms is correct, and if
so it supplies a satisfactory cause for a number of puzzling inequalities.

The most interesting feature of this result is the general shape of the
moon’s limb relative to the centre of mass and its relation to the principle of
isostasy. Here we see with some definiteness that the edge of the southern
limb in general is further from the moon’s centre of mass than the northern.
Hence we must conclude that the density at least of the crust of the former is
less than that of the latter, in accordance with the principle mentigned. The
analogy to the figure of the earth with its marked land and sea hemispheres is
perhaps worth pointing out, but the higher ground in the moon is mainly on the
south of its equator, while that on the earth is north. Unfortunately we know
nothing about the other face of the moon. Nevertheless it seems worth while
to direct the attention of geologists to facts which may ultimately have some

* Abh. der Math.-Phys. Kl. der Kon Sdchs. Ges. der Wiss., vols. Xxix., XXX.
®> Kongsberger Astr. Beob., Abth. 38

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. ; 317

cosmogonic applications. The astronomical difficulties are immediate : different
corrections for meridian observations in latitude, in longitude, on Moésting A,
for occultations and for the photographic method, will be required.

I next turn to a question, the chief interest of which is geodetic rather than
astronomical. I have mentioned that a certain value of the earth’s ellipticity
will make the observed motions of the perigee and node agree with their
theoretical values. This value is 1/293-7 +-:3. Now Helmert’s value obtained
from gravity determinations is 1/298-3. The conference of ‘ Nautical Almanac’
Directors in 1911 adopted 1/297. There is thus a considerable discrepancy.
Other evidence, however, can be brought forward. Not long ago a series of
simultaneous observations at the Cape and Greenwich Observatories was made
in order to obtain a new value of the moon’s parallax. After five years’ work
a hundred simultaneous pairs were obtained, the discussion of which give
evidence of their excellence. Mr. Crommelin, of the Greenwich Observatory,
who undertook this discussion, determined the ellipticity of the earth by a com-
parison between the theoretical and observed values of the parallax. He found
an ellipticity 1/294°4+1°5 closely agreeing with that which I have obtained.
Finally, Col. Clarke’s value obtained from geodetic measures was 1/293°5. We
have thus three quite different determinations ranging round 1/294 to set
against a fourth determination of 1/298. The term in the latitude of the moon
which has often been used for this purpose is of little value on account of the
coefficient being also dependent on the value of the obliquity of the ecliptic ;
such evidence as it presents is rather in favour of the larger value. I omit
Hill’s value, obtained from gravity determinations, because it is obviously too
large.
‘Here, then, is a definite issue. To satisfy the observations of the moon in at
least three different parts, a value near 1/294 must be used; while the value
most carefully found from gravity determinations is 1/298. As far as astronomy
is concerned, the moon is the only body for which a correct value of this constant
is important, and it would seem inadvisable to use a value which will cause a
disagreement between theory and observation in at least three different ways. It
is a- question whether the conference value should not be changed with the
advent of the new lunar tables.

In looking forward to future determinations of this constant, it seems to be
quite possible that direct observations of the moon’s parallax are likely to furnish
at least as accurate a value of the earth’s shape as any other method. This can
be done, I believe, much better by the Harvard photographic method than by
meridian observations. Two identical instruments are advisable for the best
results, one placed in the northern and the other in the southern hemisphere from
60° to 90° apart in latitude and as nearly as possible on the same meridian. On
nights which are fine at both stations, from fifteen to twenty pairs of plates could
be obtained. In a few months it is probable that some 400 pairs might be
obtained. These should furnish a value for the parallax with a probable error
of about 0-02 and a value for the ellipticity within half a unit of the denominator
294. It would be still more interesting if the two instruments could be set up on
meridians in different parts of the earth. The Cape and a northern observatory,
Upsala for example, would furnish one arc; Harvard and Ariquipa or Santiago
another. If it were possible to connect by triangulation Australia with the
Asiatic continent, a third could be obtained near the meridian of Brisbane. Or,
accepting the observed parallax and the earth’s ellipticity, we could find by
observation the lengths of long arcs on the earth’s surface with high accuracy.

In any case, I believe that the time must shortly come when the photographic
method of finding the moon’s place should be taken up more extensively, whether
it be used for the determination of the moon’s parallax and the earth’s ellipticity
or not. The Greenwich meridian observations have been and continue to be a
wonderful storehouse for long series of observations of the positions of the sun,
moon, planets, and stars. In the United States, Harvard Observatory has
adopted the plan of securing continuous photographic records of the sky with
particular reference to photometric work. Under Professor Pickering it will
also continue the photographic record of the moon’s position as long as arrange-
amg can be made to measure the plates and compute the moon’s position from
them.

318 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

In spite of the fact that Harvard Observatory has undertaken to continue for
the present the work of photographing the moon’s position, I believe that this
method should find a permanent home in a national observatory. It has already
shown itself capable of producing the accuracy which the best modern observa-
tions of Greenwich can furnish, and no higher praise need be given. If this home
could be found in the southern hemisphere, and more particularly in Australia,
other advantages would accrue. ;

But we should look for more than this. In an observatory whose first duty
might be the securing of the best daily records of the sky, the positions of the
sun, stars, planets, a couple of plates of the moon on every night when she is
visible would be a small matter. What is needed is an organisation so con-
structed as to be out of the reach of changing governmental policy with a
permanent appropriation and a staff of the highest character removed from all
political influences. It could render immense service to astronomers, not only in
the Empire but all over the world. The pride which every Englishman feels who
has to work with the records of the past furnished by Greenwich would in course
of time arise from the work of a similar establishment elsewhere. Those of us
who live in a community which, reckoning by the age of nations, is new, know
that, in order to achieve objects which are not material, sacrifices must be made;
but we also know that such sacrifices are beneficial, not only in themselves, but
as exerting an indirect influence in promoting the cause of higher education and
of scientific progress in every direction. In saying this I am not advocating the
cause of the few, but of the majority; the least practical investigations of yester-
day are continually becoming of the greatest practical value to-day.

No address before this section is complete without some speculation and a
glance towards the future. I shall indulge in both to some small extent before
closing. I have shown you what the outstanding residuals in the moon’s motion
are: they consist mainly of long-period fluctuations in the mean longitude. I
have not mentioned the secular changes because the evidence for them does not
rest on modern observations but on ancient eclipses, and these are matters too
debatable to discuss in the limited time allotted to me for this address. It may
be said, however, that the only secular motion which is capable of being deter-
mined from the modern observations and is not affected by the discussion of
ancient eclipses—namely, the secular motion of the perigee—agrees with its
theoretical value well within the probable error. With this remark I pass to the
empirical terms.

These unexplained differences between theory and observation may be
separated into two parts. First, Newcomb’s term of period between 250 and 300
years and coefficient 13/, and, second, the fluctuations which appear to have an
approximate period of 60 to 70 years. The former appears to be more important
than the latter, but from the investigator’s point of view it is less so. The force
depends on the degree of inclination of the curve to the zero line or on the
curvature, according to the hypothesis made. In either case the shorter period
term is much more striking, and, as I have pointed out on several occasions, it is
much more likely to lead to the sources of these terms than the longer period.
It is also, at least for the last sixty years, much better determined from observa-
tion, and is not likely to be confounded with unknown secular changes.

Various hypotheses have been advanced within the last few years to account
for these terms. Some of them postulate matter not directly observed or matter
with unknown constants; others, deviations of the Newtonian law from its
exact expression; still others, non-gravitational forces. M. St. Blancat °
examines a variety of cases of intramercurial planets and arrives at the conclusion
that such matter, if it exists, must have a mass comparable with that of Mercury.
Some time ago I examined the same hypothesis and arrived at similar results.
The smallest planet with density four times that of water, which would produce
the long inequality. must have a disc of nearly 2” in its transit across the sun
and a still larger planet would be necessary to produce the shorter period terms.
But observational attempts, particularly those made by Perrine and Campbell,
have always failed to detect any such planet, and Professor Campbell is of the
opinion that a body with so large a disc could hardly have been overlooked. If

® Annales de la Faculté des Sciences de Toulouse, 1907.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 319

we fall back on a swarm instead of a single body, we replace one difficulty by
two. The light from such a swarm would be greater than that from a single
body, and would therefore make detection more likely. If the swarm were more
diffused we encounter the difficulty that it would not be held together by its
own attraction, and would therefore soon scatter into a ring; such a ring
cannot give periodic changes of the kind required.

The shading of gravitation by interposing matter, e.g. at the time of
eclipses, has been examined by Bottlinger." For one reason alone, I believe this
is very doubtful. It is difficult to see how new periodicities can be produced ;
the periods should be combinations of those already present in the moon’s
motion. The sixty to seventy years’ fluctuation stands out in this respect
because its period is not amywhere near any period present in the moon’s
motion or any probable combination of the moon’s periods. Indeed
Dr. Bottlinger’s curve shows this: there is no trace of the fluctuation.

Some four years ago I examined’ a number of hypotheses. The motions of the
magnetic field of the earth and of postulated fields on the moon had to be
rejected, mainly because they caused impossible increases in the mean motion
of the perigee. An equatorial ellipticity of the sun’s mass, combined with a
rotation period very nearly oné month in length, appeared to be the best of
these hypotheses. The obvious objections to it are, first, that such an ellip-
ticity, small as it can be (about 1/20,000), is difficult to understand on physical
grounds, and, second, that the rotation period of the nucleus which might be
supposed to possess this elliptic shape in the sun’s equator is a quantity which
is so doubtful that it furnishes no help from observation, although the observed
periods are well within the required limits. Dr. Hale’s discovery of the
magnetic field of the sun is of interest in this connection. Such a field, of
non-uniform strength, and rotating with the sun, is mathematically exactly
equivalent to an equatorial ellipticity of the sun’s mass, so that the hypothesis
might stand from the mathematical point of view, the expression of the
symbols in words being alone different.

The last-published hypothesis is that of Professor Turner,? who assumes
that the Leonids have finite mass and that a big swarm of them periodically
disturbs the moon as the orbits of the earth and the swarm intersect. I had
examined this myself last summer, but rejected it because, although it
explained the straight line appearance of the curve of fluctuations, one of the
most important of the changes of direction in this curve was not accounted
for. We have the further difficulty that continual encounters with the earth
will spread the swarm along its orbit, so that the swarm with this idea
should be a late arrival and its periodic effect on the moon’s motion of
diminishing amplitude; with respect to the latter, the observed amplitude
seems rather to have increased.

The main objection to all these ideas consists in the fact that they stand
alone: there is as yet little or no collateral evidence from other sources.
The difficulty, in fact, is not that of finding an hypothesis to fit the facts,
but of selecting one out of many. The last hypothesis which I shall mention
is one which is less definite than the others, but which does appear to have
some other evidence in its favour. :

The magnetic forces, mentioned above, were changes in the directions of
assumed magnetic fields. If we assume changes in the intensities of the fields
themselves, we avoid the difficulties of altering portions of the moon’s motion
other than that of the mean motion. We know that the earth’s magnetic
field varies and that the sun has such a field, and there is no inherent impro-
bability in attributing similar fields to the moon and the planets. If we
assume that variations in the strength of these fields arise in the sun and are
communicated to the other bodies of the solar system, we should expect fluctua-
tions having the same period and of the same or opposite phase but differing in
magnitude. It therefore becomes of interest to search for fluctuations in
the motions of the planets similar to that found in the moon’s orbit. The
material in available form for this purpose is rather scanty; it needs to be

’ Diss., Freiburg i. Br., 1912. 8 Amer. Jour. -Sc., vol. 29.
® Monthly Notices, December 1913. -

320 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

a long series of observations reduced on a uniform plan. The best I know
is in Newcomb’s ‘ Astronomical Constants.’ He gives there the material for
the earth arranged in groups of a few years at a time. The results for
Mercury, given for another purpose, can also be extracted from the same
place. For Venus and Mars, Newcomb unfortunately only printed the normal
equations from which he deduces the constants of the orbit.

On the screen is shown a slide (see below) which exhibits the results for the
Earth and Mercury compared with those for the moon. In the uppermost
curve are reproduced the minor fluctuations of the moon shown earlier; the
second curve contains those of the earth’s longitude; the third, those of
Mercury’s longitude. [By accident the mean motion correction has been left
in the Earth curve; the zero line is therefore inclined instead of being

4 ee
° we
$i veaees
° Moon Bo gee ervece sot ae
2 oF Ont C c .
- ° e 5 °
° s 5 one) re eo f
oue*) el ro ° ° . °
. le °° aia ° °
Oo}, SS SST —h_ P | a
aoe ° 2 2 a A °
~ @
. 6 ie ° + .
aie ‘2 ee Nek code ° £
e ail waaay OP
=A: °

+0'5
MERCURY Bet we
vd Cae DS ve:
a | = ye
= “N -?-- —
a ee Mg
o Pie
oe 1?)
'
MAN
ul
1750 1800 1850 1900

horizontal.] It will be noticed that the scales are different and that the
Earth curve is reversed. In spite of the fact that the probable errors of the
results in the second and third curves are not much less than their diver-
gencies from a straight line, I think that the correlation exhibited is of some
significance. If it is, we have here a force whose period, if period in the
strict sense it has, is the same as that of the effect: the latter is not then
a resonance from combination with another period. We must therefore look
for some kind of a surge spreading through the solar system and affecting
planets and satellites the same way but to different degrees.

The lowest curve is an old friend, that of Wolf’s sunspot frequency, put
there, not for that reason, but because the known connection for the last sixty
years between sunspot frequency and prevalence of magnetic disturbance

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 321

enables us with fair probability to extend the latter back to 1750. With some
change of phase the periods of high and low maxima correspond nearly with
the fluctuations above. The eleven-year oscillation is naturally eliminated
from the group results for the Earth and Mercury. One might expect it to
be present in the lunar curve, but owing to its shorter period we should
probably not obtain a coefficient of over half-a-second. Notwithstanding this
fact, it is a valid objection to the hypothesis that there is no evidence of it
in the moon’s motion. Reasons may exist for this: but until the mechanism
of the action can be made more definite it is hardly worth while to belabour
the point.

The hypothesis presents many difficulties. Even if one is disposed to admit
provisionally a correlation between the four curves—and this is open to con-
siderable doubt—it is difficult to understand how, under the electron theory
of magnetic storms, the motions of moon and planets can be sensibly affected.
I am perhaps catching at straws in attempting to relate two such different
phenomena with one another, but when we are in the presence of anomalies
which show points of resemblance and which lack the property of analysis
into strict periodic sequences some latitude may be permissible.

In conclusion, what, it may well be asked, is the future of the lunar theory
now that the gravitational effects appear to have been considered in such
detail that further numerical work in the theory is not likely to advance our
knowledge very materially? What good purpose is to be served by continuous
observation of the moon and comparison with the theory? I believe that the
answer lies mainly in the investigation of the fluctuations already mentioned.
I have not referred to other periodic terms which have been found because
the observational evidence for their real existence rests on foundations much
less secure. These need to be examined more carefully, and this examination
must, I think, depend mainly on future observations rather than on the records
of the past. Only by the greatest care in making the observations and in
eliminating systematic and other errors from them can these matters be fully
elucidated. If this can be achieved and if the new theory and tables serve,
as they should, to eliminate all the known effects of gravitation, we shall
be in a position to investigate with some confidence the other forces which
seem to be at work in the solar system and at which we can now only guess.
Assistance should be afforded by observations of the sun and planets, but
the moon is nearest to us and is, chiefly on that account, the best instrument
for their detection. Doubtless other investigations will arise in the future.
But the solution of the known problems is still to be sought, and the laying
of the coping stone on the edifice reared through the last two centuries can-
not be a simple matter. Even our abler successors will hardly exclaim, with
Hotspur,

‘ By heaven, methinks, it were an easy leap
To pluck bright honour from the pale-faced moon.’

They, like us and our predecessors, must go through long and careful investi-
gations to find out the new truths before they have solved our difficulties, and
in their turn they will discover new problems to solve for those who follow
them :—

‘For the fortune of us, that are the moon’s men, doth ebb and flow like
the sea, being governed, as the sea is, by the moon.’

1914. 7

322 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—Professor Witu1am J. Porn, M.A.,
BUD. SRS:

MELBOURNE.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 14.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Tue British Association has been firmly established as one of the institutions
of our Empire for more than half a century past. The powerful hold which
it has acquired probably arises from the welcome which every worker in science
extends to an occasional cessation of his ordinary routine—a respite during
which the details of the specific inquiry in hand may be temporarily cast aside,
and replaced by leisurely discussion with colleagues on the broader issues of
scientific progress.

The investigator, continually occupied with his own problems and faced with
an ever-increasing mass of technical literature, ordinarily finds little time for
reflection upon the real meaning of his work; he secures, in general, far too
few opportunities of considering in a philosophical sort of way the past, present,
and future of his own particular branch of scientific activity. It is not difficult
to form a fairly accurate survey of the position to which Chemistry had attained
a generation ago, perhaps even a few years ago; probably no intellect at
present existing could pronounce judgment upon the present position of our
science in terms which would commend themselves to the historian of the
twenty-first century. Doubtless even one equipped with a complete knowledge
of all that has been achieved, standing on the very frontier of scientific advance
and peering into the surrounding darkness, would be quite incompetent to
make any adeauate forecast of the conquests which will be made by chemical
and physical science during the next fifty years. At the same time, chemical
history tells us that progress is the result in large measure of imperfect attempts
to appreciate the present and to forecast the future. I therefore propose to lay
before you a sketch of the present position of certain branches of chemical
knowledge and to discuss the directions in which progress is to be sought; none
of us dare cherish the conviction that his views on such matters are correct, but
everyone desirous of contributing towards the development of his science must
attempt an appreciation of this kind. The importance to the worker and to
the subject of free ventilation and discussion of the point of view taken by the
individual can scarcely be over-estimated.

The two sciences of Chemistry and Physics were at one time included as
parts of the larger subject entitled Natural Philosophy, but in the early part
of the nineteenth century they drew apart. Under the stimulus of Dalton’s
atomic theory, Chemistry developed into a study of the interior of the molecule,
and, as a result of the complication of the observed phenomena, progressed from
stage to stage as a closely reasoned mass of observed facts and logical con-
clusions. Physics, less entangled in its infancy with numbers of experimental
data which apparently did not admit of quantitative correlation, was developed
largely as a branch of applied mathematics; such achievements of the formal

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 32D

Physics of the last century as the mathematical theory of light and the kinetic
theory of gases are monuments to the powers of the human intellect.

The path of Chemistry, as an application of pure logical argument to the
interpretation of complex masses of observations, thus gradually diverged from
that taken by Physics as the mathematical treatment of less involved experi-
mental data, although both subjects derived their impetus to development from
the speculations of genius.

It is interesting to note, however, that during recent years the two sciences,
which were so sharply distinguished twenty years ago as to lead to mutual
misunderstandings, are now converging. Many purely chemical questions have
received such full quantitative study that the results are susceptible to attack
by the methods of the mathematical physicist; on the other hand, the intense
complication perceived during the fuller examination of many physical problems
has led to their interpretation by the logical argument of the chemist because
the traditional mathematical mode of attack of the physicist has proved power-
less to deal with the intricacies exhibited by the observed facts.

The progress of Chemistry during the last century has been mainly the result
of the co-ordination of observed facts in accordance with a series of hypotheses
each closely related in point of time to the one preceding it. The atomic theory,
as it was enunciated by Dalton in 1803, was a great impetus to chemical investi-
gation, but proved insufficient to embrace all the known facts; it was supple-
mented in 1813 by Avogadro’s theorem—that equal volumes of gases contain the
same numbers of molecules at the same temperature and pressure. These two
important theoretical developments led to the association of a definite physical
meaning with the idea of molecular composition, but ultimately proved
insufficient for the interpretation of the ever-increasing mass of chemical know-
ledge collected under their stimulus. A further great impetus followed the
introduction by Frankland and Kekulé, in 1852 onwards, of the idea of valency
and the mode of building up constitutional formule; the conception of molecular
constitution thus arose as a refinement on the Daltonian notion of molecular
composition. In course of time the theoretical scheme once more proved
insufficient to accommodate the accumulated facts, until, in 1874, van ’t Hoff
and Le Bel demonstrated the all-important part which molecular configuration
plays in the interpretation of certain classes of phenomena known to the
organic Chemist.

During the early days of chemical science—those of Dalton’s time and perhaps
also those of Frankland and Kekulé—we can believe that chemical theory may
have lacked the physical reality which it now seems to us to present; the
attitude of our predecessors towards the theoretical interpretation of their
observations was rather that described by Plato: ‘as when men in a dark
cavern judge of external objects by the shadows which they cast into the
cavern.’ In the writings of the most clear-sighted of our forerunners we can
detect an underlying suspicion of a possibility that, at some time or other, the
theory by means of which chemical observations are held together may undergo
an entire reconstruction; a very few years ago Ostwald made a determined
attempt to treat our science without the aid of the molecular hypothesis, and
indeed suggested the desirability of giving the Daltonian atomic theory decent
burial.

The last ten years or so has seen a change in this attitude. The development
of Organic Chemistry has revealed so complete a correspondence between the
indications of the conception of molecular constitution and configuration and
the observed facts, and recent work on the existence of the molecule, largely
in connection with colloids, with radioactivity, and with crystal structure, is so
free from ambiguity, that persistence of doubt seems unreasonable. Probably
most chemists are prepared to regard the present doctrine of chemical consti-
tution and configuration as proven; although they may turn a dim vision
towards the next great development, they have few misgivings as to the stability
of the position which has already been attained.

Let us consider how far the study of Organic Chemistry has hitherto led us;
we may pass over the gigantic achievements of those who in past generations
determined constitution and performed syntheses, thus making the subject
one of the most perfect examples of scientific classification which exist, and turn

x 2

324 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

to the question of molecular configuration. In 1815 Biot observed that certain
liquid organic substances deflect the plane of polarisation of a transmitted ray
of light either to the right or to the left; half-a-century later Pasteur and
Paternd pointed the obvious conclusion, namely, that the right- or left-handed
deviation thus exerted must be due to a corresponding right- or left-handedness
in the configuration of the chemical molecule. A scheme representing such right-
or left-handedness, or enantiomorphism, was first enunciated by van ’t Hoff and
Le Bel upon the basis of the previously established doctrine of chemical con-
stitution ; briefly stated, the idea suggested was that the methane molecule, CH,,
was not to be regarded as extended in a plane in the manner represented by the
Frankland-Kekulé constitutional formula, but as built up symmetrically in three-
dimensional space. The carbon atom of the methane molecule thus occupies the
centre of a regular tetrahedron, of which the apices are replaced by the four
hydrogen atoms. A methane derivative, in which one carbon is separately
attached to four different univalent atoms or radicles of the type CXYZW,
should thus exist in two enantiomorphous configurations, one exhibiting right-
and the other left-handedness. The inventors of this daringly mechanistic inter-
pretation of the far less concrete constitutional formule were able to interpret
immediately a large number of known facts, previously incomprehensible, by
means of their extension of the Frankland-Kekulé view of constitution. They
showed that every substance then known, which in the liquid state exhibited
so-called optical activity, could be regarded as a derivative of methane in which
the methane carbon atom was attached to four different univalent atoms or
groups of atoms; a methane carbon atom so associated is termed an asymmetric
carbon atom. It is of interest to note that the van ’t Hoff-Le Bel deduction
resulted from the discussion of the behaviour of organic substances of some
molecular complexity; the optically active substances then known were
mostly the products of animal or vegetable life, and among them none occurs
which contains less than three carbon atoms in the molecule. Lactic acid,
CH, . CH(OH).CO.OH, is practically the most simple optically active sub-
stance of natural occurrence; it contains twelve atoms in the molecule, and it has
only recently been found possible to associate optical activity with a much
more simply constituted substance, namely, chloriodomethanesulphonic acid
CHCII.SO,H, the molecule of which contains less than 5 per cent. of carbon
and only nine atoms, four more than the minimum number, five, which
theoretically can give rise to optical activity.*

The working out of the practical consequences of the doctrine of the tetra-
hedral configuration of the methane carbon atom by von Baeyer, Emil Fischer,
and Wislicenus is now a matter of history; the acquisition of masses of experi-
mental data, broad in principle and minute in detail, placed the van *t Hoff-
Le Bel hypothesis beyond dispute. The rapid growth of Organic Chemistry as
a classified subject contrasted strongly with that of Inorganic Chemistry, in
which the collection of a great variety of detailed knowledge incapable of far-
reaching logical correlation formed the most striking feature; in fact, the exten-
sion of the conclusion, proven in the case of carbon compounds, that the
Frankland-Kekulé constitutional formule must be translated into terms of three-
dimensional space, to compounds of elements other than carbon, did not imme-
diately follow the application of the theory to this element. Twenty years ago,
indeed, the idea prevailed that carbon compounds differed radically from those
of other elements, and we were not prepared to transfer theoretical conclusions
from the organic to the inorganic side of our subject. In 1891, however, Le Bel
stated that he had found optical activity associated with asymmetry of a
quinquevalent nitrogen atom; although the experimental work upon which this
conclusion was founded is now known to be incorrect,” the conception thus put
forward was important, as suggesting that the notion of space-configuration could
not be restricted logically to methane derivatives. When it was proved in 1899
that benzylphenylallylmethylammonium iodide could exist in a right- and left-
handed configuration, it became necessary to admit that the spacial arrangement
of the parts of a chemical molecule, previously restricted to methane derivatives,
must be extended to ammonium salts.*

1 Pope and Read, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1914, 105, 811. 2 Tbid., 1912, 101, 519.
3 Pope and Peachey, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1899, '75, 1127.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 325

The demonstration that optical activity, or enantiomorphism, of molecular con-
figuration is associated not only with the presence of an asymmetric quadrivalent
carbon atom, but also with that of a nitrogen atom attached to five different
radicles, was the result of an improvement of technique in connection with the
study of optical activity; previously the resolution into optically active compo-
nents of a potentially optically active basic substance had been attempted with
the aid of naturally occurring optically active weak acids of the general type of
d-tartaric acid. The application of the strong d- and J-bromocamphorsulphonic
acids and the d- and /-camphorsulphonic acids to such purposes rendered
possible the isolation of the optically active substances containing no asymmetric
atom other than one of quinquevalent nitrogen. The resolution of asymmetric
quaternary ammonium salts of the kind indicated was rapidly followed by the
preparation of optically active substances in which the enantiomorphism is asso-
ciated with the presence of an asymmetric sulphur, selenium, tin, phosphorus, or
silicon atom; compounds of the following constitutions were thus obtained in
optically active modifications :—

CTE ssi CE 42 Oy! CH, C.H, CH,
ee a Seis 74
N Ss Se -
Apietmi a: PS Ps
C,H, CH, cl CH,.CcO.0H cl CO . C,H,
I
C.H H, C,H, CH,

E Cc
ate ea

lle eS
H, I 0)

C, CH,

CH, C,H,

|
S0,H . C,H, . CH,. Si. 0. Si. CH,. C,H,. SO,H.

| |
C,H, C,H,

In all this work, and amongst all the varied classes of optically active com-
pounds prepared, it was in every instance possible to indicate one particular
quadrivalent or quinquevalent atom in the molecule which is separately attached
to four or five different atoms or radicles; the enantiomorphism of molecular con-
figuration may be detected, in fact, by the observation that such an asymmetric
atom is present. It must, however, be insisted that the observed optical activity
is the result of the enantiomorphism of the molecular configuration; the asym-
metry of a particular atom is not to be regarded as the cause of the optical
activity but merely as a convenient geometrical sign of molecular enantio-
morphism. In 1874 van ’t Hoff realised that molecular enantiomorphism and
optical activity might conceivably exist without the presence of an asymmetric
carbon atom, and suggested that compounds of the type

@ C
No:c: 0d
o7 Na

should be of this kind. Previously this particular case had escaped realisation
experimentally, but an example fulfilling similar conditions was described in
: in this year the d- and J-isomerides of 1-methyleyclohexylidene-4-acctic
acid,

CH CH, . CH H
og ast NEO |
H/ \cH,.CH,” \cCO.0H

were obtained.4 The consideration of the constitution of these substances shows

4 Perkin, Pope, and Wallach, Z'rans. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95, 1789; Perkin and Pope,
Trans. Chem. Soc., 1911, 99, 1510.

326 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

no carbon atom which is attached to four different groups, but a study of the
solid model representing the molecular configuration built up in accordance with
the van ’t Hoff-Wislicenus conclusions reveals the enantiomorphism.

It is of some importance to note that the configurations assigned to such
optically active substances as have been mentioned above, on the basis of the
experimental evidence, are of as symmetrical a character as the conditions
permit; the Kekulé formula for methane, CH,, in which all five atoms lie in
the same plane, is not of so highly symmetrical a character as the van ’t Hoff-
Le Bel configuration in which the four hydrogen atoms are situate at the apices
of a regular tetrahedron described about the carbon atom as centre. Some
influence seems to be operative which tends to distribute the component radicles
in an unsymmetrical molecule in as symmetrical a manner as possible; recent
work indicates, however, that this is not always true. During the past few
years Mills and Bain * have shown that the synthetic substance of the constitution

CH, CH, . CH
"Sof No: N. 0H
HY \cH,. CH,

can be resolved into optically active modifications. The conclusion is thus
forced upon us that the trivalent nitrogen atom in such compounds is not
environed in the most symmetrical manner possible by the surrounding com-
ponents of the molecule; the experimental verification which the conclusions of
Hantzsch and Werner, concerning the isomerism of the oximes, thus derive,
constitutes the first really direct evidence justifying their acceptance.

Quite recently, and by the application largely of the optically active powerful
sulphonic acids derived from camphor, Werner has made another great advance
in connection with the subject of optical activity. He has obtained a number
of complex compounds of chromium, cobalt, iron, and rhodium in optically active
modifications.

The foregoing brief statement probably suffices to indicate the progress
which has been made during the last twenty years in demonstrating that the
atoms or radicles associated in the chemical molecule do not lie in one plane
but are disposed about certain constituent atoms in three-dimensional space;
careful study of the present stage of progress shows that we must attribute to
molecular configuration, as determined by modern chemical methods, a very
real significance. It can no longer be supposed to possess the purely diagram-
matic character which attached to the Frankland-Kekulé constitutional formule ;
it seems to be proved that the men who developed the doctrine of valency were
not merely pursuing an empirical mode of classification, capable of various modes
of physical interpretation, but were devising the main scheme of a correct
mechanical model of the chemical universe.

The development of a branch of science such as that now under discussion
is, to a considerable extent, an artistic pursuit; it calls for the exercise of
manipulative skill, of a knowledge of materials, and of originality of conception,
which probably originate in intuition and empiricism, but must be applied with
scientific acumen and logical judgment. For reasons of this kind many gaps
occur in our present knowledge of the subject; although so many important
conclusions find an unshakable foundation on facts relating to optical activity,
we have as yet no clear idea as to why substances of enantiomorphous molecular
configuration exhibit optical activity. Great masses of quantitative data
referring to optical activity have been accumulated; something has been done
towards their correlation by Armstrong, Frankland, Pickard, Lowry, and
others, but we still await from the mathematical physicist a theory of optical
activity comparable in quantitative completeness to the electro-magnetic theory
of light. Until we get such a theory it seems unlikely that much further
progress will be made in interpreting quantitative determinations of rotation
constants.

That aspect of stereochemistry which has just been so briefly reviewed
represents a situation which has been attained during the natural development

‘Trans. Chem. Soc., 1910, 97, 1866.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 327

of Organic Chemistry by methods which have now become traditional; progress
has been made by the application of strictly logical methods of interpretation
to masses of experimental data, and each new conclusion has been checked and
verified by the accumulation of fresh contributions in the laboratory. The
sureness of the methods adopted could not fail to lead to the intrusion of
stereochemistry into adjacent fields of scientific activity; bio-chemistry, the
study of the chemical processes occurring in living organisms, is already largely
dominated by stereochemistry, and the certainty with which stereochemistry has
inspired us as to the reality of the molecular constitution of matter is exerting
a powerful influence in other branches of natural science. Quite possibly,
however, the acquaintance which every chemist possesses of the great progress
already made upon one particular set of lines is to some extent an obstacle
to his appreciation of new directions in which further great stereochemical
advances may be anticipated.

A little reflection will show that the study of the relation between the
crystalline form and chemical constitution or configuration of substances in
general may confidently be expected to lead to important extensions of our
knowledge of the manner in which the atoms are arranged in molecular com-
plexes. The earlier crystallographic work of the nineteenth century led to the
conclusion that each substance affects some particular crystalline form, that the
regular external crystalline shape is an expression of the internal structure of
the crystal, and that a determination of the simpler properties—geometrical,
optical, and the like—of a crystalline material constitutes a mode of completely
characterising the substance. Later work during the last century demonstrated
that the properties of crystalline substances are in entire harmony with a simple
assumption as to the manner in which the units or particles of the material
are arranged; the assumption is that the arrangement is a geometrically
‘homogeneous’ one, namely, an arrangement in which similar units are uni-
formly repeated throughout the structure, corresponding points presenting every-
where a similar environment. The assumption of homogeneity of structure
imposes a definite limitation upon the kinds of arrangement which are possible
in crystals: it leads to the inquiry as to how many types of homogeneous
arrangement of points in space are possible, and to the identification of these
types with the known classes of crystal symmetry. The final conclusion has
been attained that there are 230 geometrically homogeneous modes of distributing
units, or points representing material particles, throughout space; these, the
so-called 230 homogeneous ‘point-systems,’ fall into the thirty-two types of
symmetry exhibited by crystalline solids. The solution of the purely geometrical
problem here involved was commenced by Frankenheim in 1830, and finally
completed by Barlow in 1894; it brings us face to face with the much larger
stereochemical problem—that of determining what the units are which become
homogeneously arranged in the crystal, why they become so arranged, and in
what way a connection can be established between chemical constitution and
crystal structure.

Since the conception of homogeneity of structure alone is clearly insufficient
for the interpretation of the more advanced problem, some further assumption
must be made as a foundation for any really comprehensive attempt to collate
the quantities of isolated facts bearing upon the subject. Of the many assump-
tions which have been made in this connection only one, which may now be
stated, has as yet proved fruitful in the sense that it serves to correlate large
numbers of known experimental facts, and that it indicates the way to the
discovery of fresh facts. The assumption is that each atom in a crystalline
structure acts as a centre of operation of two opposing forces: (a) a repellent
force, attributable to the kinetic energy of the atom, and (b) an attractive
force, both forces, like gravity, being governed by some inverse distance law.
Such an assumption forms an essential part of the classical work of Clerk
Maxwell and van der Waals on the kinetic theory of gases and liquids. Its
application to solid crystalline substances, where it must be applied in con-
junction with the principle of structural homogeneity, was made by Barlow
and myself in 1906.

The operation of the assumption just stated is readily visualised by con-
sidering the simplest possible case, that, namely, of a crystalline element each

328 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

molecule of which consists of but one atom and in which all the atoms are
similar. Consideration of this kind of case shows that the set of identically
similar centres of attracting and opposing forces will be in equilibrium when
one particular simple condition is fulfilled; the condition is that, with a given
density of packing of the centres, the distance separating nearest centres is a
maximum. Two homogeneous arrangements of points fulfil this. condition, and
these exhibit the symmetry of the cubic and the hexagonal crystalline systems.

Since the nature of the two arrangements of points is not easily realised by
mere inspection, the systems must be presented in some alternative form for
the purpose of more clearly demonstrating their properties; this is done con-
veniently by imagining each point in either arrangement to swell as a sphere
until contact is made with the neighbouring points. The two arrangements then
become those shown in Figs. 1 and 2, and are distinguished as the cubic and
the hexagonal closest-packed assemblages of equal spheres; they differ from
all other homogeneous arrangements in presenting maximum closeness of packing
of the component spheres. The equilibrium condition previously remarked—
that, with a given density of distribution of the force centres in space, the
distance separating nearest centres is a maximum——is revealed in the assemblages
of spheres as the condition that the spheres are arranged with the maximum
closeness of packing.

A further step is yet necessary. Each point in the arrangements considered
is regarded as the mean centre of an atom of the crystalline element, but the
assumption originally made states nothing about the magnitude of the atom
itself ; it is therefore convenient to regard the whole of the available space as
filled by the atoms, without interstices. This is conveniently done by imagining
tangent planes drawn at each contact of sphere with sphere, so partitioning
the available space into plane-sided polyhedra, each of which may be described
as the domain of one component atom. The twelve-sided polyhedra thus
derived from the cubic and the hexagonal assemblages represent the solid areas
throughout which each atom exercises a predominant influence in establishing
the equilibrium arrangement.

The two assemblages can now be described in a quantitative manner by
stating the symmetry and also the relative dimensions of each. The cubic
assemblage exhibits symmetry identical with that of the cube or the regular
octahedron, a symmetry characteristic of so-called holohedral cubic crystals;
the relative dimensions in different directions are defined by the symmetry.
The assemblage can, in fact, be referred to three axes parallel to the edges of a
cube, and as these directions are obviously similar in a cube, their ratios are of the
form, a:6:c=1:1:1. This expression indicates that if the assemblage, sup-
posed indefinitely extended through space, is moved by a unit distance in either
of the three rectangular directions a, 6, and c, the effect, as examined from any
point, is as if the assemblage had not been moved at all.

The symmetry of the hexagonal assemblage is identical with that of a
hexagonal prism or of a double hexagonal pyramid, and is that characteristic
of the so-called holohedral, hexagonal, crystalline system; the relative dimen-
sions are no longer defined entirely by the symmetry, and are conveniently stated
as the ratio of the diameter, a, of the prism or pyramid, to the height, c¢, of
the pyramid. The ratio, a:c, for the assemblage of spheres under discussion
can be calculated ; it assumes two forms, corresponding to two modes of selecting
alternative principal diameters of the prism as unit. The alternative ratios are:

a: c=1:1°6330 or a: c=1: 1°4142.

This somewhat lengthy theoretical discussion has now reached a stage at
which it can be applied to the observed facts; the accompanying table (Table I.)
states the mode in which crystalline substances of different degrees of molecular
complexity distribute themselves amongst the various crystal systems. Of the
elements which have been crystallographically examined, 50 per cent. are cubic,
whilst a further 35 per cent. are hexagonal : and consideration of the data for
these latter shows that they exhibit approximately the axial ratios characteristic of
the hexagonal closest-packed assemblage; thus magnesium shows a : c=1: 1:6242,
and arsenic the ratio a: c=1: 1°4025.

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.] PrateE VII.

Fia.

Fig, 1.

Illustrating Professor William J. Pope’s Address to the Chemistry
Section.

[70 face page 328

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 529

Tasie I.
Inorganic Substances, the Number of
Atoms in the Molecule of which is
respectively : Organic
System Sub-
Elements stances
More
2 3 (pe 5 than 5 |
Per cent.| |
Cubic . * . : . 50 | 685 | 42 5 | 12 5.8 2.5
Hexagonal . . . . 35 | 19°5/] 11 3538 14°6 4:0
Metragonal . 3. sll. 5 4:5 | 19 5 | 66 7 50
Orthorhombic . s ae 3°0 | 23:5 | 50 36 273 34:0
Monosymmetric . . . 5 4:5 3 5 6 37°3 475
Anorthic 2 3 0 15 0 2 8 7:0
Number of cases examined
for each vertical column 140 67 63 20 50 673 585

Whilst the crystal structure of some 85 per cent. of the crystalline elements
seems to be in general agreement with the simple assumption of equilibrium
which has been made, the divergence presented by about 15 per cent. of the
elements still awaits explanation. The previous discussion applies to the
theoretically simple case of a monoatomic element; many of the elements are,
however, certainly polyatomic. Imagine, therefore, that in the crystal structure,
agreeing with the cubic or hexagonal arrangement just described, the similar
atoms are grouped to form complex molecules, each containing two or more
atoms; the geometrical effect of this grouping, if any, should be, first, to
degrade the symmetry of the structure, and, secondly, to slightly alter its
relative dimensions. It would therefore be expected that if the elements which
are neither cubic nor hexagonal owe their departure from those systems to
molecular aggregation, the crystal dimensions should approximate closely to those
of the two ideal assemblages ; this is, indeed, found to be the case. Monosymmetric
sulphur, for instance, exhibits the axial ratios, a:b : c=0-9958: 1: 0:9988,
B=95° 46’; the relative dimensions in the three directions, a, b, and c, are
almost the same as in the cubic system, and the angle between the directions
a and c is B=95° 46’, instead of 90°. This substance has nearly the dimensions
of a cubic crystal, and is obviously ‘ pseudo-cubic ’; the same is true of all other
elements which depart from true cubic or hexagonal symmetry.

The crystalline forms presented by the elements are consequently in accordance
with the assumption that the crystal structures are equilibrium arrangements of
the component atoms of the two kinds described. It is also indicated that
aggregation of the atoms to form molecular complexes is responsible for the
departure from simple cubic or hexagonal symmetry; in this connection it is
interesting to note that the strongly coloured elements depart most widely from
these two systems. Thus, the colourless modifications of carbon and phosphorus
are cubic, whilst the black graphite is monosymmetric and the red phosphorus is
orthorhombic in crystal form; this is in accordance with the general view that
colour is the result of some particular kind .of molecular aggregation.

Although so much general correspondence of a quantitative character is to be
observed between the observed facts and the anticipations developed from the
equilibrium assumption, it has become evident during the last year or two that
the conception formed as to the nature of the equilibrium which determines the
arrangement of the atoms in a crystalline element is of too simple a character.
In 1912 Laue showed that on passing a narrow pencil of X-rays through a crystal
plate the emergent rays were capable of forming a regular, geometrical pattern of
spots upon a photographic plate placed to receive the emergent beam; the pattern
of spots thus produced was in agreement with the symmetry of the direction in
the crystal plate in which the beam was passed. This discovery was developed
and very considerably extended by Bragg, who was able to show that an X-ray

330 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

beam undergoes reflection at the surface of a crystal plate. The interpretation
of the novel results indicates that the homogeneous crystal structure acts upon
the X-ray beam much as a solid diffraction grating might be expected to do, and
that each deflected transmitted ray is a reflection from one set of parallel planes
of atoms in the crystal.

The experimental and theoretical study of the X-ray effects has been prose-
cuted with brilliant success by W. H. and W. L. Bragg, the result being that a
method is now available which makes it possible to determine, with very great
probability, the actual arrangement of the constituent atoms in crystal structure.
Sufficient time has not yet elapsed for the thorough exploitation of this new
and fruitful field of research, but many data are available already for com-
parison with the conclusions drawn from the consideration of the equilibria
possible in crystal structures; it is found that the two methods do not at once lead
to identical conclusions. Thus, in accordance with the first method, the structure
of the diamond would be indicated as some slight modification of the cubic
closest-packed assemblage of equal spheres, the modification consisting in the
main of a grouping of sets of atoms which leads to the partial cubic symmetry
which the diamond apparently exhibits; one particular mode of grouping which
leads to the required result consists in supposing the carbon atoms formed into
sets of four, tetrahedrally arranged, two oppositely orientated sets of such tetra-
hedral groups being distinguished. If each of these tetrahedral groups be
replaced by a single point situated at the group-centre, the structure which the
Bragg experiments indicate for the diamond is obtained.

The simple geometrical relationship which thus exists between the two sug-
gested structures for diamond raises a suspicion that the particular form in which
the assumption of equilibrium is stated requires qualification : that possibly the
domain of the carbon atom when packed with others, as in the diamond, does
not become converted into a rhombic dodecahedron, but into a polyhedron roughly
tetrahedral in shape.

Leaving this particular point for the moment and turning again to Table T.,
it is seen that the binary compounds, like the elements, also tend to crystallise in
the cubic or hexagonal systems; the axial ratios of the hexagonal binary com-
pounds approximate very closely to the value, a: c=1:1-°6330, calculated for the
closest-packed, hexagonal assemblage of equal spheres. The values of c/a for
all the known cases are : BeO—1:6365, ZnO —1-:6077, ZnS—1:6350, CdS—1-6218,
and AgI—1-6392.

Assemblages representing the crystal structures of the cubic and hexagonal
binary compounds may be derived from the two closest-packed assemblages of
similar spheres already described, by homogeneously replacing one half of the
spheres by different ones of the same size. The degrees of symmetry presented
by these arrangements are not so high as those of the unsubstituted assemblages ;
this is in accordance with the fact that the crystals themselves have not the full
symmetry of the holohedral cubic or hexagonal system. Thus, on warming a
hexagonal crystal of silver iodide, one end of the principal axis e¢ becomes
positively, and the other negatively, electrified. The axis c is thus a polar axis,
having different properties at its two ends; this axis will be found to be polar in
the model. Again, when hexagonal silver iodide is heated to 145°, it changes
its crystalline form and becomes cubic; this so-called polymorphous change can
be imitated in the hexagonal model by slightly shifting each pair of layers of
spheres in the assemblage.

A very close agreement thus exists between the properties of the assemblages
deduced and the observed properties of those binary compounds which crystallise
in the cubic or hexagonal systems. The remaining 12 per cent. or so are not, in
general, pseudo-cubic or pseudo-hexagonal, and it is noteworthy that they com-
prise those binary compounds in which the two component elements have not the
same lowest valency; amongst them are the substances of the compositions,
PbO, FeAs, HgO, AsS, and CuO.

On comparing the structures of the binary crystalline compounds indicated by
the foregoing method of consideration with those deduced by the Braggs, dis-
crepancies are again obvious; again, however, the former assemblage is converted
into the latter by replacing groups of spheres by their group-centres. The rela-
tion thus rendered apparent is once more a suggestion that the type of equilibrium

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 331

conditions originally assumed is too simple. It will be seen, however, that
the Bragg results furnish a proof of one part of the assumption made concerning
equilibrium, namely, that each component atom operates separately; the dis-
cussion of the properties of crystals on the assumption that the crystal structure
may be regarded as built up of similar mass-points, due to the mathematical
physicists of the last century, therefore requires to be reopened. ‘Thus, the
Bragg structure of rock-salt is represented by dividing space into equal cubes by
three sets of parallel planes and replacing the cube corners encountered along the
directions of the cube edges by chlorine and sodium atoms alternately; each
chlorine atom then has six sodium atoms as its nearest and equally distant neigh-
bours. With which of the‘latter the one chlorine atom is associated to form a
molecule of sodium chloride is not apparent from the nature of the crystal
structure.

Time need not be now occupied with the further discussion of the crystalline
structure of simple substances; until the discovery of the X-ray effects thus
briefly described, no direct method of determining those structures was available,
and, in view of the paucity of the experimental data, only the possibilities of
arrangement could be considered in the light of the Barlow-Pope mode of treat-
ment. It will, however, be useful to review some of the results which accrue
from this latter method of regarding the problem of crystal structure in general.

Taking the general standpoint, which is also in accordance with the Bragg
results, that each component atom of a crystalline structure has a separate
spacial existence, and premising that the atomic domains are close-packed in the
assemblage in accordance with some particular type of equilibrium law, it
becomes obvious that crystalline structure presents a volume problem. The law
arrived at after a careful investigation of the subject—the so-called law of
valency volumes—states that in a crystalline structure, the component atoms
occupy domains approximately proportional in volume to the numbers represent-
ing the fundamental valencies of the elements concerned; the student of the
subject of molecular volumes will hardly accept this conclusion without con-
vincing evidence of its correctness—it indicates, for instance, that in crystalline
potassium sulphate, if the atomic volume of potassium is taken as unity, those of
sulphur and oxygen each have the value two. Many different lines of crystal-
lographic argument converge, however, to this law, and, if the latter is in the
end found to be incorrect, it at least represents something fundamental which still
awaits enunciation in a more generally acceptable form. A few illustrative
instances may be quoted.

If valency be a volume property, the relation should be revealed in the
compositions of chemical substances, especially those of composite character.
The sum of the valencies in potassium sulphate, K,SO,, is 12, and in ammonium
sulphate, (NH,),SO,, 24, just twice the number; the two substances are so closely
related that they crystallise together to form ‘solid solutions’ (isomorphous
mixtures). Similarly, in the alums, such as K,SO,+A1,(SO,),+24H,0, the
valencies are 12+36+96; the sum of the valencies of the water present, 96, is
just twice that, 48, of those exhibited by the metallic sulphates. Similar
curious numerical relationships occur in each of the well-defined series of double
salts.

Again, if the valency volume law hold for two substances of different crystal-
line form, such as orthorhombic rubidium nitrate, RbNO,, and rhombohedral
sodium nitrate, NaNO,, the metal, the nitrogen and the oxygen in each com-
pound should have the respective atomic volumes, 1, 3, and 2. As the sub-
stances differ in density the absolute values of the atomic volumes of nitrogen and
oxygen will differ in the two substances as examined at the same temperature;
the ratios of the atomic volumes in either compound should, however, be as
stated. Considering this conclusion in conjunction with the fact that these
crystalline compounds represent symmetrically constructed assemblages, it would
seem that the relative dimensions of the one crystal structure should be traceable
in those of the other. Orthorhombic rubidium nitrate exhibits the axial ratios,
a:b :c=1:7336:1:0°7106, three rectangular co-ordinates, a, b, and c, being
used as the directions of reference; rhombohedral sodium nitrate exhibits
@:c=1: 0°8276, the co-ordinates being three axes, a, making angles of 120° in
one plane, and a fourth axis ¢, perpendicular to a. On converting the axial

302 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

system of sodium nitrate into a simple set of rectangular axes similar to those
used for rubidium nitrate, the value, a: c=1:0°8276, becomes

a:b: c=1:7320: 1: 0°7151.

These values approximate very closely to those obtained by direct measure-
ment of the orthorhombic rubidium salt. It seems difficult to avoid the con-
clusion that the two dissimilar crystalline structures are built up by the arrange-
ment of layers or blocks of the same relative dimensions in two different ways,
the molecule of sodium nitrate, NaNO,, possessing practically the same relative
dimensions as that of rubidium nitrate, RbNO,; this, of course, is in disaccord
with the classic conception of atomic volume, but agrees entirely with the valency
volume law.

Another remarkable body of evidence is found in the interpretation of many
morphotropic relationships between organic and inorganic substances which have
been long recognised but have hitherto eluded interpretation. The description
of one or two cases will make the bearing of the law of valency volumes clear in
this connection.

d-Camphoric anhydride, C,,H,,0,, and d-camphoric acid crystallised with
acetone, C,,H,,0,, 1/2 (CH,),CO, both crystallise in the orthorhombic system
and exhibit the axial ratios stated in the following Table II. :—

TABLE II.

W a 2b: c x y £
CoH.O, - - . « 60 1:0011:1:1°7270 3-2654: 32618; 5°6331
CoH ,0,, 1/2 (CH,),CO . 74 1:2386:1:1°7172 40435 : 3:2646 : 56060

The ratio c/b is approximately the same in the two cases and general
similarity exists between the two crystalline substances. It will be observed
that the values of a/b are very nearly in the ratio of the sums of the valencies,
W, making up the two molecular complexes, namely, 60:74=100: 123. This
and similar cases may be more conveniently discussed with the aid of the so-
called equivalence parameters; these are the edge lengths, x, y, and z, of a
parallelepipedon of which the volume is W, the sum of the valencies in the
molecule, and of which the linear and angular dimensions express the crystal-
lographic axial ratios. Thus, for orthorhombic substance, xyz—W, and
x:y:2=a:6:c; the equivalence parameters of the two substances under dis-
cussion are given in the table, and it will be seen that whilst y and z are almost
identical for the two, the z values differ considerably. This correspondence
indicates clearly that in passing from camphoric anhydride to the acetone com-
pound of the acid the mass added to the molecular complex, H,O+1/2 (CH,),CO,
occupies a volume proportional to the number of valency units which it
contributes to the structure.

A very remarkable relation has been long recognised between the crystalline
forms of the three minerals chondrodite, Mg,(SiO,),, 2Mg(F,OH), humite,
Mg,(Si0,),, 2Mg(F,OH), and clinohumite, Mg,(Si0,),, 2Mg(F,OH) ; the crystal-
line forms are referable to three rectangular directions, a, 6, and c, and the
ratio a: 6 is practically the same for all three minerals. The relationship is at
once elucidated by the law of valency volumes in a simple manner. In the
molecules of the three substances the sums of the valencies of the constituent
atoms are respectively 34, 48, and 62; it follows from the law that these numbers
are proportional to the relative volumes of the several molecules. The ratios,
a: b: ¢, being known, the dimensions can be calculated of solid rectangular
blocks having these volumes and having edge lengths proportional to the axial
ratios, @:b:c. The equivalence parameters, x, y, and z, thus calculated are
given in Table III.; the first observation of importance to be made is that the
equivalence parameters, # and y, remain practically constant throughout the
series of three minerals.

It will be seen that chondrodite and humite, and humite and clinohumite,
differ in molecular composition by the quantity, Mg,(Si0,); they form a series
in which the increment of composition is Mg,(SiO,). Subtracting this incre-
ment from the composition of chondrodite, the residue, Mg,(SiO,), 2Mg(l’,OH),

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 333

is left. This is the composition of the mineral prolectite, and the increment,
Mg,(SiO,), is the composition of the mineral forsterite.

If the law of valency volumes be correct the equivalence parameters of
forsterite should be the z and y of the first three minerals, and a value z which
is the difference between the z values of chondrodite and humite, or of humite
and clinohumite; further, prolectite should have z and y values identical with
those of the other four minerals and a z value which is the difference of the
z values of chondrodite and forsterite. It is thus possible to calculate the
equivalence parameters of forsterite and prolectite without using data deter-
mined on these two minerals, and to compare the values so obtained with those
calculated from the observed axial ratios of forsterite and prolectite. All the
values referred to are given in Table III., and it will be obvious that the agree-
ment between the calculated and the observed equivalence parameters is very
close; as this agreement could not occur without the operation of the law of
valency volumes, which was deduced from entirely different data, strong con-
firmation of the accuracy of the law is provided.

Taste III.
Minerals WwW Axial Ratios Equivalent Parameters 2/W
| a i) ec x yY z
Chondrodite . . 34 | 108630: 1:3-14472| 23367 2-1510 6-7644 | 0-19895

1
Humite ‘ : . 48 | 108021: 1 : 4:40334| 2-3343 22-1610 9-5155 | 0-19824
Clinohumite . . 62 | 1-08028 : 1 : 5-65883) 2-3384 2-1646 12-2491 | 0-19756
Prolectite : observed 20 | 1-0803 :1:1-8862 | 2-3130 2-1414 4-0385 | 0-19977
Prolectite : calculated 20 | 1-0818 :1:1-8618 | 2-3365 2-1589 4-0211 | 0-19968
1:1-1714 | 2:3426 2-1778 2-7442 | 0-19601
1:1-1741

Forsterite : observed 14 | 0-:9296 :
Forsterite : calculated 14 | 0-9240 :

2-3365 2-1589 2-7433 | 0-19585

The several illustrations of the operation of the law of valency volumes have
been quoted in detail for the purpose of showing how difficult it is to avoid the
conclusion that this deduction represents some physical reality. It may be
traced in connection with quantitative data of other kinds; during the last
few years it has been very successfully applied by Le Bas to the interpretation of
the molecular volumes of liquid substances.

From what has been already said it will be seen that the great problem as
to the relation between crystal structure and chemical constitution, of which
the solution seems imminent, is a stereochemical one; assemblages must be built
up in accordance with the principle of homogeneity and in some form of close-
packing, in which each component atom of a chemical molecule is represented
as the sole occupant of some specific solid area. The properties of these
assemblages must also be in agreement with the crystallographic measurements
and the X-ray photographs yielded by the substances represented.

A brief indication may be given of what has been already effected in this
connection. The normal paraffin hydrocarbons of the general composition
Cn Hon +. consist of a chain of the composition (CH,)n, to each end of which
one hydrogen atom is attached; in accordance with the principles already
indicated, a close-packed assemblage of the empirical composition CH, can be
constructed from carbon and hydrogen spheres of the respective volumes 4 and
1, of such a nature that it can be divided by planes into blocks, each made
up of strings of the composition (CH,)n, or .CH, .CH,....CH,.CH,. At each
plane of cleavage of the assemblage hydrogen spheres can be inserted in appro-
priate numbers so that close-packing is restored when the cleavage faces are
brought together again; the assemblage will then have the composition
H . (CH,)n.H, and may be geometrically partitioned into units each representing
one molecular complex of a normal paraffin. It is noteworthy that these units
exhibit the configurations indicated by the van ’t Hoff-Le Bel conception for
the normal paraffins. Other assemblages can be constructed which represent
in a similar manner the secondary and tertiary paraffins, and all these
assemblages are of one particular geometrical type, that which corresponds to
the chemical behaviour characteristic of the paraffins. In these assemblages

334 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

replacements may be effected so as to introduce new geometrical features of
arrangement corresponding to the presence in the molecule of an ethylenic or
an acetylenic bond, and thus other classes of hydrocarbons can be represented
in accordance with the conception of close-packing; the process can be extended
to the polymethylene and aromatic hydrocarbons and to their substitution
derivatives, and throughout a close correspondence is observed between the
numbers of isomerides possible, with their constitutions and configurations, and
the experimental facts.

Many considerations indicate the fruitfulness of the mode of regarding
organic substances just briefly sketched; one may be more particularly specified.
An assemblage representative of benzene has been suggested which accords with
the crystalline form and chemical properties of the hydrocarbon, and can be
geometrically partitioned into units, each representing a single molecule. The
equivalence parameters of the substance are

w:y: z=3°101 : 3-480: 2°780.

The dimension y is twice the diameter of a carbon sphere, and that of z slightly
less than the sum of the diameters of a carbon and a hydrogen sphere. Now
a dimension approximating closely to the z value for benzene can be found
amongst the equivalence parameters of large numbers of aromatic compounds,
indicating that in these crystalline substances the benzene complexes are stacked
one upon the other so as to preserve the z dimension, but that the columns so
formed are pushed apart in the derivatives to an extent sufficient to admit of
the entrance, in close-packing, of the substituting radicles. A few cases of
this kind were quoted by Barlow and myself, and many others were discovered
by Jerusalem ;° quite recently the subject has been subjected to a very thorough
quantitative examination by Armstrong, Colgate, and Rodd.’ The exhaustive
nature of the experimental work of these latter authors and the care with which
their conclusions are drawn leave little room for doubt as to the accuracy
of their main contention, namely, that the crystallographic method affords
material from which the stereochemical configurations of aromatic substances
can be deduced.

If crystallography is to be used as a tool in the service of stereochemistry
in anything like the way which has been briefly sketched in this address, a
number of important results should accrue. We have seen that in the structure
assigned to rock-salt, each sodium atom is identically related to six chlorine
atoms; only when the crystal is disintegrated by solution in water does the
necessity arise for a choice to be made, the sodium atom then selecting one
particular chlorine atom as a mate. Even then the sodium chloride molecule
present in solution appears to spend the greater part of its time in dissociation,
namely, in the act of changing its partner. There is thus in the theory of
crystal structure something which bears a superficial relationship to electrolytic
dissociation, and the further study of this aspect of the subject may be fruitful.

Again, the solid crystalline structures which we have attempted to build
up present, as one essential feature, the property that they can be partitioned
geometrically into unit cells, each composed of one molecule of the substance;
thus, the rock-salt structure can be partitioned into cells each representing the
molecule NaCl. In this instance, the partitioning can be performed in a variety
of ways corresponding to the allocation of one particular sodium atom to
either of six chlorine atoms; the alternative modes of partitioning lead to the
production of molecular units of identical configuration. In many cases, how- |
ever, alternative methods of geometrically partitioning the assemblage represent-
ing the crystalline structure do not yield units of the same configuration; thus,
the assemblage representing phloroglucinol can be geometrically partitioned in
two distinct ways. Each of these gives a unit of the composition C,H,O,, but
the configuration of the unit of the one partitioning corresponds to the chemical
structure of the 1: 3 : 5-trihydroxybenzene,

C(OH) . CH
Ho? \sc(OH)
. \c(OH) : CH
6 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95, 1275.

7 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1910, 97, 1578; Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 1912, 87, 204; 1913, 89,
292; 1914, 90, 111.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 335

whilst the other exhibits the structure of the symmetrical triketohexamethylene,
CO .CH,

HC’ “\co.
CO. CH,

A new suggestion is thus made to the effect that tautomerism consists in the
possibility of geometrically partitioning the close-packed assemblage in two or
more alternative ways, each giving molecular units of the same composition but
of different constitutions. The idea that in the occurrence of tautomerism
some component atom wanders from one position to another in the molecule
is thus rejected; the change in constitution arises from the transference of atoms
as between two or more molecules. As the older conceptions of the mechanism
of tautomerism do not provide a satisfactory explanation of the experimental
facts, the suggestion now made is perhaps worthy of consideration.

The new line of work has many bearings upon the subject of chemical change};
thus, the assemblage which is assigned to acetylene (or methylacetylene) is con-
vertible, by symmetrical distortion, into that representing benzene (or the
1:3: 5-trimethylbenzene, mesitylene). Further, the great change in chemical
behaviour which accompanies many types of chemical substitution is possibly
connected with the manner in which the actual atomic volumes are affected by
the replacement ; on converting benzene, in which the atomic volumes of carbon
and hydrogen are as 4:1, into bromobenzene, a considerable increase in
molecular volume occurs. The atomic volumes of carbon and hydrogen still,
presumably, preserve the 4:1 ratio, and the volume appropriated by the entering
bromine atom is approximately the same as that occupied by each hydrogen
atom already present; the actual atomic volumes of carbon and hydrogen must
thus be supposed to have increased during the production of bromobenzene. It
can hardly be supposed that this fundamental volume change, even apart from
a distortion of the aromatic ring arising from slight inequality of hydrogen and
bromine atomic domains in the molecule, could occur without the exhibition
of considerable differences in chemical properties as between benzene and
bromobenzene.

Whatever view may be taken as to the accuracy of the conclusions concerning
the relation between crystal structure and chemical constitution which are
briefly discussed in the present Address, no critic will be disposed to doubt
that wide developments in chemical science will result from the cultivation of
crystal study; it seems clear that any satisfactory theory of the solid state
must be largely crystallographic in character. The chief hindrance to progress
at present consists in the lack of chemists trained in modern crystallographic
methods; in my own country the only school in which chemical students were
trained in Crystallography, dissociated from Mineralogy, was founded by
Dr. Henry E. Armstrong and Sir Henry A. Miers in 1886. After doing a vast
amount of valuable educational work this school has recently been allowed
to become extinct.

In a Presidential Address to the Mineralogical Society in 1888, Mr. Lazarus
Fletcher remarked that ‘a knowledge of the elements of Crystallography, includ-
ing the mechanics of crystal measurements, ought to be made a sine qua non for
a degree in Chemistry at every University.’ Twenty-five years later we find
that no European University has applied this principle, and in consequence the
chemical crystallographer has the greatest difficulty in making himself intelligible
to his purely chemical colleagues. May I, in concluding, express the hope that
the Colonial Universities, less fettered by tradition than their older sisters, may
lead in the work of placing the subject of crystal structure in its legitimate
position as one of the most important branches of modern Physical Chemistry?

The following Papers were then read :—
1. Residual Affinity and Co-ordination. By Professor Guperr T.
Moraan and Henry Wesster Moss.

The molecular structures now known as co-ordination compounds owe their
stability not merely to the forces (principal valency and residual affinity)

336 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

emanating from the central atom, but also to the mutual attractions exerted on
one another by the co-ordinating or associating radicals or groups. It is pre-
cisely those radicals or groups possessing considerable residual affinity which
function most frequently in the formation of co-ordinated complexes. The
general tendency to form hydrated and ammoniated metallic salts is to be
attributed ‘in the main to the capacity for association exhibited by water and
ammonia molecules respectively.

The phenomenon of co-ordination may be compared with the formation of fog
in moist air containing minute dust-particles, and it is even more closely akin to
the formation of the large ions of the atmosphere by the association of small
ions with uncharged invisible water-drops.

The size of the atomic volume of the central element has a threefold influ-
ence on the stability of co-ordination compounds. First, if the atomic volume
is small, the residual affinity of the atom is exerted ‘in a more concentrated
form. Secondly, the co-ordinating molecules or radicals can approach nearer
to the centre of the central atom when its volume is small and therefore nearer
to one another so that their mutual attractions become more effective. Thirdly,
as the dimensions of the co-ordinating molecules or radicals are of molecular or
atomic magnitude, these segregating units will fill more completely the available
space round an atom of small volume than that round an atom occupying a
larger sphere. This filling up of the available space also conduces to stability,
as is manifested by many stereoisomeric compounds.

The number and arrangement of the associating units have also an important
bearing on the stability of the co-ordination complex. It is obvious that the
most stable system will be that in which there is a symmetrical distribution of
the forces interacting between the associating units, a condition which is
attained by taking such a number of units that they can be arranged symmetri-
cally over the surface of a sphere. This problem has but few solutions, inas-
much as there are only five regular solids, the tetrahedron, octahedron, cube,
icosahedron, and dodecahedron, with four, six, eight, twelve, and twenty vertices
respectively. These integers will be the co-ordination numbers corresponding
with the theoretically possible most stable systems. Molecular aggregations exist
corresponding with four of these arrangements—that is, with all possible cases
except that of the dodecahedron. There are also examples of less symmetric
arrangements which become stable in certain circumstances.

In addition to the centric co-ordination complexes with associating units
arranged round a central atom, it is highly probable that co-ordination some-
times leads to cyclic arrangements, as, for example, in the following instances :—
The basic glucinum acetate, butyrate, &c., the dichloride and dibromide of
molybdenum, and the reduction products of the pentahalides of columbium and
tantalum.

As an example of the application of the co-ordination theory to compounds
of technical importance may be cited the case of the lakes of acidic colouring-
matters developed in mordant dyeing. The simplest of these are the iron,
chromium, and cobalt lakes of the ortho-quinoneoxime dyes, which are
undoubtedly internally co-ordinated compounds,

2. A Device for the Representation of the Natural Classification of the

Elements. By Professor Ormu Masson, I’.R.S.

U'UESDAY, AUGUST 18.

Jot Discussion with Section A on the Structure of Atoms and
Molecules.—See p. 293.

2 SS

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 337

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers were read :—

1. A New Method for the Determination of Vapour Pressures and an
Examination of a Source of Error in certain Dynamical Methods.
By F. H. Campseuy, M.Sc.

Since none of the accepted methods is suitable for the determination of the
vapour pressure of a binary mixture of a volatile with a non-volatile liquid a
new method has been devised for the purpose.

The principle used is that of allowing a liquid saturated with a suitable gas,
usually hydrogen, to evaporate into an enclosed space filled with the same gas at
the same temperature and pressure, the latter being approximately atmospheric.
The extra pressure exerted by the vapour is measured by means of an open
mercury manometer after the volume has been restored to its original value by
means of a levelling vessel. ‘The method can be applied to volatile organic liquids
of many kinds, since they come into contact with glass and mercury only. The
liquid is enclosed in a glass tube projecting through a rubber stopper, which
closes an opening at the bottom of the vessel, the stopper being protected from
the action of the liquid by a layer of mercury. When the apparatus has reached
the temperature of the constant temperature bath in which it is immersed, the
tube, previously deeply scratched, is broken by gentle sideways pressure on the
projecting end. Saturation of the gas by the vapour is hastened by gently
shaking the apparatus. ;

Experiments have been made with the following liquids and gases: Methyl
alcohol, ethyi alcohol, diethyl ether, carbon disulphide, chloroform and water,
evaporating into carbon dioxide, air, hydrogen, and, in the case of chloroform,
nitrogen in addition. In every case the values obtained, though very con-
cordant, are lower than the most reliable results obtained by the ordinary static
method. The magnitude of the error evidently depends on the solubility of the
particular gas in the particular liquid as it diminishes in each case, except that
of water, in the order carbon dioxide, air, hydrogen. With water at 60° CG.
the results obtained with air and hydrogen are practically identical. The
error when hydrogen is used is generally less than 1 per cent., and it is con-
sidered that the agreement is sufficient, as with mixtures the ratio between the
observed pressure of the solution and that of the pure volatile solvent is to be
considered. With air the errors are from 2 to 6 per cent., and it is concluded
_ that methods depending on the saturation of a current of a gas passing through
or over solution and pure solvent must therefore involve more or less error from
this cause, a fact which does not seem to have been appreciated in the past.
Perman (‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ 1903, 72, 72) and Krauskopf (‘J. Phys. Chem.’
1910, 14, 489) obtained satisfactory results with water, although those of
Regnault (‘ Ann. Chim. Phys.’ 1845 (3),15, 129) and Tammann (‘ Wied. Ann.’
1888, 28, 322), which are lower than those obtained by the static method, are
brought into satisfactory agreement with these upon the author’s assumption,
which indicates that the errors introduced by the presence of a dissolved gas
are negligible under certain conditions.

2. A New Method for determining the Specific Heals of Liquids.
By Ernst Jowannes Hartuna, B.Sc.

The method described, which was suggested by Professor Orme Masson, is
a modification of the mixture method for determining specific heats. The
principle consists in measuring the lowering in temperature of a known amount
of the particular liquid on the introduction of a definite weight of dry ice
contained in a thin glass bulb. The calorimeter is a thin glass vessel of about
one hundred cubic centimétres capacity, and is supported inside a silvered Dewar
tube. A well-fitting rubber stopper closes the mouth of this tube, making the
apparatus airtight. Through the stopper is fitted a Beckmann thermometer
and also a thin glass stirring rod, the lower end of which is suitably shaped to
receive the small ice-bulb. A third hole, lined with glass and closed with a

1914. Zz

338 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

well-fitting glass stopper, passes through the rubber stopper and serves for the
introduction of the ice-bulb. This last consists of a small sealed thin glass
cylindrical bulb, containing a definite weight of distilled water and also as much
silver gauze as possible. The last ensures rapid heat conduction, and makes
the bulb heavy enough to sink in dense liquids. The bulb is suspended by a
fine platinum wire.

The liquid to be experimented with is introduced into the calorimeter by
means of a standardisation pipette, and the apparatus is closed until constant
temperature is attained. The ice-bulb has meanwhile been frozen in a mercury
bath supported in an ordinary freezing-point apparatus. When the tempera-
ture of the mercury is constant at from —3° to —4°, the bulb is removed by
its suspension and rapidly introduced into the lower part of the stirring rod in
the calorimeter. The liquid is then stirred by hand untii constant temperature
is again attained, which usually requires about three minutes. Radiation cor-
rections are then applied and the specific heat of the liquid calculated, the heat
capacity of the ice-bulb being accurately known. ‘The experiments should be
performed in a room regulated to constant temperature.

The advantages claimed for the method are its simplicity, its rapidity, and
its accuracy. Experiments with water at 25° C. gave consistent results agreeing
to within 0-4 per cent. When ether was used, it was found necessary to coat the
rubber stopper with tinfoil in order to protect it. The results with ether at
25° C. agreed to within 14 per cent. (the vapour pressure of ether at this tem-
perature is 545 mm.). The specific heats of several sulphuric-acid-water mixtures
were also measured and compared with the classical results of J. Thomsen. The
average divergence was less than one per cent. Further measurements with
different liquids are now in progress.

The apparatus described is not suitable for a viscous liquid (such as
glycerine) owing to inefficient stirring. By having another liquid than water
in the carrier-bulb, the scope of the method can probably be extended.

8. lhe Influence of Weather Conditions upon the Amounts of Nitric Acid
and of Nitrous Acid in the Rainfall near Melbourne, Australia. By
V. G. ANDERSON.

Daily determinations of the amounts of nitric acid and of nitrous acid in
the rainfall at Canterbury, near Melbourne, have been made since November 1,
1912. The results to February 28, 1914, when correlated with meteorological
data for Melbourne and daily isobaric charts of Australia, reveal the existence
of a relation between weather conditions and the amounts of nitrogen acids in
rain-water.

The concentration of nitric acid reached a maximum in summer, a minimum
in winter, and an intermediate position during autumn and spring. The
concentration of nitrous acid reached a maximum in winter, and a minimum
in summer. The ratio of nitric nitrogen to nitrous nitrogen was highest in
summer and lowest in winter. On many occasions during winter the ratio was
approximately as 1:1. A relation between atmospheric temperature and this
ratio was noted. Its nature was shown by plotting the mean minimum tem-
perature of each month with the mean monthly ratios, the curve being of the
same type as those which express changes of chemical velocity with temperature.
The ratio is doubled for equal increments of temperature. From the results it
would appear that in rain-water nitric and nitrous acids are formed in equal
molecular proportions, and that, if the ratio could be determined instantly, or
before any change could ensue, it would invariably be as 1:1. In cold weather
the velocity is retarded to such an extent that little change occurs even after
comparatively long periods; hence the increased amounts of nitrous acid found
in winter. In hot weather, the velocity being greatly increased, the residual
amounts of nitrous acid are very small, nearly all having been converted into
nitric acid. The facts point to atmospheric nitrogen peroxide as the source of
nitric and nitrous acids in rain-water, as this gas reacts with water, forming
these acids in’ equal molecular proportions.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 339

In a graph plotted with daily concentrations of total (nitric plus nitrous)
nitrogen as abscisse, and with rainfall as ordinates, the points are found to
arrange themselves into a series of rectangular hyperbole. Further, each group
of points lying along a particular curve is found to correspond with falls of rain
occurring during one particular type of weather. From this it follows that for
a particular type of weather (1) the concentration of oxidised nitrogen varies
inversely as the rainfall; (2) the product of the concentration and the rainfall is
constant; (3) the total weight per unit area of oxidised nitrogen precipitated
with rain falling during twenty-four hours is constant. In brief, the amount
of oxidised nitrogen per acre carried down by rain falling on any day is a
function of the type of weather, and, within certain limits, is independent of
the amount of rainfall. These facts may be explained by assuming that for
each type of weather there exists in the air a definite concentration of nitrogen
peroxide, and that this soluble gas is completely washed out of the air by the
first portions of a shower: any further rain falling through the now purified
air not increasing the amount of oxidised nitrogen in the rain-water, but, by
dilution, decreasing the concentration.

Nine well-defined recurring types of weather have been investigated. These
may be classified into three groups, as follows: (1) Antarctic types; (2) Tropical
types ;.(3) Divided control (Antarctic and Tropical) types. The accompanying
table shows the number of examples of each type investigated, together with
the oxidised nitrogen constant in pounds per thousand acres, for each type.

es. | Oxidised Nitrogen
| bala ae Constant. Pounds
| Memes ale per 1,000 acres

| Antarctic Types— f |

E BEeeTR Nas <a Bd 5
A-shaped Antarctic | iS peost : ; x 38 oe
depressions | (Ey onto 10 41

Tropical Types—
_ Tropical (or f (g) spring and autumn type . 6
monsoonal) } (kh) summertype . .. 3 24:0
depressions (i) ‘heat-wave’ type . . 2
| Divided Control Types— |
(d) Antarctic depressions with slight Tropical |

| IRUENGEN 8 ugh Malis: vliehee oi Ack 6 6-1
| (e) Antarctic depressions with strong Tropical |
| TAM CAGEe ATS eo (taka. Yantai outl ana 8:5
(f) Tropical depressions with slight Antarctic
influence. rae eee: 5 12:0 |

4. A Comparison of the Phenomena of the Occlusion of Hydrogen by
Palladium and by Charcoal. By Dr. A. Hour.

When all the known facts concerning the occlusion of hydrogen by palladium
and by charcoal are examined and compared, it appears that, in the case of
charcoal, absorption and surface condensation, without chemical action, occurs,
but with palladium the evidence is in favour of the formation of a compound
in addition to surface condensation. In both cases there is evidence that allo-
tropes of the occluding solids exist, one allotrope occluding gas with far greater
avidity than the other.

7% 2

340 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

SYDNEY.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Non-Aromatic Diazonium Salts. By Professor GinBert T. Moracan
and JosePH ReEituy.

The diazotisability of an organic primary amine is in all probability con-
nected with the presence in the basic molecule of an unsaturated group, for it
has not yet been found possible to diazotise the salt of any primary base having
its amino-group attached directly either to a fully saturated radical or to a com-
pletely hydrogenised ring.

It is, however, not essential that the unsaturated radical should be aromatic
or homocyclic in character, and certain non-aromatic amines are known to
possess in varying degrees the property of diazotisability. This property has
been demonstrated in the case of the following heterocyclic bases not merely by
detecting the presence of diazo-compounds in solution, but also by the isolation of
the diazonium salts.

4-Amino-1-phenyl]-2 : 3-dimethylpyrazolone (4-amino-antipyrine) when diazo-
tised with ethyl nitrite in hydrochloric acid furnishes a well-defined crystallis-
able diazonium hydrochloride (C,, H,, 0 N, Cl),HCl from which the crystal-
line dichromate (C,, H,, O N ,),Cr,0,; aurichloride (C,, H,, O N,)AuCl, and
platinichloride (C,, H,, O N,),PtCl, of normal composition have been prepared.

4-Amino-3 : 5-dimethylpyrazole, a base containing no aromatic substituent
whatever, gave rise to a remarkably stable colourless diazonium chloride, crystal-
lising with great facility, and permanent under ordinary atmospheric conditions.
Although the parent base forms a dihydrochloride, C, H, N,, 2HCl, one of the
salt-forming centres disappears in diazotisation, the diazonium chloride
C, H, N, Cl corresponding in composition with the salt of a monacidic base.

The replacement of the diazonium group by a triazo-radical restores this
suppressed salt-forming centre, the product, 4-triazo-3 : 5-dimethyl-pyrazole being
a basic compound which has the remarkable property of developing character-
istic colorations with phenols in alkaline solutions,

Aminomethyltriazole can be diazotised in nitric-acid solution without loss of
diazo-nitrogen, although in hydrochloric acid effervescence is copious even at
0° C.

The diazotisability of wool is usually attributed to the presence in this
material of aromatic amino- groups; but in view of the foregoing results it
appears possible that the interaction of wool and nitrous acid may be due in
part to the presence of heterocyclic rings comparable with those of the pyrazole,
triazole, or thiazole series.

2. The Synthesis of Isoquinoline Alkaloids. By Professor R, Ropinson.

Many pseudo- bases of isoquinoline type—for example, cotarnine, hydra-
stinine, berberine, isoquinoline methyl hydroxide—readily undergo condensa-
tions with the most varied classes of organic substances, and the greater
number of these reactions can be generalised in the scheme :—

R
|
/CHOH -NMe— + HR — —CH—NMe— + H,0

The interest of these condensations is very much enhanced by the fact that
they yield substances closely allied in constitution to the naturally occurring
isoquinoline alkaloids, and for instance cotarnine (I) with meconine (II) gave a
small yield of a-gnoscopine (III) resolvable by means of d-bromocamphor-
sulphonic acid into d-narcotine and /-narcotine, the latter proving identical with
the natural base occurring in opium. Cotarnine and nitromeconine react with
great facility and give rise to a nitro- base from which by elimination of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 341

nitro- group a stereoisomeric &-gnoscopine is obtained, and this is convertible to
a-gnoscopine by prolonged heating with aqueous alcohol. By similar methods a
stereoisomeride of hydrastine has been synthesised. These condensations also
open up a method of synthesis of phenanthrene alkaloids (morphine group), and

OMe
OMe OMe
OMe
O CHOH OMe \co
aa Nl
CH, NMe Ne CH—O
Bs O * CH, co OMe a
cay ee ON te
(I 2 NMe
(11) Not id
CH

(III)
it is along these lines that further work is being prosecuted. Up to the present
an isomeride of apomorphine dimethyl ether is the only example of the applica-
tion of the process. It is probable that the mechanism of the pseudo- base
condensation involves the stages

OH R R

| | |

/o HOH N— — —CH = N—+ HR + —CH = N— -> —CH—NMe—
Me Me Me

a view which receives support from the remarkable rapidity of the reactions and

from the observation that they occur with greatest readiness in ionising solvents.

It is also considered extremely probable that such condensations have an

important réle in the synthesis of alkaloids in plants.

3. The Condensation of Cotarnine and Hydraslinine with Aromatic
Aldehydes. By Mrs. G. M. Ropinson, M.Sc.

The condensation of hydrastinine with o-nitrobenzaldehydes takes place in
accordance with the following scheme, which represents the condensation of
hydrastinine with nitroveratraldehyde :—

OMe
OMe
0,N
|
co
|
() CHOH ra) CHS.
Bee. OR EA
CH a OMe CH, NMe
2 a
SS CH, a CH,
7 0.N OMe O*% % :
of cHy/ cHY/

1t is hoped that this substance will form a suitable starting-point for a
synthesis of dicentrine. On reduction by stannous chloride these bases yield
amino ketones, which can then be further reduced to fully saturated bases by
means of amalgamated zinc and hydrochloric acid. Several bases similar to the
above have been prepared.

342 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

4. The Influence of Substituents on the Velocity of Saponification of
Phenyl Benzoate. By Dr. H. McCompin.

5. The Colouring Mallers of certain Marine Organisms. By Dr, A. Hou.

The colouring matters of Diazona viridis and Syntethys Hebridicus have
been shown to be due to a green body very similar to chlorophyl, and a purple
substance which appears to be a dibromindigo. This purple compound is only
found on the surface of the Ascidian Colony, and it is concluded that it acts as
an oxygen carrier, since when the organism is alive and healthy it is not pro-
duced. Under these conditions it would be maintained as the colourless leuco
body, but with the death of the colony changes in metabolism take place and
oxidation produces the colour. The green pigment is very possibly due to a
symbiotic alga. ‘These pigments have been compared with those obtained from
different species of A/urex and from Bonellia.

6. The Corrosion of Iron and Steel by Arlesian Walers in New South
Wales. By Professor Fawsirv.

7. The Use of Waste Gases of Combustion for Fire Ealinctive and
Fumigating Purposes. By Dr. G. Haren.

The experiments of Clowes and Feilman on the extinctive properties of
flames have shown that the flames of ordinary substances are extinguished
when the oxygen in the atmosphere is reduced to about 15 per cent. The
extinction of solid material, as for example ignited coal, requires a lower per-
centage of oxygen, and takes time owing to the need for a cooling effect. Flue
gas from ordinary boilers burning coal or coke does not generally contain more
than 9 or 10 per cent. of oxygen, and if pumped into a space so as to displace
the air will render the atmosphere fire-extinctive and will also be destructive to
rats and other vermin. For practical purposes the flue gas must be cleaned and
cooled before use, and formaldehyde vapours are sometimes added to it.
Several installations making use of this process are now in operation.

8. Lhe Hxtraction of Radium from Australian Ores.
By 8. Rapcuirr.

(1) A short account was given of all known occurrences of radioactive minerals
in Australia.

_ (2) The methods now in use at the Sydney works of the Radium Hill Co. for
the extraction of radium from the complex ore found at Olary, near Broken Hill,
were described.

(3) The results of an examination of the various radioactive precipitates
separated in the course of the works operations were given, together with the
methods employed in working up preparations of ionium and actinium.

J. The Inversion of Cane-sugar by Acids in Water-alcohol Solutions.
By Georcu J. Burrows, B.Sc.

The rates of inversion of cane-sugar by hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid
have been determined in water-alcohol solutions up to 75 per cent. alcohol.
In both cases a minimum velocity has been found for a solution containing
about 50 per cent. alcohol by volume. From the results obtained it is evident
that the velocity of inversion is not proportional to the concentration of hydrogen
ions in such a series of solvents. The similarity between the curve representing
the variation of the inversion velocity with the composition of the solvent and
the viscosity curve for these mixtures led the author to conclude that the rate
of catalysis by acids is a function of the fluidity of the medium.

The results for the inversion velocity show that the latter is not directly

a aa TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 343

proportional to the fluidity of the solvent. It was assumed that the effect of
fluidity on catalysis is similar to its effect on ionic mobility as determined by
electrical conductivity. Hence by dividing the inversion velocity by the con-
ductivity of the acid in the particular solvent the result obtained expresses the
activity of the catalytic ion in this medium. In this way it was found that the
activity was far greater in 70 per cent. alcohol than in water.

It was therefore concluded that catalytic hydrolysis is retarded by the
addition of water in the same way as esterification and other similar catalytic
reactions.

MONDAY, AUGUST 2A.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Explosions in Gases (with Demonstration).
By Professor H. B. Dixon, F’.R.S.

2. Chemical Crystallography (with Demonstration).
By Professor W. J. Popr, F.R.S.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.

Joint Discussion with Section M (Agriculture) on Metabolism.—
See p. 663.

The following Paper, opening a Discussion on Cyanogenesis in Plants, was
then read :—

The Cyanogeneltic Plants of New South Wales.
By James M. Perri, D.Se.

Of the plants growing in New South Wales, over a thousand species have
been examined for hydrocyanic acid and cyanogenetic glucosides. Sixty of these
gave positive results with sodium picrate paper. These include forty-four species
native to New South Wales in seventeen Natural Orders.

Some plants, well known to be cyanophoric in Europe, when grown in this
State have never given any reaction, although tested in all seasons.

Only a few were found to evolve free hydrocyanic acid, naturally, but all
showed the presence of a glucoside and enzyme.

When the natural enzymes in these plants were killed by boiling water, the
reaction to sodium picrate paper ceased; if then a few drops of emulsin, pre-
pared from sweet almonds, were added, positive reactions were again obtained,
showing that in all cases the glucosides present in the plants were capable of
being hydrolysed by emulsin.

Of the sixty species stated, twenty are grasses, and these include eleven
species indigenous to this State. The Sorghum vulgare examined by Dunstan
and Henry was found to lose its glucoside when fourteen inches high, while the
Australian-grown plant retains it when four feet high, and mature. Both
glucoside and enzyme slowly disappear with air-drying.

One hundred and fifty species of grasses were tested systematically for
seasonal variations, and some were found to give negative results at particular
seasons. ‘Two species of grasses alone evolved free hydrocyanic acid, and only
one of these is available for grazing. This is the only one, except the sorghums,
which has been associated with fatalities among stock.

Among the non-cyanogenetic grasses, thirty-three species contained emulsin-
like enzymes.

344. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

Srction C.—GEOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION: PRoressor Sir T. H. Houuann,
K.C.L.E., F.B.S.

The President delivered the following Address at Sydney, on Friday,
August 21 :—

Exactty eighty-three years from the day of our arrival at Sydney, Edward
Suess was born in London. Thus the day, as much as the circumstances of our
meeting so far from home, serves to remind us of one who was great enough
to recognise the fact that geological evidence from any part of the world has
the same value as that obtained in the little continent which has been the most
prolific in the products of nomenclature and the most productive in text-books.

Since the days of Charles Lyell no geologist has been so conspicuously suc-
cessful in analysing the accumulated mass of evidence, in bringing together the
essential facts from all lands, and in compensating for the local excesses of
literature. Only those of us who, by long absence from Europe, have felt the
full disadvantages of having to express our thoughts in alien terminology can
appreciate the real value of Suess’s great work. His death since our last meeting
makes a conspicuous mark in the history of geological science.

A meeting of the British Association in Australia brings home forcibly to the
members of Section C the fact that British Imperial geology is really ‘the
science of the Earth’; partly for this reason one feels inclined to get outside
the science and take a survey of some of its suburbs. Not many of them have
been left untraversed by my distinguished predecessors in this chair; but there
has been of recent years a tendency to avoid the inner Karth, which has rightly
been described as ‘the inalienable playground of the imagination,’ and conse-
quently, therefore, common land to the geologist as well as the geddesist,
physicist, and mathematician.

The geologist who looks below the purely superficial phenomena of the crust
is generally regarded as straying beyond his province; but the desire to see the
birth-certificate of some of the strange and often unacceptable ‘ causes ’ which
the mathematical physicist offers us is a pardonable form of curiosity. Our
ideas regarding intra-telluric conditions are even proving to be of economic
value, one of the most recent and unexpected results of the kird being that just
established by Baron von Eétvés in Hungary,’ whose predictions now bid fair
to outstrip those of the ‘diviner’ ! Having noticed the low gravity values over
the great cores of rock-salt in the Transylvanian ‘Schlier,’ he finds similar
defects of gravity in the same region over certain of the Sarmatian and Pontian
domes, which probably owe their shape to subterranean salt-plugs and are now
found to be great storehouses of natural gas, which, with or without liquid
petroleum, is commonly found with the saline ‘ Mediterranean’ facies of the
Upper Tertiary in Eastern Europe. Baron von Eétvés also finds that on the
eastern margin of the Great Hungarian Plain, where the younger Tertiary beds
are completely concealed by a mantle of alluvium, mud-volcanoes and gas-springs
are sometimes found in areas of marked gravity defect, and some of these are
now also being drilled for natural gas.

1 Comptes Rendus, XVITime Conf. de V Assoc, Géodés, Internat., Hamburg,
1912, pp. 427, 437.

A ah 4 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 345

When our ideas of the state of affairs below the surface thus begin to yield
economic results, there is hope that they are at last steadying down, becoming
more settled, and indeed more ‘ scientific.’ It may not be unprofitable, therefore,
to review some of the advances recently made in developing theoretical concep.
tions regarding the interior of the Earth that are of direct importance to
geologists. In undertaking this review I am conscious of the fact that I shall
be traversing ground that is generally familiar to all, and much of it the special
property of ‘specialists whose views I hesitate to summarise and should not dare
to criticise. As the author of the ‘Ingoldsby Legends’ said of the only story
that Mrs, Peters would allow her husband to finish, ‘The subject, I fear me,
is not over new, but will remind my friends—

“Of something better they have seen before.” ’

The intensity and quantity of polemical literature on scientific problems
frequently varies inversely as the number of direct observations on which the
discussions are based: the number and variety of theories concerning a subject
thus often form a coefficient of our ignorance. Beyond the superficial observa-
tions, direct and indirect, made by geologists, not extending below about one
two-hundredth of the Earth’s radius, we have to trust to the deductions of
mathematicians for our ideas regarding the interior of the Earth; and they
have provided us successively with every permutation and combination possible
of the three physical states of matter—solid, liquid, and gaseous.

Starting, say, two centuries back with the astronomer Halley, geologists were
presented with’ a globe whose shell rotated at a rate different from that of its
core. In more recent times this idea has been revived by Sir F. J. Evans (1878)
to account for the secular variations in the declination of the magnetic needle,

Clairault’s celebrated theorem (1743), on which Laplace based the most
long-lived among many cosmogonies, gave us a globe of molten matter sur-
rounded by a solid crust. Hopkins demanded a globe solid to the core, and,
though his arguments were considered to be unsound, his conclusions have been
revived on other grounds; while the high rigidity of the Earth as a body has
been maintained by Lord Kelvin, Sir George Darwin, Professor Newcombe,
Dr. Rudski, and especially by the recent observaticns of Dr. O. Hecker, supple-
mented by the mathematical reasoning of Professor A. E. H. Love. Hennessy
(1886), however, concluded that the astronomical demands could be satisfied by
the old-fashioned molten Earth in which the heavier substances conformed to
the equatorial belt.

As long ago as 1858 Herbert Spencer suggested that, on account of its tem-
perature being probably above the critical temperature of known elements, the
centre of the Earth is possibly gaseous. Late in the ’seventies Dr. Ritter revived
the idea of a gaseous core surrounded by a solid crust, and this was modified in
1900 by the Swedish philosopher, Svante Arrhenius, whose globe with a solid
crust, liquid substratum, and gaseous core is now a favourite among some
geologists.

Wiechert (1897) supposed that the core of the Earth, some 5,000 kilométres
in radius, is composed mostly of iron with a density of 7:8, while this is sur-
rounded by a shell of lithoidal material having a density of about 3:0 to 3:4;
and this great contrast in density is about that which distinguishes the iron
meteorites generally from those of the stony class. Arrhenius also assumes that
iron forms the main part of the central three-quarters, and he shows that this
distribution of substance may still be consistent with his theory of a gaseous
core ; indeed, he not only imagines that the whole of the iron nucleus is gaseous,
but also most of the siliceous shell, for he leaves only 5 per cent. of the
radius as the depth of the solid and liquid shells combined.

But the variety of ideas does not end with theories on the present constitution
of the globe. Poisson required the process of solidification to begin from the
centre and to progress outwards, while other mathematicians had been happy
with the Leibnitzian consistentior status as the first external slaggy crust.
Since the days of Laplace all naturalists have been forced to accept the idea of
a solar system formed by the cooling and condensation of a spheroidal gaseous
nebula; and all except those geologists who have vainly searched for traces
of the primeval crust have been happy in this belief.

Recently, however, Dr. F. R. Moulton and Professor T. C, Chamberlin

346 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©.

in America have brought together arguments from different points of view to
construct the solar system by the aggregation of innumerable small bodies,
‘planetesimals,’ which have gathered into knots to form the planets. Thus,
the Earth is supposed to have grown gradually by the accretion of meteoritic
matter, and even now, although the process has nearly ceased, it receives much
meteoritic material from outside.

With the Chamberlin-Moulton theory there must have been a time when the
gravity of the Earth was insufficient to hold an atmosphere of any but the
heavier gases, such as carbon dioxide; later, the Earth became heavy enough
to retain oxygen, then nitrogen, water-vapour, and helium; while even now it
may not be sufficiently attractive to prevent the light and agile molecule of
hydrogen from flying off into space. With the growth of the young globe, the
compression towards the centre produced heat enough to melt the accumulated
fragments of meteoritic matter, and the molten material thus formed welled
out at the surface. Such volcanic action is supposed to have predominated
at the surface until an appreciable atmosphere was formed, and became charged
with water, when the now familiar processes of weathering, erosion, and deposi-
tion produced the film of ‘rust ’ which geologists know as sedimentary rocks.

With this last addition to the variegated array of theories about the physical
condition of the Earth and about its genealogy, the scientific world began again
to settle down into serenity, comforted by the happy feeling that all at any rate
agree in regarding the Earth as a gradually cooling body, with many millions
of years still before it. Then came the discovery of radium, and, with it at
first, an assurance that geologists were justified in claiming a long past, to be
followed by a longer future than the most optimistic philosopher had dared
before to assume with our apparently limited store of Earth-heat. Now, however,
Professor Joly warns us that if the deeper parts of the globe contain anything
near the proportion of radioactive bodies found by him in the superficial rocks,
we may even be tending in the other direction; that, instead of a peaceful
cooling, our descendants may have to face a catastrophic heating; the now in-
conspicuous little body known as the Earth may indeed yet become famous
through the Universe as a new star.*

To add to the variety of ideas regarding the present state of the Earth’s
interior, Professor Schwarz, of Grahamstown,* concludes that our volcanic
phenomena can be accounted for on the assumption that the main mass of the
Earth below a superficial layer is cold and solid throughout, being composed,
like the meteorites, largely of unaltered ferromagnesian silicates and iron,

Thus, we see, whole fleets of hypotheses have been launched on this sea of
controversy : some of the craft have been decoyed by the cipher-signals of the
mathematician; some have foundered after bombardment by the heavy missiles
classically reserved for use by militant geologists; others, though built in the
dockyard of physicists, have suffered from the spontaneous combustion set up
by an inadvertent shipment of radium. Still, some of these hypotheses are yet
apparently seaworthy, and it may not be unprofitable to compare them with
recently acquired data.

The nearest approach to actual observation with regard to the state of the
Earth’s interior has been obtained by the seismograph, designed to record the
movements of seismic waves at great distances from the disturbing earthquake.
Some of the waves sent forth from an earthquake-centre travel through the
Earth, and some travel around by the superficial crust, the former reaching
the distant seismograph before the latter. The seismograph, by its record of the
wayes that travel through the Earth, has thus given a certain amount of infor-
mation regarding the state of the Earth’s interior which R. D. Oldham aptly
regards as analogous to that given by the spectroscope “ with regard to the
inaccessible atmosphere of the Sun.

2 J. Joly, Radioactivity and Geology, 1909, pp. 168-172.

3. H. L. Schwarz, Causal Geology, 1910.

4 In his Presidential Address to the Geological Society of London in 1909,
Professor W. J. Sollas (Proc. Geol. Soc., 1909, p. Ixxxvii) credits H. Benndorf
(Mitth. Geol. Gesellsch. Wien, I., 1908, 336) with this pretty analogy, but
Oldham has the precedence by just two years (cf. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. 62, 1906, p. 456).

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 347

The existence of two groups of earthquake-waves—those passing through,
and those passing near the surface around the Earth—has long been reeognised ;
but R, D. Oldham * has shown that the waves passing through the Earth are
of two kinds, travelling at two different speeds.

The record on the distant seismograph thus shows three well-marked phases :
the first phase, due to waves of compression passing through the Earth’s interior ;
the second phase, due to waves of distortion,*® also passing through the Earth’s
interior; and the third phase, recorded by the waves which pass around the
are along the superficial crust.

The third phase is always recorded at a time after the occurrence of the
shock proportional to the arcual distance of the recording seismograph from the
earthquake centre, the records of several large earthquakes showing an average
speed for the waves of about three kilométres per second. The rates of propa-
gation of the waves giving the first and second phases are both much greater
than of those forming the third phase; and up to an arcual distance of about
120° from the earthquake’s centre the rate of their propagation increases with
the distance. It is thus assumed that the waves giving rise to the first and
second phases in each distant seismographic record, by following approximately
along the chord of the are between the place of origin and the instrument,
pass through deeper layers of the Earth when the seismograph is farther away,
the material at greater depths being presumably more elastic as well as denser.

But Oldham” has shown that when the seismograph is as much as 150° from
the earthquake centre there is a remarkable decrease in the mean apparent
rate of propagation of the waves giving the second phase in the record, from
over six to about four and a half kilométres per second. There is also a drop,
although not nearly so marked, in the apparent speed of the waves of the first
phase when transmitted to a seismograph 150° or more distant from the earth-
quake origin. Oldham concludes that this decrease of apparent rate for waves
travelling through the Earth to places much more than 120° distant is due to
their passing into a central core, four-tenths of the radius in thickness, com-
posed of matter which transmits the waves at a markedly slow speed. Thus
the earthquake waves which emerge at a distance not greater than 120° from
their origin do not enter this central core, while those which pass into the Earth
to a greater depth than six-tenths of the radius are supposed to be refracted on
entering, and again on leaving the postulated core, in which the rate of trans-
mission of an elastic wave of distortion is very much slower than in the main
mass of the Earth around. In consequence of the refraction of these waves on
passing through the central core, places situated at about 140° from an earthquake
origin should be in partial shadow, due to the great dispersion of the distortional
waves, and the few records made so far by seismographs thus situated with
regard to great earthquakes show that there is either no, or at most a doubtful,
record for the second phase, which is known to be due to the so-called dis-
tortional waves.

Oldham’s deductions are based confessedly on a small number of earthquake
records—he considered fourteen examples only—but the conclusions based on a
small number of trustworthy records, from which variations due to the different
methods of marking the phases are eliminated, are more reliable than those for
which there are imperfect distant records as well as doubts regarding the exact
times of the disturbances. If these observations, however, be confirmed by
further records, we are justified in assuming that below the heterogeneous
crust there is a thick shell of elastic material, fairly homogeneous to about six-
tenths of the radius, surrounding a central core, four-tenths in thickness, which
possesses physical properties utterly unlike those of the outer layers; for in
this core the ‘ distortional’ waves are either damped completely or are trans-
mitted at very much lower speeds than in the shell.

* Phil. Trans., Ser. A., vol. exciv. (1900), pp. 135-74.

° There is more complete agreement regarding the fact that two distinct
sets of waves give rise to the so-called preliminary tremors indicated by a
seismographic record than about the nature of the waves. Confer. R. D. Oldham,
Phil. Trans., loc, cit.,and O. Fisher, Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc., vol. xii. pp. 354-361,

" Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., vol. 62, pp. 456-475 (1906).

348 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

One cannot consider this interesting inference from the seismographic data
without being reminded of the contention of Ritter, Arrhenius, and Wilde
regarding the possibility of a persistent gaseous core still above the critical tem-
perature of the substances of which it is composed. According to Ritter,® the
gaseous core is surrounded by a solid shell. Dr. Wilde ® postulates the existence
of a liquid substratum and a gaseous core within a solid crust, the two outer
shells having a thickness that is ‘not very considerable.’ Arrhenius assumes
from purely physical considerations that the solid crust is only about twenty-five
miles thick, that below this it is possibly in a molten condition for about a
hundred and fifty miles, and that the resé is a gas largely composed of iron
aig a pressure so great that its compressibility is not much less than that of
steel.

The whole of these conclusions, being based on assumptions regarding the
physical properties of matter under conditions of temperature and pressure that
are well beyond those of actual experience, must be put on a plane of science
well below that occupied by the investigations initiated by Oldham, who opens
up a line of research in which, as said before, the seismograph may justifiably
be compared with the spectroscope as an instrument for observing some inacces-
sible regions of Nature.

The mathematician apparently finds it just as easy to prove that the Earth
is solid throughout as to show by extrapolation from known physical values that
it must be largely gaseous. As Huxley said in his Presidential Address to the
Geological Society in 1869, the mathematical mill is a mill which grinds you
stuff of any degree of fineness, but, nevertheless, it can grind only what is put
into it; and the seismograph thus offers a new source of substantial grist. Now
that it is fairly certain that some of the earthquake-waves pass through the
deeper parts of the Earth, it is obvious that a fruitful development of science
will follow successful efforts to introduce precision in recording, and uniformity
of expression in reading, seismographic records.

Oldham *° has pointed out another way in which analysis of seismographic
records may lead to information regarding intra-telluric conditions by comparing
the records of waves that pass under the oceanic depressions with those that
are sub-continental for the whole or most of their paths. By comparing the
records in Europe of the Colombian earthquake of January 31, 1906, with those
of the San Francisco quake in the following April, there was a greater interval
noticed between the first and second phases of the Californian earthquake—
an interval greater than can be accounted for by mere difference of distance
between the origin of the shock and the recording instruments. The seismic
waves which passed from Colombia to Europe must have travelled under the
broadest and deepest part of the North Atlantic basin, while those from
California ran under the continent of North America, crossed the North Atlantic
not far south of Iceland, and approached Europe from the north-west, the wave
paths throughout being under continents or the continental shelf of the North
Atlantic. There is thus suggested some difference between the elastic con-
ditions of the sub-oceanic and the sub-continental parts of the crust—a difference
which, judging by the particular instances discussed, may extend to a depth of
one-quarter of the radius, but is not noticeable in the waves which penetrate
to one-third of the radius below the surface.

Obviously these data must be multiplied many times before they can be
regarded as a reliable index to a natural law; but it is significant that this

* A. Ritter, ‘Untersuchungen tiber die Hohe der Atmosphare und die
Constitution gasformiger Weltkérper,’ Wiedemann’s Ann. d. Phys. und Chem.,
vol. v. 405, 543 (1878); vol. vi. 135 (1879) ; vii. 304 (1879) ; viii. 157 (1879).

"On the Causes of the Phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism, Pamphlet,
1890, p. 2. The idea that the Earth’s magnetism is due to the electricity
generated by the friction between the shell and the core, rotating with a different
motion, was suggested by Dr. Wilde in 1902 (Mem. Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc.,
vol. 46, Part IV. p. 8, 1902). A similar suggestion based also on Halley’s con-
ception of a separately rotating inner core was made previously by Sir F. J.
Evans in 1878 (‘Remarkable Changes in the Earth’s Magnetism,’ Nature,
vol. xviii. p. 80).

10 Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., vol. 63, 344-3850 (1907),

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 349

indication of a difference between the physical nature of the sub-oceanic and
sub-continental parts of the crust is in rough correspondence with the conclusions
previously suggested on quite other grounds.

In his Presidential Address to the Geographical Section of the British
Association at Dover in 1899, the late Sir John Murray drew attention to the
chemical differentiation which has been going on between the continents and
the oceans since the processes of weathering and denudation commenced. By
these processes the more siliceous and specifically lighter constituents are left
behind on the continents, while the heavier bases are carried out to the ocean.
It is to this process that Professor T. C. Chamberlin! also ascribes the origin
of the depressions in which the oceanic waters have accumulated. As a
corollary of the planetesimal theory, Chamberlin assumes that water began to
be forced out of the porous surface blocks of the accumulated meteoritic material
when the Earth’s radius was between 1,500 and 1,800 miles shorter than it is
now; at that time pools of water began to be formed on the surface, and the
atmosphere, just commencing its work, began the operation of leaching the
heavier bases out of the highlands. Growth of the world proceeded by the
infall of planetesimals, and while those meteorites that fell on the highlands
became deprived of their soluble bases, those that fell into the young ocean
were merely buried unaltered. Thus, by the time the Earth reached its present
size its crust under the oceanic depressions must have developed a chemical
composition differing from that under the continents. According to the deduc-
tion suggested by Oldham from the seismographic records, there is a noticeable
difference in the sub-oceanic areas to depths of between 1,000 and 1,300 miles—a
layer in which the followers of Chamberlin’s theory might reasonably expect
some physical expression of the partially developed chemical differentiation.

The occurrence of denser material below the oceans has, of course, long
been assumed from the deflection of the plumb-line, and was accepted by Pratt
for his theory of compensation, as well as by Dutton as a wide expression of the
theory of isostasy. Chamberlain '* thus explains the general prevalence of basic
lavas in oceanic volcanoes. :

The apparent heterogeneity indicated in the outer shell of the Earth to depths
of 1,000 miles is naturally in conflict with the assumption that from thirty miles
or so down the materials are in a liquid condition; at any rate, the idea con-
flicts with Fisher’s extreme conception of the liquid substratum, in which the
fluidity is supposed to be sufficient for the production of convection currents,
upwards beneath the oceanic depressions, spreading horizontally towards the
continents, and thence downwards to complete the circuit.

The idea that changes of azimuth and of latitude may be brought about by
the sliding of the Earth’s crust over its core has been put forward more than
once to account for the climatic changes of past geological ages—the occurrence
of temperate or even warm climates on parts of the crust now within the polar
circles, and glacial conditions at the sea-level in countries like India, Australia,
Africa, and South America, which are now far from the polar ice-sheets and
in some cases near or within the tropics. Professor E. Koken, of Tiibingen,™
in an elaborate memoir entitled ‘Indisches Perm und die Permische Hiszeit,’
attributes the idea of a sliding crust to Mr. R. D. Oldham; but a similar
suggestion was put forward by the late Sir John Evans twenty years before the
publication of Mr. Oldham’s paper,’* and when the theory was restated in more
precise form, ten years later,'® it was subjected to mathematical criticism by

J. F. Twisden, E. Hill, and O. Fisher.*®

1 Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology, vol. ii. 1906, 106-111.

12 Geology, ii. 1906, p. 120.

SN. Jahrb. fiir Min. u.s.w., 1907, 537.

™ J. Evans, ‘On a possible Geological Cause of Changes in the Position cf
the Axis of the Earth’s Crust,’ Proc. Roy. Soc., xv. 46 (1866).

** J. Evans, Presidential Address, Proc. Geol. Soc., 1876, p. 105.

J. ¥. Twisden, ‘On possible Displacements of the Earth’s Axis of figure
produced by Elevations and Depressions of her Surface,’ Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., xxxiv. 35 (1877). E. Hill, ‘On the possibility of Changes in the Earth’s
Axis,’ Geol. Mag., 1878, 262 and 479. 0. Fisher, ‘ On the possibility of Changes in
the Latitude of Places on the Earth’s Surface,’ Geol. Mag., 1878, pp. 291 and 551-

350 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©.

Sir John Evans suggested that this movement of the crust was inevitable as
a consequence of the moulding of the orographical features and consequent
redistribution of weights; but Twisden came to the conclusion that the re-
arrangement of the great inequalities on the Earth’s surface would be insufficient
to produce any appreciable sliding of the order required to make material
differences in the climate of any place.

Oldham,'’ who was writing at the time in the field in India and thus away
from literature, put forward the idea in 1886 as an independent thought, and
made use of Fisher’s new theory regarding the existence of a fluid stratum be-
tween the solid crust and the supposed solid core to account for the shifting
of places relative to the axis of rotation from the equatorial region even to the
polar circles. Oldham drew attention to the recorded small changes of latitude
at certain observatories and to the probable changes of azimuth in the Pyramids
of Egypt—evidences of a kind which have since been greatly enlarged by the
work of Sir Norman Lockyer and others.

The movements assumed to have taken place during the human period are
of course small; and to project from them changes as great as the transfer of
lands from the polar circle to the tropics has the objection that characterises a
surveyor’s use of ‘unfavourable’ triangles in a trigonometrical survey. Before
admitting, therefore, that these small changes of latitude and of azimuth may be
classed with the paleo-glacialists’ evidence as data of the same kind, though
so utterly different in magnitude, it is desirable briefly to examine the geological
evidence regarding past ice-ages in extra-polar areas.

From the records of ancient glaciations we might omit those of the pre-
Cambrian rocks of North Ontario and the pre-Upper Cambrian of Norway, as
these areas are nearer the poles than many places which were certainly covered
with ice-sheets during the youngest, or often so-called Great, Ice Age. But
besides these we have evidence of glaciation in the Cambrian or possibly pre-
Cambrian rocks of South Australia at a latitude of 35° or less; in South Africa
there were two or more distinct glacial periods before Lower Devonian times in
slightly lower latitudes; while in*China similar records are found among rocks
of the Lower Cambrian, or possibly of older age, at a latitude of 31° N.

The glacial boulder-beds found at the base of our great coal-bearing system
in India belong to the same stratigraphical horizon as the glacial beds found in
South Africa, certain parts of Australia, and in parts of Brazil and Sao Paulo
near or within the southern tropic.

These glacial beds are often referred to in geological literature as Permo-
Carboniferous in age; but Professor Koken regarded the formation in India as
Permian. Other valuations of paleontological evidence, similar to that relied
on by Professor Koken, place these beds at a distinctly lower horizon in the
European stratigraphical scale, and recent work by officers of the Geological
Survey of India in Kashmir tends to confirm this latter view; we now regard the
base of our great coal-bearing system in India—the horizon of the glacial-boulder-
beds—as not much, if at all, younger than the Upper Coal Measures of Britain.”
The precise age of the horizon is not very important for our present considera-
tion: the important point is that in or near Upper Carboniferous times a wide-
spread glaciation occurred throughout the area now occupied by India, Australia,
and South Africa. The records of this great glaciation are thus found stretch-
ing northwards beyond the northern as well as southwards beyond the southern
tropic.

oe on the assumption that the cold climate in this region was due to a
movement of the crust over the nucleus, Professor Koken has produced an
elaborate map of the World, showing the distribution of land and sea during
the period, with the directions of ocean-currents and of ice-sheets. The
Permian South Pole he places at the point of intersection of the present
20th parallel S. and 80th meridian E.—that is, at a point in the Indian Ocean
about equidistant from the glaciated regions of India, Australia, and South
Africa. The Permian North Pole is thus forced to take up its position in the
centre of Mexico, while the Equator strikes through Russia, Italy, West
Africa, down through the South Atlantic and round by Fiji to Vladivostock.

17 Geol. Mag., 1886, 304.
18 H. H. Hayden, Rec. Geol. Surv. Ind., vol. xxxvi. p. 23, 1907.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 6 4

mt ashe 1

The very precision of this map reduces the theory on which it is based to a
condition of unstable equilibrium. If glacial conditions were developed in
India, Australia, and South Africa by a 70° movement of the crust, were the
movements to and from its assumed position in Permian times so rapid that the
glaciation of these widely separated areas appears to be geologically contem-
poraneous? If such movements had occurred, instead of evidences of glaciation
over a wide area at the same period, we ought rather to find that the glaciation
in each of the widely separated points occurred during distinctly different
geological periods.

But that is not the only weak spot in the evidence. The Permian (or Permo-
Carboniferous) glaciation of Australia took place on the east and south-east of
the continent as well as in Western Australia, and the eastern ice-sheets would
thus have been active within 30° of Professor Koken’s Permian equator. There
are still three other serious pieces of colour-discord in this picture. In the
State of Sio Paulo—that is, within Koken’s ‘ Permian’ tropics—Dr, Orville
Derby has described beds which strikingly recall the features of the Upper
Paleozoic glacial beds of India and South Africa. It is possible that these
are due to the work of glaciers at a high level; but, since the publication of
Professor Koken’s memoir, other occurrences of the kind have been described
by Dr, I. C. White in different parts of Brazil, and there is a general
correspondence between the phenomena in South America and those in the
formations of the same age in the Indian, Australian, and African regions.

Then, too, if we accept this expression of the physical geography during
Upper Paleozoic times, we must carefully explain away the suspicious breccias
and brockrams which have been regarded by many geologists as evidences of a
cold climate during Permian times in the Urals, the Thuiringerwald, the English
Midland and Northern counties, Devonshire and Armagh—places that would
he on or near Koken’s ‘ Permian’ equator. Finally, we find the hypothetical
Permian North Pole in a locality which has failed to produce any signs of
glaciation.

To attempt a discussion of the explanations offered to account for the great
Upper Paleozoic glaciation would lead us far from the present theme. The
question is raised merely to show that the phenomena are not consistent with
the supposed movement of a solid shell over a solid core assisted by an
intermediate molten lubricant. Geologists may be compelled to hand back the
theory of a molten substratum to the mathematicians and physicists for further
repair; but it does not necessarily follow that a foundation theory is unsound
merely because it has been overloaded beyond its compressive strength.

The extraordinarily great distances between the areas that show signs of
glaciation in Permo-Carboniferous times form a serious stumbling-block to most
of the explanations which have hitherto been offered. One is almost tempted in
despair even to ask if it is not possible iat these fragments of the old
Gondwana continent are now more widely separated from one another than they
were in Upper Paleozoic times. It is a bold suggestion indeed that one can
safely put aside as absurd in geomorphology. There is nothing else apparently
left for us but the assumption of a general refrigeration.

The idea of the greater inequalities of the globe being in approximately static
equilibrium has been recognised for many years: it was expressed by Babbage
and Herschel; it was included in Archdeacon Pratt’s theory of compensation ;
and it was accepted by Fisher as one of the fundamental facts on which his
theory of mountain structure rested. But in 1889 Captain C. E. Dutton pre-
sented the idea ‘in a modified form, in a new dress, and in greater detail’; he
gave the idea orthodox baptism and a name, which seems to be necessary for the
respectable life of any scientific theory. ‘ For the condition of equilibrium of
figure, to which gravitation tends to reduce a planetary body, irrespective of
whether it be homogeneous or not,’ Dutton’® proposed ‘the name isostasy.’
The corresponding adjective would be isostatic—the state of balance between
the ups and downs on the Earth.

For a long time geologists were forced to content themselves with the con-
clusion that the folding of strata is the result of the crust collapsing on a cooling

1 Dutton, ‘On some of the Greater Problems of Physical Geology,’ Bull.
Phil, Soc. Wash., xi. 53, 1889.

352 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

and shrinking core; but Fisher pointed out that the amount of radial shrinking
could not account even for the present great surface inequalities of the litho-
sphere, without regard to the enormous lateral shortening indicated by the
folds in great mountain regions, some of which, like the Himalayan folds, were
formed at a late date in the Earth’s history, folds which in date and direction
have no genetic relationship to G. H. Darwin’s primitive wrinkles. Then,
besides the folding and plication of the crust in some areas, we have to account
for the undoubted stretching which it has suffered in other places, stretching
of a kind indicated by faults so common that they are generally known as normal
faults. It has been estimated by Claypole that the folding of the Appalachian
range resulted in a horizontal compression of the strata to a belt less than
65 per cent. of the original breadth. According to Heim the diameter of the
northern zone of the central Alps is not more than half the original extension
of the strata when they were laid down in horizontal sheets. De la Beche, in
his memoir on Devon and Cornwall, which anticipated many problems of more
than local interest, pointed out that, if the inclined and folded strata were
flattened out again, they would cover far more ground than that to which they
are now restricted on the geological map. ‘Thus, according to Dutton, Fisher,
and others, the mere contraction of the cooling globe is insufficient to account
for our great rock-folds, especially great folds like those of the Alps and the
Himalayas, which have been produced in quite late geological times. It is
possible that this conclusion is in the main true; but in coming to this conclusion
we must give due value to the number of patches which have been let into the
old crustal envelope—masses of igneous rock, mineral veins and hydrated pro-
ducts which have been formed in areas of temporary stretching, and have
remained as permanent additions to the crust, increasing the size and bagginess
of the old coat, which, since the discovery of radium, is now regarded as much
older than was formerly imagined by non-geological members of the scientific
world.

The peculiar nature of rock-folds presents also an obstacle no less formidable
from a qualitative point of view. If the skin were merely collapsing on its shrink-
ing core we should expect wrinkles in all directions; yet we find great folded .
areas like the Himalayas stretching continuously for 1,400 miles, with signs of
a persistently directed overthrust from the north; or we have folded masses
like the Appalachians of a similar order of magnitude stretching from Maine
to Georgia, with an unmistakable compression in a north-west to south-east
direction. The simple hypothesis of a collapsing crust is thus ‘ quantitatively
insufticient,’ according to Dutton, though this is still doubtful, and it is
‘qualitatively inapplicable,’ which is highly probable.

In addition to the facts that rock-folds are maintained over such great
distances and that later folds are sometimes found to be superimposed on older
ones, geologists have to account for the conditions which permit of the gradual
accumulation of enormous thicknesses of strata without corresponding rise of
the surface of deposition.

On the other hand, too, in folded regions there are exposures of beds super-
imposed on one another with a total thickness of many miles more than the
height of any known mountain, and one is driven again to conclude that uplift
has proceeded pari passu with the removal of the load through the erosive work
of atmospheric agents.

It does not necessarily follow that these two processes are the direct result
of loading in one case and of relief in the other; for slow subsidence gives rise
to the conditions that favour deposition and the uplifting of a range results in
the increased energy of eroding streams.

Thus there was a natural desire to see if Dutton’s theory agreed with the
variations of gravity. If the ups and downs are balanced, the apparently large
mass of a mountain-range ought to be compensated by lightness of material in
and below it. Dutton was aware of the fact that this was approximately true
regarding the great continental plateaux and oceanic depressions; but he
imagined that the balance was delicate enough to show up in a small hill-range
of 3,000 to 5,000 feet.

The data required to test this theory, accumulated during the triangulation
ot the United States, have been made the subject of an elaborate analysis by

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 353

J. I. Hayford and W. Bowie.*° They find that, by adopting the hypothesis
of isostatic compensation, the differences between the observed and computed
deflections of the vertical caused by topographical inequalities are reduced to
less than one-tenth of the mean values which they would have if no isostatic
compensation existed. According to the hypothesis adopted, the inequalities
of gravity are assumed to die out at some uniform depth, called the depth of
compensation, below the mean sea-level. The columns of crust material stand-
ing above this horizon vary in length according to the topography, being rela-
tively long in highlands and relatively short under the ocean. The shorter
columns are supposed to be composed of denser material, so that the product
of the length of each column by its mean density would be the same for all
places. It was found that, by adopting 122 kilométres as the depth of com-
pensation, the deflection anomalies were most effectually eliminated, but there
still remained unexplained residuals or local anomalies of gravity to be accounted
for.

Mr. G. K. Gilbert,** who was one of the earliest geologists to turn to account
Dutton’s theory of isostasy, has recently offered a plausible theory to account
for these residual discrepancies between the observed deflections and those
computed on the assumption of isostatic compensation to a depth of 122 kilo-
métres. An attempt had already been made by Hayford and Bowie to correlate
the distribution of anomalies with the main features of the geological map and
with local changes in load that have occurred during comparatively recent
geological times. For example, they considered the possibility of an increased
load in the lower Mississippi valley, where there has been in recent times a
steady deposition of sediment, and therefore possibly the accumulation of mass
slightly in advance of isostatic adjustment. One would expect in such a case
that there would be locally shown a slight excess of gravity, but, on the con-
trary, there is a general prevalence of negative anomalies in this region. In
the Appalachian region, on the other hand, where there has been during late
geological times continuous erosion, with consequent unloading, one would expect
that the gravity values would be lower, as_ isostatic compensation would
naturally lag behind the loss of overburden; this, however, is also not the case,
for over a greater part of the Appalachian region the anomalies are of the
positive order. Similarly, in the north central region, where there has been
since Pleistocene times a removal of a heavy ice-cap, there is still a general
prevalence of positive anomalies.

These anomalies must, therefore, remain unexplained by any of the obvious
phenomena at the command of the geologist. G. K. Gilbert now suggests that,
while it may be true that the product of the length of the unit column by
its mean density may be the same, the density variations within the column
may be such as to give rise to different effects on the pendulum, If, for instance,
one considers two columns of the same size and of exactly the same weight, with,
in one case, the heavy material at a high level and in the other case with the
heavy material at a low level, the centre of gravity of the former column, being
nearer the surface, will manifest itself with a greater pull on the pendulum ;
these columns would be, however, in isostatic adjustment.”

*° J. F. Hayford, ‘The Figure of the Earth and Isostasy,’ U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey, Washington, 1909. ‘ Supplementary Investigation,’ Washing-
ton, 1910. See also Science, New Series, vol. xxxiii., p. 199, 1911. J. F.
Hayford and W. Bowie, ‘ The Effect of Topography and Isostatic Compensation
upon the Intensity of Gravity,’ U.S, Coast and Geodetic Survey Special
Publication No. 10, Washington, 1912.

*1 “Interpretation of Anomalies of Gravity,’ U.S. Geol. Surv, Professional
Paper 85-C, 1913, p. 29.

* It is interesting to note that the idea suggested by G. K. Gilbert in 1913
was partly anticipated by Major H. L. Crosthwait in 1912 (Survey of India,
Professional Paper No, 13, p. 5). Major Crosthwait in discussing the similar
gravity anomalies in India remarks parenthetically : ‘ Assuming the doctrine of
isostasy to hold, is it not possible that in any two columns of matter extending
from the surface down to the depth of compensation there may be the same
mass, and yet that the density may be very differently distributed in the two

1914. AA

354 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

Gilbert’s hypothesis thus differs slightly from the conception put forth by
Hayford and Bowie; for Gilbert assumes that there is still appreciable hetero-
geneity in the more deep-seated parts of the Earth, while Hayford and Bowie’s
hypothesis assumes that in the nuclear mass density anomalies have practically
disappeared, and that there is below the depth of compensation an adjustment
such as would exist in a mass composed of homogeneous concentric shells.

In order to make the Indian observations comparable to those of the United
States as a test of the theory of isostasy, Major H. L. Crosthwait ** has adopted
Hayford’s system of computation and has applied it to 102 latitude stations and
18 longitude stations in India. He finds that the unexplained residuals in India
are far more pronounced than they are in the United States, or, in other words,
it would appear that isostatic conditions are much more nearly realised in
America than in India.

The number of observations considered in India is still too small for the
formation of a detailed map of anomalies, but the country can be divided into
broad areas which show that the mean anomalies are comparable to those of the
United States only over the Indian peninsula, which, being a mass of rock
practically undisturbed since early geological times, may be regarded safely as
having approached isostatic equilibrium. To the north of the peninsula three
districts form a wide band stretching west-north-westwards from Calcutta, with
mean residual anomalies of a positive kind, while to the north of this band lies
the Himalayan belt, in which there is always a large negative residual.

Colonel Burrard** has considered the Himalayan and Sub-Himalayan
anomalies in a special memoir, and comes to the conclusion that the gravity
deficiency is altogether too great to be due to a simple geosynclinal depression
filled with light alluvium such as we generally regard the Gangetic trough to
be. He suggests that the rapid change in gravity values near the southern
margin of the Himalayan mass can be explained only on the assumption of the
existence of a deep and narrow rift in the sub-crust parallel to the general
Himalayan axis of folding. A single large rift of the kind and size that Colonel
Burrard postulates is a feature for which we have no exact parallel; but one
must be careful not to be misled by the use of a term which, while conveying a
definite mental impression to a mathematician, appears to be incongruous with
our geological experience. There may be no such thing as a single large rift
filled with light alluvial material, but it is possible that there may still be a
series of deep-seated fissures that might afterwards become filled with mineral
matter.

With this conception of a rift or a series of rifts, Colonel Burrard is led to
reverse the ordinary mechanical conception of Himalayan folding. Instead now
of looking upon the folds as due to an overthrust from the north, he regards
the corrugations to be the result of an under-creep of the sub-crust towards the
north. Thus, according to this view, the Himalaya, instead of being pushed
over like a gigantic rock-wave breaking on to the Indian Horst, is in reality
being dragged away from the old peninsula, the depression between being filled
up gradually by the Gangetic alluvium. So far as the purely stratigraphical
features are concerned, the effect would be approximately the same whether
there is a superficial overthrust of the covering strata or whether there is a
deep-seated withdrawal of the basement which is well below the level of
observation.

Since the Tibetan expedition of ten years ago we have been in possession
of definite facts which show that to the north of the central crystalline axis
of the Himalaya there lies a great basin of marine sediments forming a fairly
complete record from Paleozoic to Tertiary times, representing the sediments

columns? These two columns,- though in isostatic equilibrium, would act
differently on the plumb-line owing to the unequal distribution of mass.

‘The drawback to treating this subject by hard and fast mathematical
formule is that we are introducing into a discussion of the constitution of the
earth’s crust a uniform method when, in reality, probably no uniformity
exists.’

23 Survey of India, Professional Paper No, 13, 1912.

24 Ibid. No. 12, 1912.

— ed

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 355

which were laid down in the great central Eurasian ocean to which Suess gave
the name Tethys. We have thus so far been regarding the central crystalline
axis of the Himalaya as approximately coincident with the old northern coast-
line of Gondwanaland; but, if Colonel Burrard’s ideas be correct, the coast-line
must have been very much further to the south before the Himalayan folding
began.

Representing what the Geological Survey of India regards as the orthodox
view, Mr. H. H. Hayden ** has drawn attention to some conclusions which, from
our present geological knowledge, appear to be strange and improbable in
Colonel Burrard’s conclusions, and he also offers alternative explanations for
the admitted geodetic facts. Mr. Hayden suggests, for instance, that the
depth of isostatic compensation may be quite different under the Himalayan
belt from that under the regions to the south. His assumptions, however, in
this respect are, as pointed out by Colonel G. P. Lenox Conyngham,”* at variance
with the whole theory of isostasy. Mr. Hayden then suggests that most of the
excessive anomalies would disappear if we took into account the low specific
gravity of the Sub-Himalayan sands and gravels of Upper Tertiary age as
well as of the Pleistocene and recent accumulations of similar material filling
the Indo-Gangetic depression. It would not be at all inconsistent with our
ideas derived from geology to regard the Gangetic trough as some three or four
miles deep near its northern margin, thinning out gradually towards the undis-
turbed mass of the Indian peninsula, and Mr. R. D. Oldham,’ with this view,
has also calculated the effect of such a wedge of alluvial material of low specific
gravity, coming to the conclusion that the rapid change in deflection, on
passing from the Lower Himalaya southward towards the peninsula, can mainly
be explained by the deficiency of mass in the alluvium itself.

It is obvious that, before seeking for any unusual cause for the gravity
anomalies, we ought to take into account the effect of this large body of alluvium
which lies along the southern foot of the range. It is, however, by no means
certain that a thick mass of alluvial material, accumulated slowly and saturated
with water largely charged with carbonate of lime, would have a specific gravity
so appreciably lower than that of the rocks now exposed in the main mass of
the Himalaya as to account for the residaal anomalies. Some of the apparent
deficiency in gravity is due to this body of alluvium, but it will only be after
critical examination of the data and more precise computation that we shall
be in a position to say if there is still room to entertain ‘Colonel Burrard’s very
interesting hypothesis.

By bringing together the geological and geodetic results we notice five
roughly parallel bands stretching across northern India. There is (1) a band
of abnormal high gravity lying about 150 miles from the foot of the mountains,
detected by the plumb-line and pendulum; (2) the great depression filled by
the Gangetic alluvium; (3) the continuous band of Tertiary rock, forming the
Sub-Himalaya, and separated by a great boundary overthrust from (4) the main
mass of the Outer and Central Himalaya of old unfossiliferous rock, with the
snow-covered crystalline peaks flanked on the north by (5) the Tibetan basin of
highly fossiliferous rocks formed in the great Eurasian mediterranean ocean
that persisted up to nearly the end of Mesozoic times.

That these leading features in North India can hardly be without genetic
relationship one to another is indicated by the geological history of the area.
Till nearly the end of the Mesozoic era the line of crystalline, snow-covered
peaks now forming the Central Himalaya was not far from the shore-line
between Gondwanaland, stretching away to the south, and Tethys, the great
Eurasian ocean. Near the end of Mesozoic times there commenced the preat
outwelling of the Deccan Trap, the remains of which, after geological ages of
erosion, still cover an area of 200,000 square miles, with a thickness in places of
nearly 5,000 feet. Immediately after the outflow of this body of basic lava,
greater in mass than any known eruption of the kind, the ocean flowed into
North-West India and projected an arm eastwards to a little beyond the point

°° Ree. Geol. Surv. Ind., vol. xliii. part 2, p. 138, 1913.
°° Records of the Survey of India, vol. v. p. 1.
27 Proc. Roy. Soc., Series A, vol. 90, p. 32, 1914.

AA2

356 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

at which the Ganges now emerges from the hills. ‘Then followed the folding
movements that culminated in the present Himalayan range, the elevation
developing first on the Bengal side, and extending rapidly to the north-west
until the folds extended in a great arc for some 1,400 miles from south-east to
north-west.

New streams developed on the southern face of the now rising mass, and
although the arm of the sea that existed in early Tertiary times became choked
with silt, the process of subsidence continued, and the gradually subsiding
depression at the foot of the hills as fast as it developed became filled with
silt, sand, gravel, and boulders in increasing quantities as the hills became
mountains and the range finally reached its present dimensions, surpassing in
size all other features of the kind on the face of the globe.

Now, it is important to remember that for ages before the great outburst of
Deccan Trap occurred there was a continual unloading of Gondwanaland, and
a continual consequent overloading of the ocean bed immediately to the north;
that this process went on with a gradual rise on one side and a gradual depres-
sion on the other; and that somewhere near and parallel to the boundary line
the crust must have been undergoing stresses which resulted in strain, and, as
I suggest, the development of those fissures that let loose the floods of Deccan
Trap and brought to an end the delicate isostatic balance.

During the secular subsidence of the northern shore line of Gondwanaland,
accompanied by the slow accumulation of sediment near the shore and the
gradual filing away of the land above sea-level, there must have been a gradual
creep of the crust in a northerly direction. Near the west end of the Himalayan
arc this movement would be towards the north-west for a part of the time;
at the east end the creep would be towards the north-north-east and north-east.
Thus there would be a tendency from well back in Paleozoic times up to the
end of the Cretaceous period for normal faults—faults of tension—to develop
on the land, with a trend varying from W.S.W.-E.N.E. to W.N.W.-E.S.E.
across the northern part of Gondwanaland. We know nothing of the evidence
now pigeon-holed below the great mantle of Gangetic alluvium, while the
records of the Himalayan region have been masked or destroyed by later fold-
ings. But in the stratified rocks lying just south of the southern margin of the
great alluvial belt we find a common tendency for faults to strike in this way
across the present Peninsula of India. These faults have, for instance, marked
out the great belt of coalfields stretching for some 200 miles from east to west
in the Damuda valley. On this, the east side of India, the fractures of tension
have a general trend of W.N.W.-E.S.E. We know that these faults are later
than the Permian period, but some of them certainly were not much later.

If now we go westwards across the Central Provinces and Central India and
into the eastern part of the Bombay Presidency, we find records of this kind
still more strikingly preserved; for where the Gondwana rocks, ranging from
Permo-Carboniferous to Liassic in age, rest on the much older Vindhyan series,
we find three main series of these faults. One series was developed before
Permo-Carboniferous times; another traverses the lower Gondwanas, which
range up to about the end of Permian times; while the third set affects the
younger and Upper Gondwanas of about Rhetic or Liassic age. Although
the present topography of the country follows closely the outlines of the geo-
logical formations, it is clear fromthe work of the Geological Survey of India
that these outlines were determined in Mesozoic times, and that the movements
which formed the latest series of faults were but continuations of those which
manifested themselves in Paleozoic times. According to Mr. J. G. Medlicott
the field data showed ‘that a tendency to yield in general east and west or
more clearly north-east and south-west lines existed in this great area from the
remote period of the Vindhyan fault.’7* The author of the memoir and map
on this area was certainly not suspicious of the ideas of which I am now un-
burdening my mind; on the contrary, he attempted and, with apologies, failed
to reconcile his facts to views then being pushed by the weight of ‘authority ’
in Europe. This was not the last time that facts established in India were
found (to use a field-geologist’s term) unconformably to lie on a basement of

** Mem. Geol. Surv. Ind., vol. ii, 1860, part 2, p. 256.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 357

geological orthodoxy as determined by authority in Europe. It is important
to notice that the series of faults referred to in the central parts of India are
not mere local dislocations, but have a general trend for more than 250 miles.

A fault must be younger, naturally, than the strata which it traverses, but
how much younger can seldom be determined. Intrusive rocks of known age are
thus often more useful in indicating the age of the fissures through which they
have been injected, and consequently the dykes which were formed at the time
of the eruption of the great Deccan Trap give another clue to the direction
of stresses at this critical time, that is towards the end of the Cretaceous
period, when the northerly creep had reached its maximum, just before Gond-
wanaland was broken up. If, now, we turn to the geological maps of the northern
part of Central India, the Central Provinces, and Bengal, we find that the old
Vindhyan rocks of the Narbada valley were injected with hundreds of trap-
dykes which show a general W.S.W.-E.N.E. trend, and thus parallel to the
normal tension faults, which we know were formed during the periods pre-
ceding the outburst of the Deccan Trap. This general trend of faults and
basic dykes is indicated on many of the published geological maps of India
covering the northern part of the peninsula, including Ball’s maps of the
Ramgarh and Bokaro coalfields 7? and of the Hutar coalfield,*° Hughes’ Rewa
Gondwana basin,*! Jones’ southern coalfields of the Satpura basin,*” and Oldham’s
general map of the Son Valley.**

We see, then, that the development of fissures with a general east-west
trend in the northern part of Gondwanaland culminated at the end of the
Cretaceous period, when they extended down, probably, to the basic magma
lying below the crust either in a molten state, or in a state that would result
in fluxion on the relief of pressure. That the molten material came to the
surface in a superheated and liquid condition is shown by the way in which
it has spread out in horizontal sheets over such enormous areas. Throughout
this great expanse of lava there are no certain signs of volcanic centres, no
conical slopes around volcanic necks; and one might travel for more than 400
miles from Poona to Nagpur over sheets of lava which are still practically
horizontal. There is nothing exactly like this to be seen elsewhere to-day.
The nearest approach to it is among the Hawaiian calderas, where the highly
mobile basic lavas also show the characters of superfusion, glowing, according
to aaa Dana,** with a white heat, that is, at a temperature not less than about
1,300°C.

Mellard Reade has pointed out that the Earth’s crust is under conditions of
stress analogous to those of a bent beam, with, at a certain depth, a ‘level of
no strain.’ Above this level there should be a shell of compression, and under
it a thicker shell of tension. The idea has been treated mathematically by C.,
Davison, G. H. Darwin, O. Fisher, and M. P. Rudski, and need not be discussed
at present. Professor R. A. Daly has taken advantage of this view concerning
the distribution of stresses in the crust to explain the facility for the injection
of dykes and batholiths from the liquid, or potentially liquid, gabbroid magma
below into the shell of tension.** He also shows that the injection of large
bodies of basic material into the shell of tension tends on purely mechanical
grounds to the formation of a depression, or geosyncline. If this be so, are we
justified in assuming that the heavy band following the southern margin of the
Gangetic geosyncline is a ‘range’ of such batholiths? The idea is not entirely
new; for O. Fisher made the suggestion more than twenty years ago that the
abnormal gravity at Kalianpur was due to ‘some peculiar influence (perhaps of
a volcanic neck of basalt).’ **

79 Mem. Geol. Surv. Ind., vol. vi. part 2.

°° Tbid., vol. xv,

*t Tbid., vol. xxi. part 3.

32 Tbid., vol. xxiv.

°° Tbid., vol. xxxi. part 1.

** Characteristics of Volcanoes, 1891, p. 200.

*° R. A. Daly, ‘ Abyssal Igneous Injection as a Causal Condition and as an
Effect of Mountain-building,’ Amer. Journ. Sci., xxii. Sept. 1906, p. 205.

86 Physics of the Harth’s Crust, 2nd ed., 1889, p. 216.

358 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

Daly’s suggestion, however, taken into account with the history of Gondwana
land, may explain the peculiar alignment of the heavy subterranean band,
parallel to the Gangetic depression and parallel to the general trend of the
peninsular tension-faults and fissures that followed the unloading of Gondwana-
land and the heavy loading of the adjoining ocean bed along a band roughly
parallel to the present Himalayan folds.

R. 8S. Woodward objected that isostasy does not seem to meet the requirements
of geological continuity, for it tends rapidly towards stable equilibrium, and the
crust ought therefore to reach a stage of repose early in geologic time.*’ If the
process of denudation and rise, with adjoining deposition and subsidence,
occurred on a solid globe, this objection might hold good. But it seems to me
that the break-up of Gondwanaland and the tectonic revolutions that followed
show how isostasy can defeat itself in the presence of a sub-crustal magma
actually molten or ready to liquefy on local relief of pressure. It is possible
that the protracted filing off of Gondwanaland brought nearer the surface
what was once the local level of no-strain and its accompanying shell of tension.

The conditions existing in northern Gondwanaland before late Mesozoic times
must have been similar to those in south-west Scotland before the occurrence
of the Tertiary eruptions, for the crust in this region was also torn by stresses
in the 8.W.-N.E. direction with the formation of a remarkable series of
N.W.-S.E. dykes which give the one-inch geological maps in this region a
regularly striped appearance.

There is no section of the Earth’s surface which one can point to as being
now subjected to exactly the same kind and magnitude of treatment as that to
which Gondwanaland was exposed for long ages before the outburst of the Deccan
Trap; but possibly the erosion of the Brazilian highlands and the deposition of
the silt carried down by the Amazon, with its southern tributaries, and by the
more eastern Araguay and Tocantins, may result in similar stresses which, if
continued, will develop strains, and open the way for the subjacent magma to
approach the surface or even to become extravasated, adding another to the
small family of so-called fissure-eruptions.

The value of a generalisation can be tested best by its reliability as a basis
for prediction. Nothing shows up the shortcomings of our knowledge about the
state of affairs below the superficial crust so effectually as our inability to make
any useful predictions about earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. For many
years to come in this department of science the only worker who will ever
establish a claim to be called a prophet will be one in Cicero’s sense—‘ he who
guesses well.’

MELBOURNE.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 14.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Geology of Victoria. By Professor Ernest W. Sxeats, D.Sc.

2. Exhibition of a Series of Lantern Slides illustrating Desert Scenery
and Denudation. By Dr. Jouannes Wavtuer.

Every climatic region is characterised by a different type of disintegration
and denudation of soft or softened rock by the agents of erosion. In the nival
region a cover of snow protects the surface of the earth during a long period of
the year.

In the humid zone and also in the equatorial pluvial region the soil is over-

** * Address to the Sect. of Mathematics and Astronomy of the Amer. Assoc.,’
1889. Smithsonian Report, 1890, p. 196.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Q. 359

grown by a network of roots and rootlets of millions of plants, which bind
together the small particles and protect them against wind and running water.

In arid regions, where the rain is not sufficient to form perennial rivers,
and where the vegetation forms isolated patches in the barren country, every
particle of soft or disintegrated rock is quickly taken away by the wind or the
occasional rainfall. Therefore the general denudation of the land is very
powerful. The Egyptian monuments, exposed during 4,000 years to the disinte-
erating and denuding powers of the desert, offer beautiful examples of the
different kinds of dry disintegration, and many of them show very clearly also
the transporting effect of the wind.

3. The Climatic Conditions of the Karly Pre-Cambrian.
By Professor A. P. Coneman, F.R.S.

Our knowledge of the later Pre-Cambrian permits us to speak of desert
conditions in the Keweenawan or Torridonian and of an ice age followed by a
cool climate in the Huronian, but little evidence has been given as to earlier
climates. Recent work in Canada shows that the Sudbury series, of Pre-
Laurentian age and very much older than the Huronian, includes all types of
sediments, often well enough preserved to show cross bedding, ripple marks, and
annual layers indicating the change of seasons. They must have been formed
near the margin of a continent where granites weathered under a cool and
moist climate. They seem to be delta materials deposited by great rivers.

The highly metamorphosed sediments of the still older Grenville and
Keewatin series (Lewisian?) have lost their original structures, but the gneisses,
quartzites, ‘and marbles must have been clay, sand, and limestone in the
beginning, and the graphite may have originated in plants. Land surfaces must
have been attacked by water and air to produce these materials, and there is no
evidence that the climate was hot. These are the earliest-known formations, so
that air and water worked in the usual way at the beginning of recorded
geological time.

4. Victorian Graptolites. By T. S. Hany, M.A., D.Sc.

The Silurian and Ordovician graptolite-bearing rocks of Victoria occupy
about 20,000 square miles, and over a hundred species have been recorded.

Very little is known of the Silurian. The Ordovician is divided into Upper
and Lower, but probably represents a continuous series. The Upper is charac-
terised by the presence of Dicranograptidea. No zonal work has been done in
the field, though collections yielding about fifty recorded species have been made.

Four divisions are recognised in the Lower Ordovician, namely, Darriwillian,
Castlemainian, Bendigonian, and Lancefieldian, at the base. There are several
subdivisions of these formations. The characters were briefly indicated in
the ‘Geological Magazine’ by the author in 1899. Subsequent work by T. 8.
Hart, F.G.S., at Daylesford has confirmed the sequence established. Large
collections made by the Survey at many localities have somewhat extended our
knowledge of the fauna and its distribution, but without adding any features
of great importance.

The Upper Ordovician ranges north from Eastern Victoria for 300 miles
into New South Wales. In New Zealand Lancefieldian occurs at Preservation
Inlet, and two Castlemaine zones occur as well. It is probable that the Victorian
sequence, and not. the British as stated, will be found.

Broadly, the sequence of Australian graptolites agrees with the European,
but in details is closer to that of New York, as Ruedemann has pointed out.
The important differences in the range of Didymograptus bifidus, D. caduceus,
D. nicholsoni, Loganograptus, Clonograptus rigidus, and some other genera and
species negative the idea that graptolite zones are world-wide, and as no one
believes that all genera and species originated in one locality and radiated thence
this is what we should expect.

360 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C,

5. On the Tertiary Alkali Rocks of Victoria.
By Professor Ernest W. Sxeats, D.Se.

From Mount Leinster in Benambra, Frenchman’s Hill near Omeo, and Noyang
in Dargo, three areas in Eastern Victoria, the late Dr. Howitt (1) described
igneous rocks which helong to the alkali series. They were all regarded by
Howitt as of Paleozoic age. The age of the rocks of Noyang, which consist
mainly of intrusions and lava-flows of quartz-ceratophyre, has not been closely
investigated and may be Paleozoic. Recent work (2), however, has shown,
especially in the case of the Omeo rocks, that they are probably of mid- or even
of late-Tertiary age. The alkali rocks of Frenchman’s Hill, described by
Howitt as intrusive orthophyres, consist really in the main of lava-flows of
anorthoclase trachyte which has a very scoriaceous margin to the flows. There
is a central plug of a coarser quart7-bearing rock allied to sdlvsbergite and a
more or less radial system of dykes which are principally trachytic in character.
Some, however, contain quartz, one at least is a bostonite, and six or seven prove
to be dykes of nepheline-phonolite. The district is one which has been affected
by a succession of elevatory movements of the plateau type since the mid-Tertiary
period, and, according to Griffith Taylor (3), a more or less meridional Senkungs-
feld runs through the Omeo district a few miles east of Frenchman’s Hill. The
rocks of Mount Leinster in Benambra consist principally of sélvsbergites, bos-
tonites, and pyroclastic rocks of alkali trachyte. Petrologically and chemically
many of the rocks of Mount Leinster and of Frenchman’s Hill closely resemble
some of the alkali rocks of Mount Macedon, and, Jike them, are probably of mid-
Tertiary age. The district has been elevated at intervals during the Tertiary
period, but physiographically has not been closely studied.

About fourteen miles north-east from Mansfield in north-central Victoria and
about three miles from Tolmie, in the Tolmie Highlands, there occurs a volcanic
hill, known locally as Gallows Hill, which has recently been shown to consist of a
voleanic centre of probably late Tertiary age and to consist of lava-flows of
nepheline-phonolite. From a locality near Barwite, east of Mansfield, another
nepheline-phonolite has been found, but its field relations are at present uncer-
tain and no account of either of these rocks has yet been published. Fenner (4)
has recently shown that block elevation and depression have affected the Mans-
field area in recent geological times, and that Gallows Hill lies near one of the
fault scarps.

The best-known area of alkali rocks in Victoria is the Mount Macedon district,
about forty miles north-west of Melbourne (5). The series is of mid-Tertiary
to late-Tertiary age, and the rock sequence from below upwards, while not always
demonstrable, appears to be as follows :—Anorthoclase trachyte, sdlvsbergite,
anorthoclase basalt, macedonite, woodendite, anorthoclase-olivine-trachyte,
olivine-anorthoclase-trachyte, limburgite. Immediately succeeding these alkali
rocks come lava-flows of normal basalt and of andesitic basalt. The new types
macedonite and woodendite contain over 1 per cent. of P,O., and are related to
the orthoclase-basalts and to the mugearites.

While this part of Victoria shows evidence by the existence of more than one
elevated peneplain of successive movements of the plateau type, no definite
evidence of faulting or differential movement has heen recognised in the district.
In the western district of Victoria more or less extensive lava-flows of anortho-
clase-trachyte occur near Coleraine, Carapook, &c. (6). Generally the trachytes
appear to be older than the newer basalts, but near Coleraine a dyke of trachyte
penetrates a small hill composed of a basic rock resembling olivine-basalt, while
at the Hummocks north of Casterton another trachyte dyke similarly penetrates
a vent or small flow of olivine-basalt. Among the ejected blocks from the
earlier members of the Pleistocene newer basalts of Lake Bullenmerri, near
Camperdown, are some consisting of essexite and containing analcite. In the
western district of Victoria clear evidence of comparatively recent elevatory
movements is noticeable. No definite faults have yet been proved, however,
and the normal basalts are much more widely spread than the alkali rocks. In
view of Harker’s generalisation as to the close correspondence between the occur-
rence of alkali rocks and elevatory movements of the plateau type, generally
accompanied by faulting, the above reference to earth movements is pertinent.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION O. 361

Practically no folding movements are known among the Tertiary rocks of
Victoria, while plateau movements, generally of elevation, sometimes of depres-
sion and accompanied by faulting, are widespread. Near Omeo and Mansfield,
where faulting has been demonstrated or inferred, the highly alkaline types of
nepheline-phonolite are developed, but the widespread plateau movements in
Victoria are more specially associated with the occurrence of the normal basalts.
The alkali trachytes and allied rocks are intercalated between an older and a
newer basalt series, are developed only sporadically at certain centres, and as at
Macedon are closely associated in the field with the newer basalts as rocks of
slightly greater antiquity but belonging to the same volcanic period.

References to Literature.

(1) Howrrr, A. W. ‘Rep. Min. Dept. Vict.,’ September 1890. ‘ Rep. Min.
Dept. Vict..’ March 1890. ‘ Trans. R. Soc. Vict.,” vol. xx. 1884.

(2) Skrats, EK. W. Aust. Assoc. for Adv. of Science. Presidential Address
to Section C, Brisbane, 1909. Aust. Assoc. for Ady. of Science, Sydney,
1911.

(8) Grirrirm Tayror, T. ‘Com. Bureau of Meteorology,’ Bulletin No. 8,
1911.

(4) Fenner, C. ‘Proc. Roy. Soc. of Vict.,’ vol. xxv. N.S., 1913.

(5) Grecory, J. W. ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc. of Vict.,’ vol. xxv. N.S., 1901.

Sxeats, EH. W., and Summers, H. 8. ‘Geol. Surv. of Vict.’ Bulletin
No. 24, 1912.
(6) Summers, H. 8. Aust. Assoc. for Ady. of Science, Sydney, 1911.
Dennant, J. Aust. Assoc. for Adv. of Science, Adelaide, 1893.
Hoee, E. ‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict.,’ vol. xii. N.S., 1899.

6. On the Origin and Relationship of the Victorian Kainozoic Alkali
Rocks. By H. 8. Summers, D.Sc.

Alkali rocks of Kainozoic age occur in Victoria in the Macedon District, near
Coleraine and Carapook in the Western District, and in the neighbourhood of
Omeo and Mansfield in North-Eastern Victoria. Ejected blocks from the vol-
canoes near Camperdown have been described as essexite, and a similar type,
also probably ejected, has been found near Kyneton. With the exception of
the occurrences of Omeo and Mansfield all these alkali rocks are closely associated
with the Upper Kainozoic calcic basalts, and the field relations are such that
there is little doubt that the alkali rocks and the basalts are genetically related.

Numerous analyses (mainly unpublished) have been made of Victorian basalts,
and these show that they are fairly normal in composition, and consequently
should belong to Harker’s Calcic or Pacific Branch of Igneous rocks, whereas the
sdlvsbergites, trachytes, &c., of Macedon, the phonolites of Omeo and_Mansfield,
the essexites (?) of Camperdown and Kyneton, and the trachytes and anortho-
clase-basalts of the Coleraine area must be placed in the Alkali or Atlantic
Branch.

It follows then that the evidence of the Victorian Kainozoic rocks does not
support Harker’s generalisation on Petrographic Regions.

A number of first-class analyses has been made of the principal types of the
Macedon series, and variation diagrams based on these analyses have been drawn.
(See ‘ Bulletin of the Geol. Survey of Victoria,’ No. 24, 1912, and ‘ Proceedings
of the Royal Society of Victoria,’ vol. xxvi. (N.8.), pt. ii. 1914.) ;

It was found that by re-calculating the analyses to 100 per cent. with the
water omitted and the ferric oxide reduced to ferrous, the curves obtained were
better than those plotted from the original analyses.

Certain of the analyses did not conform to the curves, and at first these were
regarded as representing hybrid types, but additional work showed that they
represented complementary types and resulted from the splitting up of a magma
instead of the mixing of magmas.

Some analyses have been made of the alkali rocks from other Victorian areas,
but Bie a sufficient number to show the relationship of the various types to one
another.

362 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

The conclusions are that the Kainozoic alkali rocks of Victoria are derived
from the calcic basalts by differentiation, giving rise to several lesser magma
reservoirs.

In the case of the Macedon magma further differentiation took place and a
series of lavas was extruded which in general showed a serial relationship, but
some complementary to one another.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 18.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Permian Breccia of the Midland Counties of Britain, a Desert
Formation. By H. T. Ferran, M.A., F.G.S.*

During the meeting of the Association at Birmingham last year members of
this Section had an ample opportunity for visiting the chief exposures of the
so-called Permian breccia of the midland counties of England. This deposit may
be briefly described as a mass of sandstones and marls with occasional sheets of
angular breccia, the latter consisting in a large measure of volcanic rocks, grits,
slates, and limestones which can be identified with rocks on the borders of
Wales. The organic remains which have been recorded are few, but such as
occur are indicative chiefly of terrestrial surfaces.

The origin of the breccia has given rise to many speculations, amongst which
may be mentioned :—

(1) Murchison {1839) regarded it as a volcanic or trappoid breccia marking
the position of underground masses of volcanic rocks hidden under a cover of
their own fragments.

(2) Ramsay (1855) ascribed its origin to the existence of glacial conditions in
Permian times.

(3) Geikie (1892) says with regard to Scotland that the breccia has evidently
accumulated in small lakes or narrow fiords during periods of great and rapid
denudation following uplift of the Upper Carboniferous rocks.

(4) Bonney (1902) concludes that breccias are usually indicative of continental
conditions, but that glaciers are necessary for the transport of the larger boulders.

(5) Lapworth (1912) holds that they are the memorials of local Alpine
conditions.

In Egypt a chain of fold-mountains forms the watershed between the Nile and
the Red Sea, and the mountains are intersected and drained by steep-sided
gorges or wadis. The climate is arid with occasional heavy thunderstorms
causing temporary torrents, which sweep forward all rock-material loosened during
the prevailing dry climate. The wadi beds receive continuously a fresh supply
of angular débris shed from the adjacent bare hillsides, and any fragments
which may have become rounded or subangular are often shattered before the
next flood sweeps them forward another stage on their journey towards a more
permanent resting-place, namely, the alluvial plain at the wadi-mouth. Blocks
slipping down the bare hillsides become scratched or they may be scratched by
mutual impact during a sudden rush of flood-water. Great blocks are often
carried fifty or one hundred miles down the wadi channels, and the agency of
ice need not be invoked to explain their transport.

The valley-fill of most wadis in the Eastern Desert of Egypt is an wncon-
solidated breccia so similar to the breccia exposed on Ley Hill, near Birming-
ham, that there is little room for doubt that the two originated under similar
climatic conditions.

‘ By permission of the Director-General, Egyptian Survey Department.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 363

2. Note on the Occurrence of Loess-deposits in Egypt and its Bearing
on Change of Climate in recent Geological Times.1 By H. T.
Forrap, M.A., F.G.S.

At a recent meeting of the Association Dr. Hume and Mr. Craig submitted
the view that there had been no change, except that of gradual desiccation, in
recent geological times in Egypt. Since their paper was published, evidence
that the change of climate has not been uniform has been recorded from neigh-
bouring countries. The following short paper is intended to show how eolian
desertic deposits may be interstratified between freshwater beds without any
change of climate.

In the northern delta of Egypt are great stretches of flat land a few feet
above sea-level. These areas are covered by ordinary Nile alluvium and
remain damp during the winter months but dry in summer. Owing to the
evaporation which takes place during the spring and early summer, soluble salts
accumulate at or near the surface of the soil rendering it incoherent and
powdery. Winds are now able to lift and transport this material until it is
arrested by the roots of halophyte plants or other obstacles. Here also are
deposited the dead shells of helices, and occasionally also the remains of land
animals, such as the jackal, rat, bird, lizard, or snake, which have been seen
frequenting dust-dune areas. In fact, the dust dunes of northern Egypt, known
as Kardud to the inhabitants, are local deposits of Loess.

A depression of the land of only a few feet, and such as that which has
taken place since Roman times in Egypt, would cause another fluviatile layer
containing the common shell Cyrena fluminalis or a lacustrine bed to be
superimposed upon them. It is thus manifest that a desertic deposit inter-
nee between two freshwater beds is not necessarily a proof of change of
climate.

3. Discussion on the Physiography of Arid Lands.

Introduction. By Professor Sw T. H. Houuanp, K.C.1.H., D.Sc.,
F.RLS.

The principal defect in published accounts of the physiography of arid lands
is due to the absence of data showing the amount as well as the kind of
physical changes in progress. This deficiency is to be expected. Few qualified
observers are able to study arid lands for long continuous periods; such regions
are thinly populated, and, from an economic point of view, their problems are
of relatively small importance. It is not surprising, therefore, that, while
we have abundant illustrations—pictorial and literary—regarding the nature of
geological phenomena in the desert, we are only to a limited extent able to
substantiate by trustworthy figures our general conclusions regarding the rates
of destruction, transportation, and reproduction of desert formations.

The investigation made during the years 1903-08 of the salt resources of the
Rajputana desert was undertaken on behalf of the Government of India with
a definite economic object in view, and the opportunity was turned to account
to make a quantitative test of one phase of desert phenomena—namely, the
zolian transportation of salt in the form of fine dust.?

There are several intermittent saline lakes lying in depressions on the sand-
covered highlands of Rajputana. In one case—namely, the Sambhar Lake—the
underlying silt, tested to a depth of tweive feet over an area of 68 square miles,
was found to contain some fifty-five million tons of sodium chloride. The
quantities of salt so stored are altogether in excess of the amount that could be
accumulated by normal fresh-water rivers acting within any reasonable geological
period under present physiographic conditions. There are no rock-salt deposits
known within the region under consideration, and the underlying rocks are
Archean gneisses and schists covered with a thin mantle of sand.

1 By permission of the Director-General of the Egyptian Survey Department.
* For details see T. H. Holland: successive Annual Reports of the Geo-
logical Survey of India published in Records G.S.Z. during 1904-09.

364 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

The discovery of small undamaged foraminifera in the desert sands of
Barmer and Bikaner by Mr. T. H. D. La Touche * gave the first clue to the origin
of this salt, for such foraminifera must have reached the heart of the desert
by wind transportation over a distance of some five hundred miles from the
coast of Cutch. Consideration of the meteorological conditions of the area
increased the plausibility of this suggestion; for during the hot dry season,
from April to June, strong winds blow from the south-west, sometimes with the
force of gales, especially during the day-time, when, under a scorching sun,
the salt is absolutely dry and easily powdered. The Rann of Cutch during the
hot dry season partly dries up and becomes covered with a thin incrustation
of salt, so that every traveller—man or beast—crushes the hopper-shaped
skeleton crystals of sodium chloride, forming puffs of fine saline dust, which |
are wafted away by the strong winds to the north-east and towards the desert
region of Rajputana. During the hot dry season these winds maintain a con-
stant direction; they are strong during the day, moderating to a comparative
calm at nights, but there is never a set-back, and they are followed every year
by the rainy season, which commences about the middle of June.

These winds are specially strong near the coast, but they diminish in force
in the central part of the desert region, and there their load of saline dust
becomes deposited over the surface of the sand, being washed in solution into
convenient hollows during the rainy season, thus forming small lakes, which
become rapidly reduced to bodies of concentrated brine during the next follow-
ing dry cold weather.

During the cold weather which follows the rainy season the atmosphere is
dry, and winds blow generally from the north and north-east. These winds
are, however, comparatively feeble, and in any case are unable to carry an
appreciable quantity of salt back to the south-west, as the salt is by then
accumulated in the lakes, which are seldom completely dry before the com-
mencement of the next following hot weather, when the recurring south-west
winds bring in another load of salt-dust.

By the elimination of all other possible sources of the salt in the lakes of
the Rajputana highlands, and by consideration of the meteorological conditions,
a satisfactory theory thus became established to account qualitatively for the
origin of the salt. It then became necessary to check the theory by a quanti-
tative test, and this onerous task was undertaken by Dr. W. A. K. Christie,
with the assistance of M. Vinayak Rao, of the Geological Survey of India,
during the hot weather of 1908. After some months of preliminary experiments
with artificial winds to ascertain the best method of collecting samples and of
determining the limits of experimental error, a laboratory was built in the
desert, where anemometer records, temperatures, and barometic pressures were
taken at regular and frequent intervals, while samples of the wind were
collected at different elevations and analysed. As a result of this work, it was
found that during four months of the hot dry season of 1908 the amount of
wind-borne salt passing a front 300 kilométres broad and 100 métres high must
have been something of the order of 130,000 tons. As the meteorological
records showed that the hot weather of 1908 was a season of unusually weak
winds, the figure obtained is probably well below the annual average influx of
salt-dust.

Although the results can thus be stated in figures, they refer to one year
only, and are, in a sense, still only of qualitative value. There is no doubt,
however, that they establish beyond reasonable doubt the theory which had
been formulated on wider considerations, both negative and positive, as to the
origin of the enormous quantities of salt now accumulated in the Rajputana
desert.

It is necessary, naturally, to exercise caution in extending this theory to
other desert regions, some of which are, nevertheless, areas of wind inflow
during hot dry seasons. It is also significant that rock-salt deposits are
frequently associated with formations that can best be accounted for as due to
desert conditions, although such phenomena would be characteristic also of

' Mem. Geol. Surv. Ind., vol. xxxv., p. 42, 1902.

——-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 365

areas where, as in the case of the Kara Boghaz of the Caspian, arms of the
sea are partly cut off and subjected to desiccation.

Although it is dangerous to generalise from this single instance of Rajputana,
in spite of its striking and conclusive character, the observations made in that
region are quoted as an instance of an attempt to check by definite quantitative
tests general mental impressions of geological dynamics in desert regions. The
object of this communication is mainly to urge the further institution, where
practicable, of such tests of current theories regarding the physiographic
phenomena of arid lands.

Professor W. M. Davis: My interest in the subject proposed for our discus-
sion comes from an endeavour to systematise the study of land forms, so that
a well-trained explorer shall be aided in making accurate and complete observa-
tions of the ground, and in preparing afterwards for readers as expert as
himself a complete and intelligible record of his observations. It would be
comparatively easy to reduce such a description to simpler or shorter form for
more elementary or more popular use; but it would be impossible to expand
a short elementary account intended for beginners, or a popular account
intended for general readers, into a detailed monograph intended for experts.
The advancement of geographical science will therefore be best promoted by
striving to develop a mature thoroughgoing method for the observation and
description of all kinds of land forms, including those of deserts.

Much assistance has been given to the study of land forms in general by
working out their evolution as dependent (1) on their structure, (2) on the
erosional process that works upon them, and (3) on the stages which the forms
produced by the work of process on structure pass through, from the initial
stage introduced by the movement of a land mass into a new attitude, to the
ultimate stage when the process concerned has done all its work.

If we classify what has already been accomplished in this direction with
respect to the erosional processes involved, it appears that the theoretical
sequence of changes determined by the action of ordinary or normal processes
on various structures has been worked out with encouraging success, and
verified by confrontation with many examples of actual forms. The explana-
tory method of describing land forms, based on this theoretical sequence, is
now employed by a number of geographers. The same is true of marine erosional
processes and of solutional processes. It is less true of glacial processes, though
much good progress has been made in that division of the general subject.

With regard to arid processes, theory has outstripped observation; hence the
observational study of deserts is much to be desired as a means of testing,
correcting, and extending the theory of arid erosion. The difficulty with the
“descriptions of desert forms hitherto published is that they are so largely
empirical and so incomplete that it is impossible to translate them into the
phrases of rational or explanatory physiography. Hence what we now need
is, the exploration of deserts by trained students, well informed regarding
modern physiographic theories. .

Let me illustrate this by a special case. The theory of the evolution of desert
forms includes a stage in which a lower basin is about to capture the centripetal
wash of a neighbouring higher basin; and another stage in which such a capture
has recently taken place. The significant characteristics of each of these two
stages, as well as of many earlier and later stages, have been defined with
sufficient detail to make their recognition easy, provided that the observer is
familiar with them; but it would be as unlikely that an observer untrained in
physiography would see and describe the essential features of these stages of
desert forms as that an observer untrained in botany would see and describe
the essential features of plant forms. If one looks through various accounts of
desert exploration, it is usually impossible to determine whether actual
examples of imminent or of recent basin captures—or of any other special
features of desert evolution—actually occur,

The most helpful suggestion that I can offer in this connection is that the
effort should be made to refer every element of desert topography first to
its proper place with respect to the surrounding contemporary elements in the
general working of the processes of desert erosion, and, second, to its proper

366 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

place in the long succession of earlier and later forms between which it stands;
for when the elements of a desert landscape are thus seen to be related to many
other elements, all systematically disposed in time and place, their observation
and their description are greatly facilitated.

The equipment of an explorer of deserts with a good knowledge of the
theory of desert evolution is therefore, as I see it, about as important as his
equipment with good horses or camels, if it be desired that he should come
back from his work with a critical record of what he has seen.

Professor J. W. Grecory remarked that though Scott and R. L. Stevenson
used the term desert in its old sense for any uninhabited land, at present the
word is restricted to lands uninhabited owing to their arid climate. No
numerical limit of desert can be given; and, as Walther has stated, desert can-
not be absolutely defined on biological, morphological, or climatic grounds. The
cause of desert is not only climatic; geological and geographical structure are
both also influential; countries of permeable or friable rocks, and existing as a
plateau with an easy drainage to the adjacent lowlands, are easily rendered
desert. The climatic influence depends more on the complex conditions which
govern the utilisation of the rain and not on its total amount. Proximity to the
sea is consistent with the development of desert conditions.

Desert is often more easily utilised than at first appears possible; since the
soils often contain such rich accumulations of plant foods that the land is very
fertile when watered. Australian soils often need the addition of phosphate,
since they contain less phosphorus than the amount held by some authorities to
be necessary for profitable cultivation.

He thought that the only explanation of the low phosphorus content in
Australian soils and the absence of the usual enrichment of phosphorus in the
soil as compared with the subsoil is that proposed by Professor Cherry, who
attributes these facts to the rarity of mammals in Australia. In some cases in
Australia the poverty of phosphate has been more influential than the aridity
in developing desert conditions.

Professor A. Prnck : Deserts are regions of the globe which are not only dry
but are characterised also by the want of vegetation. Taking such a definition,
Australia has only very few deserts; most of what is called Australian desert,
indeed, has scrub, even timber. The surface forms of the deserts are more
closely controlled by water than by wind. The latter heaps up the dunes, but
its erosive action is rather insignificant in comparison with waterwork exercised
after rare local rain-showers. Besides this, the surface of many parts of our
deserts has been shaped by water before the desert conditions came in. But
there are deserts which have been deserts for a very long period. There has
been since the end of the Tertiary period a repeated shifting of the climatic
belts of the earth, which can be observed especially at the equatorial and polar
border of the desert belts, but from the central parts the belt was not shifted
away.

Mr. Grirrira Taytor: The arid region which I know best is situated in
78° South latitude, but I propose also to discuss the central arid region in
Australia.

In Antarctica are many features which closely resemble those described from
the desert. Angular breccias are being formed abundantly along the facets of
all the glacier valleys in 78° S. Dreikanter are numerous. Striz are almost
absent over miles and miles of moraine. The difficulty of determining the
origin of such deposits in fossil condition is obvious.

Professor Gregory has always taken an optimistic view of our own arid
region, perhaps I am less sanguine. It behoves us thoroughly to realise the great-
ness of the problem seeing that approximately one million square miles has less
than 10 inches of rainfall. Our visitors who have just seen the region in Western
Australia have only penetrated the southern fringe. Moreover, 10 inches of rain
in the south mean infinitely more than in the north where evaporation is so
great.

I hope to see a physiographic survey along the 10-inch isohyet initiated, to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 367

determine if there be a distinct difference such as Goyder demonstrated in so
masterly a manner as a safe wheat line (near 13 inches) in South Australia. Only
by such necessary research can we really gain adequate knowledge of the
potentialities of Australia,

Mr. E. J. Anprews : The observations of the writer in lands of sub-arid, or
arid, character have been made only in Eastern Australia and in Arizona,
Nevada, and California in the United States. In these regions the surface
forms testify to the dominating influence of stream action and to the utterly
subordinate action of the wind in sculpturing the lands. To appreciate the
part taken in the actual sculpture of desert lands by wind action alone, it is
necessary to recognise the fact that ordinary water streams produce peculiar
forms, and that these forms are not the result of the stream activity during
normal periods, but only during periods of great floods acting perhaps once in
a decade. Such forms, however, are continuously mistaken for those due to
wind action, by various observers, and from interpretations such as these the
action of the wind as an eroding agent is magnified unduly.

The thalwegs of the Australian and American valleys commence in well-
marked divides, and their slopes thence decrease continuously towards base-
level. Tributary thalwegs also enter the main valleys at accordant slopes.
The bases of these valleys are occupied by pebbles and boulders, while these
again are covered with deposits of clay and sand. Moreover, certain plants
characteristic of fairly humid conditions elsewhere occur sporadically in oases
in Kastern Australia within sub-arid regions, and this evidence taken as a
whole indicates a very recent decrease in the amount of precipitation in drier
Kastern Australia. Such action has only slightiy modified the general appear-
ance of the land forms developed in a previous cycle, save for killing off much of
the vegetation of that previous cycle.

Mr. A. L. Du Torr referred to the dry region of German South-West Africa
and the Kalahari. In the coastal sandy wastes, though wind etching is conspicu-
ous, no hollows due to the action of the wind are to be found. Inland, hollows
called * pans,’ often saline and usually periodically filled, occur sunk below the
general surface, and must have been produced by wind erosion. All kinds of
pans, from ‘living’ to ‘fossil,’ can be found, just as in the case of the sand
dunes.

Mr. A, 'l. Kenyon: The general trend of the speakers’ remarks showed that
desert or rather arid occurrences were distinctly local, and no generalisation
could now be made. The area in Victoria which might be called arid was only
so on account of its rainfall, which averaged about 14 inches. Its vege-
tation was abundant. No definition of desert had yet been made which was
really applicable to it.

The reference to Goyder’s rainfall line, which was undoubtedly fixed by the
occurrences of salsolaceous vegetation, needed some comment. Salt bushes grow
on soils suitable to their demands, and rainfall was only a small factor. The
southern limits of Heterodendron olwifolium, which agreed with the line of
distinct change from the Buloke or hybrid type of Belar to its typical form,
me amore reliable guide; but profitable agriculture had long passed even that
imit.

In regard to Victorian Mallee saline occurrences, these undoubtedly were
confined to the lowest trough of a synclinorium, and were the exposed surfaces
of underground sheets of salt water. This has been proved by a number of
bores. They were also accompanied by beds or mounds of gypsum or cop as
locally named, and lime carbonate. The artesian waters of the underlying
marine beds held the same salts in similar proportions.

In general, lakes or swamps, the terminals of water-courses, were fresh,
as were also the swamps or lakes corresponding with Dr. Du Toit’s pans, and
dependent upon local catchment only for their water supply.

In regard to sand ridges these ceolian drifts occur all over Victoria in the
western and north-eastern portions, which are the most fertile parts of the
State. In the Mallee the size and arrangement of the ridges seem to be

368 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

particularly influenced by the character of the soil. In the better parts of the
Mallee, with stiff clayey soil, they are with difficulty describable. In the more
sandy and medium agricultural soils they had a marked parallelism and were
of moderate size, but in the sand-hill and heath country (locally known as
desert) this parallelism was of a general character only, and the sand-hills or
ridges were known as ‘jumble.’ Some of these hills were as much as two
hundred feet in height above the surrounding surface. None could be described
as ‘dune morte,’ neither was it at all evident that they were fixed or fossil dunes,
the more likely theory being that they were still being formed by action of
single sand-grain movements. Owing to the weather being a succession of
cyclones there was no prevailing direction of wind, though the westerly course
of these depressions might be taken as generally governing the main sweep of
the winds. Taking this as a general direction the ridges run with it and not
at right angles.

The east winds seldom occur, but frequently are of great force; they never
shift any sand. All other winds, particularly the north-west, west, and south-
west winds, shift sand, but only in places where man has removed the natural
protection of herbage either by clearing or cultivation or by fires occurring in
times of drought. None of the sand shifted is air-borne, but is rolled along the
surface of the ground. At Wirrengren Plain, the termination of the outlet
ereek or the final flow of the Wimmera River, there were in the drought of
1902 after a bush-fire had swept over the sand-hills on the west some 500,000,000
cubic yards of sand, or at the rate of 50,000,000 per mile in length drifted on
to the plains. In the succeeding year, one of good rainfall, the herbage again
fixed the sand-hills, while the sand on the plain gradually drifted eastwards
until four years ago the plain was again in its original condition. Similarly
the outlet creck itself in its course of fifty miles through white sand-hills
retained its original section; the sand blown in at certain exceptional seasons
gradually drifting out to the east.

Supplementing Professor Gregory’s remarks on the phosphoric acid contents
of Victorian soil, it should be pointed out that the Mallee soil contained only
about twenty parts per 100,000 or one-half of the average Victorian soil. This
refers to the agricultural part of the Mallee, whereas in the sand-hill and heath
country the amount of phosphoric acid was hardly ascertainable by chemical
methods, and it was practically non-existent.

The methods of farming which led to the successful occupation of all this
country originated in South Australia over forty years ago, where the recently
christened ‘dry farming’ had resulted in the prosperous and productive settle-
ment of land with under 10 inches annual rainfall. .The cost of production of
wheat was under 1s. 6d. per bushel, and there were at least a hundred million
acres suitable for its cultivation.

Dr. W. F. Hume: The characters of an arid Jand cannot be separated from
its past history, and in Egypt five physiographic features of first importance
have to be considered. ‘These are :—

1. A belt of deep depressions in the extreme west, the famous Oases.

2. The broad waterless expanse of the Western or Libyan Desert, to the
west of the Nile, and the corresponding limestone plateau region (the Maaza
Limestone Plateau) to the east of the river.

3. The Nile Valley with its Delta. :

4. The Wilderness of the Red Sea Hills and Sinai with its rugged mountains
and tortuous valleys.

5. The Red Sea and its narrow prolongations, the Gulfs of Suez and Akaba,
together with the coastal plains.

Each of these divisions requires separate treatment. The paper gives a rapid
sketch of the geological history of Egypt as known to us at present, the formation
of the ancient core of Pre-Cambrian or Paleozoic sediments, volcanic rocks with
invasion by granitic magmas, the brief Carboniferous marine advance, and later
the much more important Jurassic-Cretaceous transgression, which practically
affected almost the whole of Egypt, giving rise to the Nubian Sandstone and
the important phosphate-bearing Cretaceous series. The Eocene strata which
form the major portion of Central Egypt are probably formed, at the base, of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 369

re-made Cretaceous material, and only in their upper portions show marked
evidence that the underlying sandstones and igneous rocks are undergoing
erosion.

The re-arranging of Cretaceous strata eroded during Hocene times is regarded
by the writer as explaining the great difficulty experienced in drawing a litho-
logical line of unconformity between the beds of these respective periods, though
the faunal differences indicate the great break between them.

Fringing the pre-Eocene and Eocene areas of Egypt are a series of Miocene
and more recent formations which are of great interest both from tectonic and
economic points of view.

In considering the separate physiographic features it is pointed out :—

(A) In the formation of the Oases it is necessary to consider the denudation
of the area by marine erosion while rising from the sea and the effects of former
more humid climatic conditions. Where the Nubian Sandstone or other’ soft beds
have been exposed, as Beadnell has pointed out, the Oases depression without
outlet is produced by wearing through wind-blown sand.

(B) The Great Plains of the Libyan Desert are regions of low dip, of meagre
rainfall, and thus wind is the dominant factor. A sandy region to the north
supplies the sand necessary for erosion. The character of the desert surface
depends on the nature of the geological strata present. The undulating gravel
plateaux, or serir, the limestone expanse, the ‘melon’ country, and the fossil
floors are various forms in which the desert presents itself, the main feature
being the removal of all particles capable of being transported es wind. These
are deposited as sand-falls in the wind-shadows of the Nile Valley scarp or
other depressions. The sand-dunes which are locally developed are in sharp
contrast to the main desert, these probably depending on three main factors,
the existence of sandy deposits, determining their source of origin, the usual
direction of the wind their trend, and the relief of the ground their position.

The Maaza Limestone Region is similar to the Libyan Desert, but has a
greater rainfall. It thus presents a fine example of the effects when rain acts
during short periods on rock-surfaces affected by temperature variations. Deep
ravines, remarkable water-holes, caverns, natural bridges, and surface coloration
films due to the trickling down of ferruginous solutions over cliff-walls are
among the prevailing features in the southern part of this area.

(C) The present course of the Nile Valley appears to depend on three factors :
(a) The formation of the syncline, the axis of which it partly follows; (b) the
erosion of the softer strata along their outcrops determining the present north-
south trend of the major courses of the river; and (c) the possible effect of the
rotation of the earth (Van Baer’s law), the stream tending to hug its eastern
bank. Attention is called to the region of exceptional erosion where heavy
masses of Eocene limestone rest on and have slipped over the subjacent soft
Cretaceous marls and slates. These slips must have been connected with greater
rainfall and earth-movement as widespread terraces extend in front of the main
cliff and rise to some 110 métres above the present river-level. The triple
terracing of the Nile is briefly considered.

(D) The Mountain Region of the Eastern Desert is essentially an anticlinal
area, where tension is in excess of compression. The differential movements
are considerable, minor folds play a conspicuous part, and great fractures deter-
mine earth-features of considerable magnitude. The result is that the masses
of granite and metamorphic rocks hidden beneath the surface in Central Egypt
are here exposed by denudation, forming the Red Sea Hills and Sinai
mountains.

The different geological formations give rise to very varied surface features.
Attention is called to the importance of rain as a sculpturing agent. The soft
Nubian sandstone is easily eroded both by wind-borne sand and by water, giving
rise to conspicuous depressions. In the granitic areas temperature variation
breaks up the solid rock, huge domes are produced by flaking off of concentric
shells. Dykes give rise to marked differences in surface outline, the harder
quartz-porphyries determining the form and general trend of many of the
mountain summits, while the softer diabases, being easily eroded, give rise to
gullies seaming the precipitous sides of the granitic hills. The general character
of the country where schists and volcanic rocks are present is also described.

1914. BB

370 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

(E) In the Gulf of Suez area another factor has come into play. Here sea-
arms project far inland between land-surfaces subject to desert conditions, and
their waters become centres of far-reaching chemical activity. Thus coral-reefs
are changed to dolomites, sea-shells of carbonate of lime to gypsum, hydro-
carbons are in quantities of economic importance, and mineralised areas of lead
and zinc ores, of manganese oxide, of iron pyrites, and of sulphur are present
in the young Tertiary beds which fill these Red Sea depressions. From Suez
to beyond Halaib, that is, throughout the length of Egypt, gypsum forms a
conspicuous fringe between the ancient hills and the sea, generally dipping
gently seaward on the borders of the Red Sea itself. Further north, in the
Gulf of Suez area, the conditions are more complicated. Dyapir, or piercing
folds such as have been described by Professor Mrazec in Rumania, are of
common occurrence, and there is remarkable interplay between the hard and
soft members of the folded series.

The surface structure of an arid land is not only the direct reflex of its
geological structure, but also of former climatic change. Many factors in Egypt
point to great rainfall in the past, such as gravels of igneous material in the
Nile Valley far from their source of origin, masses of travertine in the Oases,
the varying terraces of the Nile Valley itself, the evidence of expansive lakes
at Kom Ombo, &c.

Though the main features of a desert land depend on the geological structure
and in part on past climatic conditions, there are characteristics which are typical
of all arid regions. These are far removed from the great marine areas and
from the zone of rainfall dependent upon solar activity in lands beneath the
tropics.

These typical desert features have already been referred to, and include :—

1. The sweeping of all fine material from the surfaces of the plains by the
action of the wind, and formation of plateau summits.

2. Intense scouring of these surfaces by wind-driven sand.

3. The breaking up of the most solid rocks by temperature-variation.

4. The formation of sand-dunes behind obstructions or where the relief of
the ground favours their development.

5. The formation of mushroom-shaped pillars, or standing-out of harder
materials on bases undercut by the sand.

6. The formation of sand-worn pebbles of typical angular outlines, the well-
known Dreikante.

7. Vermicular markings on limestones, due it may be to etching during the
movement of evaporating saline solutions.

8. Formation of desert-crusts by leaching out of the soluble materials con-
tained in the rocks, with evaporation at the surface, resulting in deposition of -
the oxides of iron and manganese. Mr. Lucas, Director of the Survey Depart-
ment Laboratory, has made a special study of these desert and river films, the
latter probably only differing from desert ones in degree.

9. Flaking off of surfaces in the surface zone affected by temperature varia-
tion. Also fracture due to the same cause. Fragments of porphyry, limestone,
&e., are often split into a series of parallel flakes standing vertically, their
original connection to one another being clearly indicated by their close juxta-
position.

In the half-desert where rain, though brief, is intensely active while it
lasts, a series of interesting phenomena are presented : deep cafion-like valleys,
boulder-strewn gullies, saw-back ridges, parallel-dyke country, saline marshes,
dry waterfalls or steep precipices in the valley-floors, and great talus-slopes.

Mr. Ferran, in reply to a question asked by Professor A. P. Coleman,
explained that the slope of the wadis from the watershed towards the Nile was
about 1 to 1,000 and towards the Red Sea 1 to 200 or 1 to 300, but that the
slope was of little moment, owing to the sudden rush of storm-water from its
gathering-ground on the bare mountain-sides. He had not actually observed
scratchings on rocks because they had not been sought, but he had seen great
heaps of boulders in unstable equilibrium, which, if overbalanced, could not
avoid being mutually scratched. He was aware that the scratches on some of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 371

the blocks of the so-called Permian breccias were merely eroded veins or
filaments of mineral which could be seen inside the rocks if they were broken
across, and that there was little similarity between the wadi-breccias of Egypt
and the moraine-breccias of Antarctica, With regard to Mr. Du Toit’s remarks
on salt-pans he agreed that dunes to leeward pointed to erosion and that there-
fore-we should expect to find a great accumulation of dunes to leeward of the
Egyptian Oases: such accumulations are wanting. Professor Penck’s observa-
tions on the poleward movements of deserts could be interpreted in two ways:
either the in-draught of air towards the equator carried sand from temperate
zones on to the sub-desert areas, thus rendering them essentially deserts and
causing a poleward migration of their edges; or, and this has an important
bearing on the size of Polar ice-caps, our earthly boiler and condensers (the
Tropics and the Poles) are losing in efficiency, and consequently both regions
are becoming drier. The Wastwater Screes were a known example of breccias
forming in a region whose climate is hardly desertic.

Mr. Ferrar said he was well aware that the Nubian Sandstone was exposed
in the floors of the oases and that vast quantities of rock-material had been
removed, nevertheless he still found himself in Professor Walther’s position of
ten years ago, and, after seeing wind-driven sand tending to fill the oases-
depressions and not excavate them, did not think the wind-erosion theory con-
sistent nor a sufficient explanation of their origin. He holds the view that
wind-erosion tends to remove all rugosities and that the ultimate physiography
of an arid land-surface is a smooth level plain.

With regard to Sir Thomas Holland’s criticism as to quantitative results,
Mr. Ferrar suggested that data, similar to that collected in Rajputana by the
Indian Geological Survey, could be obtained by measuring the quantity of sand
brought in to the oases at their northern ends and the quantity carried out
southwards. Any difference would show the rate of erosion or deposition,
according to sign.

In concluding his remarks Mr. Ferrar thanked his audience for their interest
in and their appreciation shown towards his papers.

After remarks by Mr. D. M. S. Watson, the discussion closed.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Age and Sequence of the Tertiary Strata of South-Eastern
Australia. By Frepericx Cuapman, A.L.S.

Divisions of the Kainozoic.

It is convenient to divide the Australian Tertiary system into four or five
main series, using the local terms suggested by Hall and Pritchard. In ascend-
ing order, these, according to the writer, are :— ;

1, Balcombian. 2, Janjukian. 3, Kalimnan. 4, Werrikooian. Above these
comes the Pleistocene series, referred by many geologists elsewhere to a separate
system, the Quaternary.

These divisions, broadly speaking, correspond with :—

1, Oligocene. 2, Miocene. 3, Lower Pliocene. 4, Upper Pliocene.

The present writer maintains that, giving due allowance to time discrepancies
in regard to the factor of distribution of life-forms over wide areas, guide fossils
are probably as important in dividing and allocating these beds to the well-known
horizons of the northern hemisphere as are percentages of living forms in these
fossil deposits. The percentage method can only be used with safety as an
approximate guide to age, seeing the difficulty of obtaining an agreement amongst
zoologists as to what constitutes a species.

The above series of European divisions correlated with the Australian
corresponds almost exactly with McCoy’s original determinations, augmented by

BB 2

372 ' TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©.

observations on faunas and stratigraphic relationship of the beds made by the
writer during twelve years’ attention to this subject.

Sequence of the Beds.

With regard to the sequence, some Victorian authors hold the opinion that
the Janjukian series is older than the Balecombian; but the contusion seems to
have arisen from the occurrence of a large number of persistent species, especially
of mollusca, passing up from the argillaceous Balecombian into the Janjukian clay
series. Where faunistic and stratigraphic relationships were both doubtful the
term Barwonian was suggested, which included both Baleombian and Janjukian.
If, however, we regard the scope of the Janjukian in its broad sense as embracing
all phases of sedimentation, of one long time series, the term Barwonian is no
longer needed, its members being included in the term Janjukian. The sequence
of the beds 1, 2, and 3 as given here has lately been established by the author
from evidence obtained in cliff-sections at Muddy Creek near Hamilton, and in
the bores put down in the Mallee and at Sorrento.

Other authors since McCoy agreed as to the present sequence, but differed in
regard to the age of the oldest beds, which they held to belong to the Eocene,
making the succeeding beds correspondingly older.

Guide Fossils.

The various members of the Australian Kainozoic system have been referred
by the writer to the horizons given above, chiefly through a study of the cetacean
types, the fish remains, the mollusca, the polyzoa, the ostracoda, and the
foraminifera. In the oldest beds (Balcombian) a predominant fossil is Amphis-
tegina, long mistaken for Nummulites variolaria, the latter genus in reality being
absent. In the limestone phase of the succeeding Janjukian beds the Miocene
type of toothed whale, Parasqualodon, occasionally occurs; in the marls the
Miocene genus Spirulirostra; whilst the Burdigalian forms of Lepidocyclina are
abundant in the polyzoal series of the Janjukian. In the Kalimnan series cetacea
known elsewhere in the Pliocene Crag (Diestian and Astian) of Antwerp and
England, as Scaldicetus and the ziphioid whales, are characteristic fossils. ‘The
above interpretation of the Australian Tertiary sediments agrees also with the
data acquired by Australian physiographists, and is that generally accepted for
New Zealand and Patagonia.

Terrestrial Series.

The terrestrial Tertiary deposits, so far as they are known, are assigned to the
various horizons as follows :—

Balcombian.—Leaf-beds of Mornington and the brown coal of the Altona Bay
Coal-shaft. :

Janjukian.—Leaf-beds of Sentinel Rock (Cape Otway), Haddingley near
Bacchus Marsh, Pitfield Plains, Narracan, Dargo High Plains and the Older
Deep Leads: in Victoria. Leaf-beds of Dalton, Gunning, and Vegetable Creek :
in New South Wales. Leaf-beds of Lake Frome, &c. : in South Australia.

Kalimnan.—Newer Deep Leads, Haddon, Victoria. Also of Gulgong in New
South Wales.

2. The Age and Sequence of the Victorian Tertiaries.
By WS, Bars, MA, DSc.

The chief difficulty that meets one in attempting to decide the age of the
marine Tertiaries of Southern Australia is their wealth in well-preserved fossils.
From the oldest series, the Barwonian, which includes the closely allied
Janjukian and Balcombian, about.1,800 species have been described. This
includes over 800 mollusca, some 500 polyzoa, and about 40 brachiopoda,
50 echinoids, 80 corals, and a large number of foraminifera. The Kalimnan
yields about 260 described species, mainly mollusca, while the Werrikooian
affords close upon 200 species of described mollusca. It may safely be said that
when the fauna of the Barwonian, at any rate, is fully described the total will
be doubled, for, taking the mollusca, the small forms, which are extremely

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. ole

abundant, have not been touched, and a large number of new species in almost
all groups are known, but remain undiagnosed.

The basis of classification is in dispute. In spite of all objections I adhere
to the Lyellian percentage method as yielding the best results. Another method
has been adopted by Ortmann in dealing with the Patagonian Tertiaries. It
consists in comparing each species with species of known age in the northern
hemisphere, deciding which is the nearest ‘ally’ or ‘representative,’ and
referring the southern formations to those northern ones which yield the greatest
number of ‘ relationships.’ It passes by as of no importance all the southern
forms. Harris suggests using phylogeny pari passu with the Lyellian method.

The objection urged against the Lyellian method is that the personal equation
enters too largely into it, and we do not know what a species is. H. von Ihering
has discussed Ortmann’s method fully, and objects to it. To my mind the
personal equation is as prominent in it as in the Lyellian, and it demands an
amount of knowledge of the Tertiary faunas of the world that no one can
possibly have at first hand, and enormous collections, quantities of each species,
that no museum is likely to contain. As regards phylogeny, we cannot use it
till we know the sequence.

Confining ourselves to the mollusca, we find Tate recognising about a dozen
recent species in the Barwonian. Later authors have more or less definitely
recognised about half a dozen more. As we have over 800 named species in this
series of beds, we may double the number of recent ones without seriously
affecting the result.

Assuming that the Barwonian is Eocene, for some age has to be assumed, I
have elsewhere discussed most of the genera that transgress.1 Some pass up
from Mesozoic times, others are extensions back from younger horizons in the
north, or from recent seas. Besides this the absence of many modern genera
must be insisted on. It is customary for those who hold that the Barwonian
is younger than Eocene to label all the old genera ‘survivals.’ This hardly
settles the question. Leaving the land fauna on one side, there are some un-
doubted survivals in the Indo-Pacific, but it may be asked, Did nothing originate
in the southern seas and slowly migrate northwards? The real place of origin
and age of the transgressing genera cannot be settled off-hand by northern
standards.

The Barwonian is divided into Balcombian and Janjukian, but their relation-
ship has been vigorously discussed. By far the greater part of the fauna is
common to the two. Passing by the discussions between Professor Ralph Tate
and Mr, J. Dennant on the one side, and Dr. G. B. Pritchard and myself on the
other, which ended, as such discussions frequently do, in a series of flat contra-
dictions as to facts, we may consider-Mr. F. (Chapman’s position.

Mr. Chapman asserts that the Batesford limestone is typical Janjukian, and
appears to conclude that all the polyzoal limestones, and there are many, are
also Janjukian. He argues on the same data that the Janjukian is the younger
series. Tate, Dennant, Pritchard, and myself, however much we differed on
other points, agreed that the age of the limestones must be decided by reference
to the rich fauna of the clays. Mr. Chapman makes no reference to an inter-
calated clay bed in the Batestord limestone from which Dr. Pritchard and myself
collected forty-five species, mainly mollusca. Of these only one is confined to the
type Janjukian locality, while twelve have never been found there, but are
confined to typical Baleombian beds. The rest are common to both series.
The limestone, then, as we asserted, is Balcombian and not Janjukian. More-
over, we showed, by a careful examination of the area, that the limestone passed
under clays which are typically Balcombian, and can be traced to Orphanage
Hill, only a couple of miles away. M‘Coy grouped the Orphanage Hill beds
with those of Mornington, that is, with the type Balcombian section. Tate,
Dennant, Pritchard, and myself agree with the grouping, and Mr. Chapman
still labels the Orphanage Hill fossils Balcombian in the National Museum.
If, as Mr. Chapman asserts, the Batesford limestone is Janjukian, then the
Balcombian is the younger and not the older member, as he asserts. The
stratigraphical facts are unimpeachable.

The Mount Gambier limestones must, as the contained mollusca show, be

* Rep. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Science, Hobart, 1902; Pres. Addr. Sec. C.

374 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

associated with the Balcombian of Muddy Creek. The polyzoal limestone of
Muddy Creek rests on quartz porphyry, and is the basal member of the series.
It has been traced by Dr, Pritchard and myself passing under the more loosely
compacted beds of the district, and is inseparable from them.

The polyzoal limestones of Jan Juc, Waurn Ponds, and a few other places
are Janjukian, and the evidence rests on the mollusca, but this has no bearing
on Mr. Chapman’s main contention.

The relative age of the Janjukian and Balcombian is a difficult question.
M‘Coy, Tate and Dennant, and Chapman consider the Janjukian the younger.
Dr. Pritchard and myself consider the reverse to be the case.

As regards the other formations, it may be briefly said that the estimate of
their age depends on that of the Barwonian. If this be Eocene, they are
Miocene and Pliocene respectively; if not, they must be placed higher in the
scale,

8. On the Age and Sequence of the Victorian Tertiaries.
By G. B. Prircuarp, D.Sc.

Tertiary geology in South-Eastern Australia has been fruitful of much
difference of opinion, partly on account of lithological variations associated with
paleontological variations which have not always received due weight, the diffi-
culty of correlating disconnected outcrops, bores, and shafts, and the degree of
antiquity and relative age of the various horizons represented. The various
changes in this work have no doubt been a stimulation to some, but to many it
has been, and still is, very confusing.

It happens that marine deposits are well developed, many showing a remark-
able wealth of fossils, and these have attracted more attention than their terres-
trial and volcanic associates. Amongst the marine fossils, mollusca are usually
very striking, and it is only natural to compare these with Australian living
forms. In this way a succession can be determined for the fossil faunas as at
present known, showing further and further removes from the living.

(a) Werrikooian.—The type locality is at Limestone Creek, a small tributary
of the Glenelg River, in the parish of Werrikoo, South-Western Victoria.
These beds bear a molluscan fauna strictly comparable with living forms along
the southern coast except for the occurrence of a few species at present unknown
amongst the living fauna.

(0) Kalimnan.—The type locality is near the township of Kalimna, Gipps-
land Lakes, Eastern Victoria. The fauna of these beds is also comparable in
general facies with the recent, in the proportion of bivalves to univalves, and
relative abundance of representatives of other groups. It includes extinct
genera, as well as a very high proportion of extinct species.

(c) Balcombian.—The type locality is at Balcombe’s Bay, east shore of Port
Phillip. The fauna of these beds is richer and more varied than the existing
Southern fauna; its general facies is more comparable with Northern Australian
forms. In the present state of our knowledge it contains rather more than two
per cent. of extinct genera, and even allowing a wide margin for differences of
opinion the living species would barely represent two per cent.

(d) Janjukian.—Coastal sections on Bass Strait, parish of Jan Juc, south of
Geelong. The fauna from these beds appears to be furthest removed from the
living, based on a review of the genera which shows between five and six per
cent. extinct, whilst the species only show about one per cent. living forms.

When the typical fossils are not obtainable it is not easy to state whether a
rock series is Balcombian or Janjukian. To meet this difficulty the wider term
Barwonian has been given, as both these horizons are well developed in the
Barwon Basin.

Stratigraphical evidence also exists in confirmation of the above sequence in
the Moorabool Valley, in the coastal sections from Port Campbell to Cats’ Reef
and elsewhere.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 8375

4. On the Age of the Lower Tertiary Marine Rocks of Australia. By
R. Buraay Newton.

The author referred briefly to the valuable palxontological work on the
Australian Tertiaries carried out by such prominent authors as M‘Coy, Ralph
Tate, Dennant, Hall, Pritchard, &¢., the majority of whom favoured an Eocene
Age for the Lower Tertiary deposits of Australia. The late G. F. Harris
doubted the existence of such a formation, whilst M. Cossmann could see no
relationships among the Lower Tertiary Opisthobranchs from Australia with
Kocene forms from Europe.

Mr. F. Chapman, palontologist of the Melbourne Museum, has studied this
subject, and proves very conclusively that those beds hitherto regarded as
Kocene belong to the Miocene period—a view which the author fully supports.
Mr, Chapman’s work on the Batesford limestone is important in this connection,
because of its containing Lepidocyclina, Amphistegina, and Lithothamnium—
all of which characterise the Miocene beds of Europe, Java, Sumatra, Borneo,
Formosa, &c.; the absence of nummulites in this limestone is against its age
being either Eocene or Oligocene. These same limestones have also yielded
Mollusca and Brachiopoda, as well as Carcharodon megalodon, which has its
origin in Miocene rocks. The author was of opinion that the Lower Tertiary
faunas of Australia presented in some cases a recent facies, in others a Miocene
facies with relationships to both European and South American species of that
period. Among shells showing a resemblance to those of present-day seas, he
mentioned Cassis contusus, Siphonalia spatiosa, Typhis laciniatus, all Tate’s
species, and mostly from the Muddy Creek deposits; and many more species
might be quoted exhibiting a more or less recent appearance. Among fossil
forms more particularly referred to was the Aturia aturi var. australis, which
has been recognised as coming from the Eocene of Australia. Although given
a varietal name, this Cephalopod is not to be separated from the Miocene species
of Europe known as Aturia aturi, and with this statement Mr. Crick, of the
British Museum, thoroughly agrees. The species is found in many of the
Australian deposits, as also in the Table Cape beds of Tasmania, the Oamaru
beds of New Zealand, the Navidad beds of Chili, South America, as also in the
European Miocene. The more or less pointed rostrum of Spirulirostra curta
illustrates an affinity with Miocene forms rather than with Eocene, which are
more obtuse. s

The large Cypreas described by M‘Coy as Oligocene should more probably
be regarded as Miocene, since they come from the Gellibrand River Beds,
Muddy Creek deposits, &c., which also contain the Aturia aturi, before men-
tioned. The Brachiopods of the Lower Tertiary deposits of Australia show
a somewhat recent facies, a striking form being Magellania garibaldiana—a
species occurring in the Mount Gambier Beds in association with the
Aturia aturi.

Even before Mr. Chapman pointed out the Miocene characters of the Lower
Tertiary deposits of Australia, Dr. Ortmann, of the United States, had pub-
lished in 1902 his important monograph on the Tertiary deposits of Patagonia,
in which he compared thé faunas of that continent with those of Australia.
His researches were against the presence of Eocene in the Tertiaries of
Australasia, and those beds hitherto recorded as such he identified as
Miocene, and contemporaneous with the Pareora beds of New Zealand, Navidad
series of Chili, and the Patagonian deposits, all of which showed unmistakable
affinities with each other and favoured the view that a former connection
existed between South America and Australasia.

The term Oligocene among Australasian marine Tertiaries, the author was
inclined to abandon because of the absence of Nummulites, their place being
taken by Amphistegina and Lepidocycline forms of Foraminifera. Such rocks
he would regard as Miocene. This would apply to the Balcombian and
Janjukian beds of Mornington &c. and the older deposits of Muddy Creek and
other localities.

376 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

5. The Correlation of the Australian Marine Kainozoic Deposits—
Evidence of the Hchinoids, Bryozoa, and some Vertebrates.
By Professor J. W. Grecory, F.R.S.

Correlations of the Kainozoic deposits which extend along southern Australia
have been proposed in accordance with two main conclusions. According to
the first, these deposits include marine representatives of all the Kainozoic
systems from the Eocene to the Pleistocene. According to the alternative
explanation, most of the deposits belong to the middle part of the Kainozoic, and
include essentially one fauna. When I succeeded M‘Coy in Melbourne in 1900
I had to consider this question, and carefully examined the evidence given by
the two groups of animals in which I was most interested, the Echinoidea and
the Bryozoa, and also compared their evidence with that of some fossil verte-
brates. The second correlation seemed the better to agree with the evidence of
these groups. The Echinoidea had been regarded as indicating the Eocene age
of some of the deposits, for one characteristic fossil had been referred to the
genus /Zolaster. This determination had, however, been revised and the fossil
referred to a new genus, Duncaniaster, whose affinities are with much later
echinoids than Holaster. The fossil echinoids could all be included in one
fauna; some of the most characteristic species, such as Clypeaster gippslandicus
and Monostychia australis, range from the Balcombian to the Kalimnan, and
Lovenia forbesi has the same variations in the Janjukian and Kalimnan. Some
of the rarer species are limited to one locality, but that is probably only due
to their scarcity. The characteristic Echinoids indicate one fauna, which is
essentially Miocene, though it may have overlapped with the upper Oligocene
and lower Pliocene. The evidence of the Echinoids is decidedly in favour of
the view that there has been one great marine transgression along the southern
coast of Australia, which reached its maximum in the Miocene if it were not
confined to that system.

The evidence of the Bryozoa is less definite, but when carefully examined it
supports the same conclusions. Many of the genera lived in the Eocene and
Cretaceous; but most weight should be given to the most specialised Cheilosto-
mata found in these deposits. Some well-known living species, such as
Retepora beaniana, Smittia reticulata, and Porella skenei, are found in the
Victorian beds, and they indicate an upper instead of a lower Kainozoic age.
The survival of some older Bryozoa is less significant than the first appearance
of the highly developed upper Kainozoic species. Macgillivray in his monograph
(1895) said that the Victorian Bryozoan fauna included no Kocene members, and
that the different horizons represented were not very different in age. With
those conclusions I fully concur.

The vertebrate evidence appears to me to support the same determination.
The appearance of Squalodon, Scaldicetus, and Ziphius, and of such well-known
species of sharks as Carcharodon megalodon and Oxyrhina hastalis, which range
from the lowest to the highest of the main Victorian marine series, is in favour
of those beds being not earlier than Miocene. It is true that both species have
been recorded from the Eocene of the United States; but these American
Atlantic deposits are not an altogether satisfactory basis for correlation; and
these species make their first appearance in the standard Kainozoic succession
of Europe in the Miocene, and they last on to the Pliocene.

The classification adopted recently by Mr. Chapman seems to me in essential
agreement with the evidence of the Echinoids, Bryozoa, and Vertebrates, most
of the marine Kainozoic beds of southern Australia belonging to the Janjukian
and being of Miocene age. :

6. The Evolution of Victoria during the Kainozoic Period.
By D. J. Manony, M.Sc., F.G.S.

The Kainozoic period in Victoria is characterised by great earth movements
accompanied by volcanic action; the present topography is a consequent
development.

The central highland area (Paleozoic rocks) extends from the eastern
boundary of the State westwards to the Grampians; to the north and south

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 377

it is bounded by low-lying plains (Kainozoie strata), which gradually broaden
towards the west until they merge into one another. To the south Wilson’s
Promontory (granite), South Gippsland (Mesozoic), and the Cape Otway district
(Mesozoic) rise above the plains. The highland area is essentially a dissected
peneplain sinking from some 5,000 feet above sea level in Gippsland to 900 feet
at its western extremity; the only Kainozoic rocks upon it are river-gravels,
lake-deposits, and volcanics. |

The plains (500 feet) are areas of Kainozoic sedimentation with some inter-
bedded and overlying volcanic rocks; the sedimentary series consists of
lacustrine or estuarine beds, followed by marine clays (Oligocene), foraminiferal
limestones (Miocene), and sandstones (Pliocene). These beds rest upon
Paleozoic or Mesozoic rocks.

On the surface of the ancient peneplain, 5,000 feet above sea level, (?) Miocene
plant-remains and river-gravels are preserved beneath basalt at Dargo High
Plains. This indicates a long pre-Miocene period of quiescence followed by a
great uplift. This area has not been submerged during the Kainozoic.

The nature of the Kainozoic series indicates that, outside the highland area,
a gradual subsidence of considerable magnitude (Oligocene and Miocene), accom-
panied by volcanic outbreaks (Miocene), was followed by re-elevation to a
maximum of about 900 feet above sea level (Pliocene or post-Pliocene). There
is evidence to show that the movements were not uniform in direction, though
the net result was depression or elevation. Bass Strait is a recently sunken
area in which equilibrium has not yet been established.

The nearly horizontal position of the Kainozoic rocks indicates that the move-
ments were vertical; and there are, moreover, examples of Kainozoic faults in
which the differential movement amounts to 900 feet.

The volcanic rocks are basaltic except for sporadic occurrences of alkali
rocks in Kastern, Central, and Western Victoria.

The Older Basalts are most abundant to the east of Melbourne. Some
remnants occur on the ancient peneplain 3,000 feet above the present streams,
but the most extensive areas are at lower levels in South Gippsland. At Flinders
the Older Basalt underlies marine Miocene, and has been proved by boring to
be over 1,300 feet thick, and to extend from sea level to that depth. In some
instances the age can be conclusively proved, but in others the evidence is poor.
These basalts are associated with the first great period of earth movements.

The Newer Basalts are most extensively developed in the western district,
where their northern boundary is not far from the 500 feet contour; here they
overlie marine Kainozoics. Large areas are also found on the plateau west of
Kilmore and along its northern flanks. The Newer Basalts are never covered
by marine deposits, except recent accumulations near the coast, their surface
is little denuded, and many of the cones of loose scoria are almost perfect.
It appears that the Newer Basalts mark the close of the last great movement
which elevated the marine Kainozoics.

In New South Wales and South Australia earth movements on a grand scale
took place during the Kainozoic period, yet volcanic action was comparatively
insignificant. :

7. The Tertiary Brown Coal-beds of Victoria.
By H. Herman, B.C.H., M.M.E., F.G.S.

The brown coal-beds of Victoria are probably the thickest yet recorded in
the world. The more extensive areas are the La Trobe Valley, Alberton,
Altona, and Lal Lal. Minor beds are widely distributed.

The geological age has not yet been definitely fixed, except at Altona, where
a brown coal-seam 140 feet thick underlies marine Oligocene beds. Flows of
basalt overlie the brown coal in places, and underlie it in others. The range in
age is probably from Oligocene upwards. Seams outcrop at Narracan, Thorp-
dale, Dean’s March, Morwell, and Boolarra.

Where below the surface the seams are prospected by boring. In many bores
coal of several hundred feet in thickness is shown; one bore had an aggregate
thickness of 781 feet of coal in a depth of 1,010 feet. The overburden is from
a few feet to 500 feet deep.

378 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

In the Alberton area of about 300 square miles and the La Trobe Valley area
of 700 square miles there is probably 30,000,000,000 tons of coal. The approxi-
mate area at Altona is 200 square miles, with a probable average thickness of
50 feet of coal. At Lal Lal the coal covers three square miles with an average
thickness of 80 feet.

The geological and geographical distribution of the various brown coal-seams
is still being ascertained by boring; the bores are being systematically tested for
calorific value, gas production, and by-products. A typical analysis of the
brown coal, as freshly mined, is :—

Per cent.

Msi Vs!) RE! Ometee ee TS8 08
VA Ost) GAS 0 aCe eee ew ee
Fh WE A OMS Me Hea IRS
Ashvinit ited: fie et ayng at aiokite 1-00

100-00
Sulphur. . . . . . « 0°7 per cent.
Nitrogen. . . ¢ . . « 0:3 per cent.
Calorific value 4 : t ; . 5,500-6,000 B.T.U.
Evaporation value eo. eh a 64 Tb. water

Gas perton . . . . . . 6,500 cubic feet
Ammonium sulphate per ton (theoretical), 32 Ib.

Experimental work has also proved that under proper conditions a firm hard
briquette can be produced without the aid of an agglutinant binder. It is
suitable also for use in the gas producer, the improvements in which of recent
years bid fair to give brown coal an important place in the power-fuels of the
world at no distant date.

SYDNEY.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.

After the President had delivered his Address (see p. 344) thie following
Papers were read :—

1. The Geology of New South Wales. By BK. F. Pirrman.

2. The Age of the Permo-Carboniferous Glacial Beds.
By Dr. A. Vauauan.

3. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the Brilish Isles.
See Reports, p. 111.

4. Report of the Committee to consider the Preparation of a List of
Characteristic Fossils.— See Reports, p. 111.

5. Report on the Geology of Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire.
See Reports, p. 111.

6. Report on the Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland
See Reports, p. 113.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 379

7. Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the Western Midlands.
See Reports, p. 114.

8. Reporl on the Excavalion of Critical Sections in the Lower Paleozoic
Rocks of England and Wales.—See Reports, p. 115.

9. Report on Geological Photographs.

10. Report on the Microscopical and Chemical Composition of
the Charnwood Rocks.

11. Report on the further Exploration of the Upper Old Red Sandstone
of Dura Den.—See Reports, p 116.

12. Report of the Committee to consider the Preparalion of a List of
Stratigraphical Names.—See Reports, p. 113.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.

Joint Discussion with Sections D, E, and K on Past and Present
Relations of Antarctica in their Biological, Geographical, and
Geological Aspects.—See p. 409.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. On the Term Permo-Carboniferous and on the Correlation of thal
System. By W. S. Dun and Professor T. W. Epaswortu Davin,
C.M.G.

The term Permo-Carboniferous was originally applied to certain formations
in Queensland which on stratigraphical evidence were at the time considered
to belong to one and the same general system. At the time it was considered
that a series of strata at Gympie, which contained an assemblage of fossils
of distinct Permian affinities, were stratigraphically below another set of
strata known as the Star Beds. The latter contain among other fossils
Phillipsia, Lepidodendron australe, and Aneimites, all typical Carboniferous
fossils in Australia, and the first mostly of Devonian age. Accordingly these
formations were grouped together under the term Permo-Carboniferous, and
the name has subsequently been widely used. It has now been proved that, so
far as Queensland is concerned, the name has been given in error. The
Gympie Beds are stratigraphically above the Star Beds, not below as was
originally supposed. Nowhere in Australia or Tasmania has a single trilobite
or Lepidodendron ever been found in our Carboniferous rocks proper. In the
absence of a zoning of these Carboniferous rocks it is impossible to say what
exactly are its equivalents in other parts of the world. If it is wholly Lower
Carboniferous, as some suppose, there may be some justification for the retention
of the term Permo-Carboniferous, but if its fauna and flora ascend to Upper
Carboniferous, then it is suggested that there is much to be said in favour of
using the term Permian instead. In Russia Schizodus occurs in fiumbers
beneath the whole not only of the Glossopteris beds, but of the Gangamopteris

380 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

beds also of the Dwina system. In South America the Lower Rocks of the
Santa Catharina system appear to be more Permian than anything else, and
the occurrence of the strong swimming reptile Mesosaurus both in the Permo-
Carboniferous rocks of South America and of South Africa suggests that the
South African Permo-Carboniferous rocks also may be chiefly Permian.

In the correlation of the Australian Permo-Carboniferous formations, special
emphasis is laid on the Indian facies of the West Australian Permo-
Carboniferous fauna.

2. The Great Australian Artesian Basin and the Source of its Supply.
By E. F. Pirrman.

3. The Geological Relations of the Artesian Water-bearing Beds of
Southern Queensland. By S. Dunstan.

4. The Post-Jurassic Geography of Australia. Notes on the Hypothesis
of Isostasy. By EK. C. ANDREWS.

The doctrine of isostasy implies the general correspondence, in weight, of all
vertical columns of unit size composing the Earth’s crust to a depth known as
the depth of compensation. This depth is taken at 122 kilométres below sea
level by Hayford.1

The excess of height of the unit columns, in continental areas, is con-
sidered as being compensated by the excess of crustal density in suboceanic
areas. Isostatic compensation is supposed to follow rapidly upon loading and
unloading. Examples of such loading are sedimentation and the formation of
a continental Ice Sheet, while examples of unloading are erosion and _ the
disappearance of an Ice Sheet. The adjustment is considered to be a gradual,
rather than a spasmodic, process. Anomalies of gravity, however, are recorded
from many localities, and Gilbert? suggests that the explanation of such is
to be sought in nucleal heterogeneity.

Geography.—Kast and West Australia form two positive, or buoyant, ele-
ments, while the Inland Plains, in the main, represent a negative, or sunken,
area. With these three elements should be considered New Zealand, Malaysia,
the South Pacific, the Indian, and Southern Oceans.

During Cretaceous time a great plain of erosion appears to have been
formed in the positive elements of Australia, while the extensive epicon-
tinental sea of that period was filled with the waste derived from the neighbour-
ing erosion. Subsequently, both the old plain of erosion and the northern
portion of the area of sedimentation were elevated to a moderate height and
a long period of equilibrium and erosion ensued. This sequence of elevation
and of pauses of equilibrium with erosion was repeated until the close of
the Kosciusko Period,? the pauses between the uplifts becoming less impor-
tant, but the amount of vertical movement becoming correspondingly emphasised.

At various stages of the process basalts flooded Eastern Australia, especially
in areas of older sedimentation. The appearance of the old basalt-covered
stream-drifts is suggestive of a temporary subsidence for the plateau areas
during the basaltic period.

Strong streams, such as the Shoalhaven and the Hawkesbury, maintained their
general courses against the uplifts along their lower portions. Hence it is
inferred that the uplifts were effected slowly, nevertheless the periods of equi-
librium separating the revivals of elevation were of much longer duration than
the uplifts themselves.

* Hayford, J. F., ‘ Figure of the Earth and Isostasy,’ U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey, Washington, 1909.

? Gilbert, G. K., ‘Interpretation of Anomalies of Gravity,’ U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, Washington, 1913.

* Closing Tertiary.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 381

The researches of Dutton, Hayford, Bowie, Gilbert, and others appear to
have placed the doctrine of isostatic compensation upon a firm basis; neverthe-
less, the operation of the adjustments does not appear, as yet, to be understood,
and it is probable that cognisance has not been taken of all the factors.

In the example cited, of the elevation of both the Great Mesozoic peneplain

and a great portion of the loaded offshore area, it seems difficult, under the
doctrine of continuous compensation, by erosion and sedimentation, to explain,
in the first place, how the positive element could remain, for ages, in the one
general position of equilibrium, while the offshore area was being loaded; and,
in the second place, how the elevatory movement could have received its initial
impetus, especially as the effect appears greater than the cause if it be assumed
that the Cretaceous sedimentation gave rise to the Tertiary uplifts. On the
other hand, the foundering of suboceanic areas in the neighbourhood might be
adduced as an explanation, but the evidence is not at all conclusive on this
point,
; The history of the revivals of elevation during Tertiary time over Eastern
Australia indicates crustal adjustment by jumps, and in this case also the
increasing amount of vertical movement suggests that the elevations of the
plateaus more than compensate for the erosion sustained in these regions during
recent geological time.

The extrusion of the basalts is in harmony with the doctrine, but the
action appears to have been catastrophic, rather than gradual, in nature.

The sequence of geographical forms cited suggests that sedimentation in-
fluenced the formation of plateaus only in a minor degree, but, on the other
hand, that stresses accumulated gradually within the zone of compensation, until
a belt of weakness, or mobility, was established by means of which the ill-
adjusted portions were connected. Upon the arrival of such a stage adjustment
ensued with relative rapidity with the production of epeirogenic uplifts and
depressions. This neither denies the ability of a load, such as a mass of sedi-
ments, or an Ice Cap, to depress the underlying region, nor does it seek to
exclude the tendency for an unloaded area to rise; it merely assigns to such
geet a subordinate part in the shaping of the greater features of the Earth’s
crust.

It is probable also that an analysis of a series of gravity measurements
which may he taken hereafter in Australasia would reveal the existence therein
of gravity anomalies, and it is probable also that the disposition of these would
be other than those which might have been inferred from a mere inspection
of the topography.

5. The Melallogenetic Provinces of Eastern Australia.
By C. A. Sussmincn,

6. New Rvidence for Darwin’s Theory of Coral Reefs.
By Professor W. M. Davis.

7. The Genesis of the Diamond in New South Wales. By L. A. Corton.

8. The Occurrence of Spilitic Lavas in New South Wales.
By W.N. Benson.

9. Structural Features of the Coal-fields of Pennsylvania and their

Influence on the Origin of Hard Coal. By Professor E. 8. Moorr
M.A; Ph.D. y r B.S. Moore,

There are two main coal-fields in Pennsylvania, the Bituminous and the
Anthracite. The latter field comprises an area of approximately 480 square miles
situated in the highly folded portion of the Appalachian Province, while the

382 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

former field covers a much larger area with but gently folded strata. Between
these two fields are limited areas underlain by semi-anthracite coal in strata
which have suffered a medium amount of diastrophism.

So close is the relationship between intense diastrophism and the development
of anthracite coal, that the influence of pressure—combined with conditions
favourable for the escape of the volatile constituents from the vegetable matter
—_-zeems to be self-evident, although other theories, such as the action of bacteria,
&c., have been advanced to account for the origin of anthracite. The structure
of some of the anthracite basins is extremely complex, and the coal can often be
mined only by special methods, especially where the Mammoth seam reaches
60 feet in thickness.

Tn the Bituminous field, ‘rolls’ and ‘ horsebacks’ are common, and investiga-
tion has shown that these are, usually, nearly parallel to the larger mountain
structures.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 383

Secrion D.—ZOOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION: PRoressor Anruur Denpy, D.Sc., F.R.S.

MELBOURNE.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 14.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Progressive Hvolution and the Origin of Species.

Tue opening years of the present century have witnessed a remarkable develop-
ment of Biology as an experimental science, a development which, however full
of promise it may be for the future, for the time being appears to have resulted
in a widespread disturbance of ideas which have themselves only recently
succeeded in gaining general acceptance. The theory of organic evolution,
plainly enough enunciated at the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of
the nineteenth century by Buffon, Lamarck, and Erasmus Darwin, remained
unconvincing to the great majority of thinking men until the genius of Charles
Darwin not only brought together and presented the evidence in such a manner
that it could no longer be ignored, but elaborated a logical explanation of the
way in which organic evolution might be supposed to have taken place.
Thanks to his labours and those of Alfred Russel Wallace, supported by the
powerful influence of such men as Huxley and Hooker, the theory was placed
upon a firm foundation, in a position which can never again be assailed with
any prospect of success.

This statement is, I believe, entirely justified with regard to the theory
of organic evolution itself, but the case is very different when we come to
investigate the position of the various subsidiary theories which have been put
Forward from time to time with regard to what may perhaps be termed the
modus operandi, the means by which organic evolution has been effected. It
is in this field that controversy rages more keenly than ever before. Lamarck
told us that evolution was due to the accumulated results of individual effort in
response to a changing environment, and also to the direct action of the environ-
ment upon the organism. Darwin and Wallace taught us that species
originated by the natural selection of favourable variations, and under the
influence of Weismann’s doctrine of the non-inheritance of acquired characters
the theory of natural selection is in danger of becoming crystallised into an
inflexible dogma. In recent years De Vries has told us that species arise by
sudden mutations, and not by slow successive changes, while one of the most
extreme exponents of ‘ Mendelism,’ Professor Lotsy, lately informed us that all
species arise by crossing, and seriously suggested that the vertebrate type arose
by the crossing of two invertebrates !

This curious and many-sided divergence of opinion amongst expert biologists
is undoubtedly largely due to the introduction of experimental methods into
biological science. Such methods have proved very fruitful in results which
at first sight seem to be mutually contradictory, and each group of workers has
built up its own theory mainly on the basis of observations in its own restricted
field. .

384. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

Professor Bateson has said in his recently published ‘ Problems of Genetics ’ :
‘When . . . we contemplate the problem of Evolution at large the hope at the
present time of constructing even a mental picture of that process grows weak
almost to the point of vanishing. We are left wondering that so lately men in
general, whether scientific or lay, were so easily satisfied. Our satisfaction, as
we now see, was chiefly founded on ignorance.’ 1

In view of this striking pronouncement on the part of one who has devoted
his life with signal success to the experimental investigation of evolutionary
problems, the remarks which I propose to lay before you for your consideration
to-day may well appear rash and ill-advised. I cannot believe, however, that the
position is really quite so black as it is painted. We must perforce admit that
the divers theories with regard to the working of organic evolution cannot all
be correct in all their details, but it may be that each contains its own elements
of truth, and that if these elements can but be recognised and sorted out, they
may perhaps be recombined in such a form as to afford at any rate a plausible
working hypothesis. We must bear in mind from the outset that in dealing with
such a complex problem many factors have to be taken into account, and that
widely different views on the question may be merely one-sided and not neces-
sarily mutually exclusive.

I take it there are three principal facts, or groups of facts, that have to be
accounted for by any theory of organic evolution :—

(1) The fact that, on the whole, evolution has taken place in a progressive
manner along definite and divergent lines.

(2) The fact that individual animals and plants are more or less precisely
adapted in their organisation and in their behaviour to the conditions under
which they have to live.

(3) The fact that evolution has resulted in the existence on the earth to-day
of a vast number of more or less well-defined groups of animals and plants which
we call species.

The first of these facts appears to me to be the most fundamental, and at the
same time the one to which least attention is usually paid. The great question,
after all, is, Why do organisms progress at all instead of remaining stationary
from generation to generation? ‘To answer this question it is not necessary to go
back to the beginning and consider the case of the first terrestrial organisms,
whatever they may have been, nor are we obliged to take as illustrations the
lowest organisms known to us as existing at the present day. We may consider
the problem at any stage of evolution, for at each stage progress is, or may be,
still taking place. We may even begin by considering what is usually regarded
as the highest stage of all, man himself; and indeed this seems the most natural
thing to do, for we certainly know more about the conditions of progress in man
than in any other organism. I refer, of course, at the moment, not to progress
in bodily organisation, but to progress in the ordinary sense of the word, the
progress, say, of a family which rises in the course of a few generations from
a position of obscure poverty to one of wealth and influence. You may perhaps
say that such a case has no bearing upon the problem of organic evolution in a
state of nature, and that we ought to confine our attention to the evolution of
bodily structure and function. If so, I must reply that you have no right to
limit the meaning of the term evolution in this manner; the contrast between
man and nature is purely arbitrary; man is himself a living organism, and
all the improvements that he effects in his own condition are part of the progress
of evolution in his particular case. At any rate I must ask you to accept this
case as our first illustration of a principle that may be applied to organisms
in general.

If we inquire into the cause of the progress of our human family I think there
can be only one answer—it is due to the accumulation of capital, or, as I should
prefer to put it, to the accumulation of potential energy, either in the form of
material wealth or of education. What one generation saves is available for the
next, and thus each succeeding generation gets a better start in life, and is able
to rise a little higher than the preceding one.

Every biologist knows, of course, that there are many analogous cases amongst

1 Problems of Genetics, p. 97.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 385

the lower animals, and also amongst plants. The accumulation of food-yolk in
the egg has undoubtedly been one of the chief factors in the progressive evolu-
tion of animals, although it has been replaced in the highest forms by a
more effective method of supplying potential energy to the developing offspring.
It may indeed be laid down as a general law that each generation, whether of
animals or of plants, accumulates more energy than it requires for its own main-
tenance, and uses the surplus to give the next generation a start in life. There
is every reason to believe that this has been a progressive process throughout
the whole course of evolution, for the higher the degree of organisation the more
perfect do we find the arrangements for securing the welfare of the offspring.

We cannot, of course, trace this process back to its commencement, because
we know nothing of the nature of the earliest living things, but we may pause
for a moment to inquire whether any phenomena occur amongst simple
unicellular organisms that throw any light upon the subject. What we want to
know is—How did the habit of accumulating surplus energy and handing it on
to the next generation first arise?

Students of Professor H. 8. Jennings’ admirable work on the ‘ Behaviour of
the Lower Organisms ’ will remember that his experiments have led him to the
conclusion that certain Protozoa, such as Stentor, are able to learn by experience
how to make prompt and effective responses to certain stimuli; that after they
have been stimulated in the same way a number of times they make the appro-
priate response at once without having to go through the whole process of trial
and error by which it was first attained. In other words, they are able by
practice to perform a given action with less expenditure of energy. Some
modification of the protoplasm must take place which renders the performance
of an act the easier the oftener it has been repeated. The same is of course
true in the case of the higher animals, and we express the fact most simply by
saying that the animal establishes habits. From the mechanistic point of view
we might say that the use of the machine renders it more perfect and better
adapted for its purpose. In the present state of our knowledge I think we
cannot go beyond this, but must content ourselves with recognising the power of
profiting by experience as a fundamental property of living protoplasm.

It appears to me that this power of profiting by experience lies at the root of our
problem, and that in it we find a chief cause of progressive evolution. Jennings
speaks of the principle involved here as the ‘ Law of the readier resolution of
physiological states after repetition,’ and, similarly, I think we must recognise
a ‘Law of the accumulation of surplus energy ’ as resulting therefrom. Let us
look at the case of the accumulation of food-yolk by the egg-cell a little more
closely from this point of view. Every cell takes in a certain amount of potential
energy in the form of food for its own use. If it leads an active life, either as
an independent organism or as a constituent part of an organism, it may expend
by far the greater part, possibly even the whole, of that energy upon its own
requirements, but usually something is left over to be handed down to its imme-
diate descendants. If, on the other hand, the cell exhibits very little activity
and expends very little energy, while placed in an environment in which food
is abundant, it will tend to accumulate surplus energy in excess of its own needs.
Such is the case with the egg-cells of the multicellular animals and _ plants.
Moreover, the oftener the process of absorbing food-material is repeated the
easier does it become; in fact, the egg-cell establishes a habit of storing up
reserve material or food-yolk. Inasmuch as it is a blastogenic character, there
can be no objection to supposing that this habit will be inherited by future
generations of egg-cells. Indeed we are obliged to assume that this will be the
case, for we know that the protoplasm of each succeeding generation of egg-cells
is directly continuous with that of the preceding generation. We thus get at
any rate a possibility of the progressive accumulation of potential energy in the
germ-cells of successive generations of multicellular organisms, and of course
the same argument holds good with regard to successive generations of Protista.

It would seem that progressive evolution must follow as a necessary result
of the law of the accumulation of surplus energy in all cases where there is nothing
to counteract that law, for each generation gets a better start than its prede-
cessor, and is able to carry on a little further its struggle for existence with the
environment. It may be said that this argument proves too much, that if it

1914. oo

386 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

were correct all organisms would by this time have attained to a high degree of
organisation, and that at any rate we should not expect to find such simple
organisms as bacteria and ameebe still surviving. This objection, which, of
course, applies equally to other theories of organic evolution, falls to the
ground when we consider that there must be many factors of which we know
nothing which may prevent the establishment of progressive habits and render
impossible the accumulation of surplus energy. Many of the lower organisms,
like many human beings, appear to have an inherent incapacity for progress,
though it may be quite impossible for us to say to what that incapacity is due.

It will be observed that in the foregoing remarks I have concentrated atten-
tion upon the storing up of reserve material by the egg-cells, and in so doing
have avoided the troublesome question of the inheritance of so-called acquired
characters. I do not wish it to be supposed, however, that I regard this as
the only direction in which the law of the accumulation of surplus energy can
manifest itself, for I believe that the accumulation of surplus energy by the
body may be quite as important as a factor in progressive evolution as the corre-
sponding process in the germ-cells themselves. The parents, in the case of the
higher animals, may supply surplus energy, in the form of nutriment or other-
wise, to the offspring at all stages of its development, and the more capital the
young animal receives the better will be its chances in life, and the better those
of its own offspring.

In all these processes, no doubt, natural selection plays an important part,
but, in dealing with the accumulation of food material by the egg-cells, one of
my objects has been to show that progressive evolution would take place even if
there were no such thing as natural selection, that the slow successive variations
in this case are not chance variations, but due to a fundamental property of
living protoplasm and necessarily cumulative.

Moreover, the accumulation of surplus energy in the form of food-yolk is

only one of many habits which the protoplasm of the germ-cells may acquire in
a cumulative manner. It may learn by practice to respond with increased
promptitude and precision to other stimuli besides that of the presence of
nutrient material in its environment. It may learn to secrete a protective mem-
brane, to respond in a particular manner to the presence of a germ-cell of the
opposite sex, and to divide in a particular manner after fertilisation has taken
place.
Having thus endeavoured to account for the fact that progressive evolution
actually occurs by attributing it primarily to the power possessed by living
protoplasm of learning by experience and thus establishing habits by which it
is able to respond more quickly to environmental stimuli, we have next to
inquire what it is that determines the definite lines along which progress
manifests itself.

Let us select one of these lines and investigate it as fully as the time at our
disposal will permit, with a view to seeing whether it is possible to formulate a
reasonable hypothesis as to how evolution may have taken place. Let us take
the line which we believe has led up to the evolution of air-breathing verte-
brates. The only direct evidence at our disposal in such a case is, of course, the
evidence of paleontology, but [ am going to ask you to allow me to set this
evidence, which, as you know, is of an extremely fragmentary character, aside,
and base my remarks upon the ontogenetic evidence, which, although indirect,
will, I think, be found sufficient for our purpose. One reason for concentrating
our attention upon this aspect of the problem is that I wish to show that the
recapitulation of phylogenetic history in individual development is a logical
necessity if evolution has really taken place.

We may legitimately take the nucleated Protozoon cell as our starting-point,
for, whatever may have been the course of evolution that led up to the cell,
there can be no question that all the higher organisms actually start life in this
condition.

We suppose, then, that our ancestral Protozoon acquired the habit of taking
in food material in excess of its own requirements, and of dividing into two
parts whenever it reached a certain maximum size. Here again we must, for
the sake of simplicity, ignore the facts that: even a Protozoon is by no means a
simple organism, and that its division, usually at any rate, is a very complicated

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 387

process. Each of the daughter-cells presently separates from its sister-cell
and goes its own way as a complete individual, still a Protozoon. It seems not
improbable that the separation may be due to the renewed stimulus of hunger,
impelling each cell to wander actively in search of food. In some cases, how.
ever, the daughter-cells remain together and form a colony, and probably this
habit has been rendered possible by a sufficient accumulation of surplus energy
in the form of food-yolk on the part of the parent rendering it unnecessary for
the daughter-cells to separate in search of food at such an early date. One of
the forms of colony met with amongst existing Protozoa is the hollow sphere,
as we see it, for example, in Sphzrozoum and Volvox, and it is highly probable
that the assumption of this form is due largely, if not entirely, to what are
commonly called mechanical causes, though we are not in a position to say
exactly what these causes may be. The widespread occurrence of the blasto-
sphere or blastula stage in ontogeny is a sufficiently clear indication that the
hollow, spherical Protozoon colony formed a’ stage in the evolution of the higher
animals.

By the time our ancestral organism has reached this stage, and possibly even
before, a new complication has arisen. The cells of which the colony is com-
posed no longer remain all alike, but become differentiated, primarily into two
groups, which we distinguish as somatic cells and germ-cells respectively.

From this point onwards evolution ceases to be a really continuous process,
but is broken up into a series of ontogenies, at the close of each of which the
organism has to go back and make a fresh start in the unicellular condition, for
the somatic cells sooner or later become exhausted in their conflict with the
environment and perish, leaving the germ-cells behind to take up the running.
That the germ-cells do not share the fafe of the somatic cells must be attributed
to the fact that they take no part in the struggle for existence to which the body
is exposed. They simply multiply and absorb nutriment under the protection
of the body, and therefore retain their potential energy unimpaired. They are
in actual fact, as is so often said, equivalent to so many Protozoa, and, like
the Protozoa, are endowed with a potential immortality.

We know that, if placed under suitable conditions, or, in other words, if
exposed to the proper environmental stimuli, these germ-cells will give rise to
new organisms, like that in the body of which they were formerly enclosed.
One of the necessary conditions is, with rare exceptions, the union of the germ-
cells in pairs to form zygotes or fertilised ova; but I propose, in the first
instance, for the sake of simplicity, to leave out of account the existence of the
sexual process and the results that foliow therefrom, postponing the considera-
tion of these to a later stage of our inquiry. I wish, moreover, to make it quite
clear that organic evolution must have taken place if no such event as amphimixis
had ever occurred.

What, then, may the germ-cells be expected to do? How are they going to
begin their development? In endeavouring to answer this question we must
remember that the behaviour of an organism at any moment depends upon two
sets of factors—the nature of its own constitution on the one hand, and the
nature of its environment on the other. If these factors are identical for
any two individual organisms, then the behaviour of these two individuals must
be the same. If the germ-cells of any generation are identical w'th those of the
preceding generation, and if they develop under identical conditions, then the
soma of the one generation must also be identical with that of the other.?
Inasmuch as they are parts of the same continuous germ-plasm—leaving out
of account the complications introduced by amphimixis—we may assume that
the germ-cells of the two generations are indeed identical in nearly ever
respect ; but there will be a slight difference, due to the fact that those of the
later generation will have inherited a rather larger supply of initial energy and a
slightly greater facility for responding to stimuli of various kinds, for the
gradual accumulation of these properties will have gone a stage further. The
environment also will be very nearly identical in the two cases, for we know
from experiment that if it were not the organism could not develop at all.

* This is, of course, a familiar idea. Compare Driesch, Gifford Lectures,
1907, p. 214.

cc2

388 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

Throughout the whole course of its ontogeny the organism must repeat with
approximate accuracy the stages passed through by its ancestors, because at
every stage there will be an almost identical organism exposed to almost identical
stimuli. We may, however, expect an acceleration of development and a slight
additional progress at the end of ontogeny as the result of the operation of the law
of the accumulation of surplus energy and of the slightly increased facility in re-
sponding to stimuli. The additional progress, of course, will probably be so
slight that from one generation to the next we should be quite unable to detect
it, and doubtless there will be frequent backslidings due to various causes.

We can thus formulate a perfectly reasonable explanation of how it is that
the egg first undergoes segmentation and then gives rise to a blastula resembling
a hollow protozoon colony; it does so simply because at every stage it must do
what its ancestors did under like conditions. We can also see that progressive
evolution must follow from the gradual accumulation of additions at the end of
each ontogeny, these additions being rendered possible by the better start which
each individual gets at the commencement of its career.

Let us now glance for a moment at the next stage in phylogeny, the con-
version of the hollow spherical protozoon colony into the ccelenterate type of
organisation, represented in ontogeny by the process of gastrulation. Here
again it is probable that this process is explicable to a large extent upon
mechanical principles. According to Rhumbler,? the migration of endoderm
cells into the interior of the blastula is partly due to chemotaxis and partly to
changes of surface tension, which decreases on the inner side of the vegetative
cells owing to chemical changes set up in the blastoccel fluid.

We may, at this point, profitably ask the question, Is the endoderm thus
formed an inherited feature of the organism? The material of which it is
composed is of course derived from the egg-cell continuously by repeated cell-
division, but the way in which that material is used by the organism depends
upon the environment, and we know from experiment that modifications of the
environment actually do produce corresponding modifications in the arrangement
of the material. We know, for example, that the addition of salts of lithium
to the water in which certain embryos are developing causes the endoderm to be
protruded instead of invaginated, so that we get a kind of inside-out gastrula,
the well-known lithium larva.

It appears, then, that an organism re!ly inherits from its parents two things :
(1) a certain amount of protoplasm lozded with potential energy, with which to
begin operations, and (2) an appropriate environment. Obviously the one is useless
without the other. An egg cannot develop unless it is provided with the proper
environment at every stage. Therefore, when we say that an organism inherits a
particular character from its parents, all we mean is that it inherits the power
to produce that character under the influence of certain environmental stimuli.*
The inheritance of the environment is of at least as much importance as the
inheritance of the material of which the organism is composed. The latter
indeed is only inherited to a very small extent, for the amount of material in
the egg-cell may be almost infinitesimal in comparison with the amount present
in the adult, nearly the whole of which is captured from the environment and
assimilated during ontogeny.

From this point of view the distinction between somatogenic and blastogenic
characters really disappears, for all the characters of the adult organism are
acquired afresh in each generation as a result of response to environmental
stimuli during development. This is clearly indicated by the fact that you
cannot change the stimuli without changing the result.

Time forbids us to discuss the phylogenetic stages through which the ccelen-
terate passed into the celomate type, the ceelomate into the chordate, and the
chordate into the primitive vertebrate. We must admit that as yet we know
nothing of the particular causes that determined the actual course of evolution
at each successive stage. What we do know, however, about the influence of
the environment, both upon the developing embryo and upon the adult, is suffi-

* Quoted by Przibram, Hxperimental Zoology, English Trans., Part I., p. 47.
“Compare Dr. Archdall Reid’s suggestive essay on ‘ Biological Terms’
(Bedrock, January 1914).

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 389

cient to justify us in believing that every successive modification must have been
due to a response on the part of the organism to some environmental change.
Even if the external conditions remained practically identical throughout long
periods of time, we must remember that the internal conditions would be
different in each generation, because each generation starts with a slightly
increased capital and carries on its development a little further under internal
conditions modified accordingly.

At this point it may be asked, Is the response to environmental stimuli a purely
mechanical one, and, if so, how can we account for the fact that at every stage
in its evolution the organism is adapted to its environment? We shall have to
return to this question later on, but it may be useful to point out once more
that there is good reason to believe—especially from the experimental work of
Jennings—that the response of even a unicellular organism to stimuli is to a
large extent purposive; that the organism learns by experience, by a kind of
process of trial and error, how to make the response most favourable to itself
under any given change of conditions; in other words, that the organism selects
those modes of response that are most conducive to its own well-being. Under the
term response to stimuli we must of course include those responses of the living
protoplasm which result in modifications of bodily structure, and hence the
evolution of bodily structure will, on the whole, be of an adaptive character
and will follow definite lines. There is good reason for believing, however, that
many minor modifications in structure may arise and persist, incidentally as it
were, that have no significance as adaptations.

One of the most remarkable and distinctive features of the lower vertebrates
is the presence of gill-slits as accessory organs of respiration. These gill-slits
are clearly an adaptation to aquatic life. When the ancestors of the higher
vertebrates left the water and took to life on land the gills disappeared and
were replaced by lungs, adapted for air-breathing. The change must, of course,
have been an extremely gradual one, and we get a very clear indication of how
it took place in the surviving dipnoids, which have remained in this respect in
an intermediate condition between the fishes and the amphibia, possessing and
using both gills and lungs.

We also know that even the most highly specialised air-breathing vertebrates,
which never live in water and never require gills or gill-slits at all, nevertheless
possess very distinct gill-slits during a certain period of their development. This
is one of the most familiar illustrations of the law of recapitulation, and my
only excuse for bringing it forward now is that I wish, before going further, to
consider a difficulty—perhaps more apparent than real—that arises in connection
with such cases.

It might be argued that if gill-slits arose in response to the stimuli of aquatic
life, and if these stimuli are no longer operative in the case of air-breathing
vertebrates, then gill-slits ought not to be developed at any stage of their
existence. This argument is, I think, fully met by the following considerations.
_ At any given moment of ontogenetic development the condition of any organ
is merely the last term of a series of morphogenetic stages, while its environ-
ment at the same moment—which of course includes its relation to all the other
organs of the body—is likewise merely the last term of a series of environmental
stages. We have thus two parallel series of events to take into consideration in
endeavouring to account for the condition of any part of an organism—or of the
organism as a whole—at any period of its existence :—

EH, E, E; ; : : A 5 . En environmental stages.
M, M, M; - - f : : - Mn morphogenetic stages.

Ontogeny is absolutely conditioned by the proper correlation of the stages of
these two series at every point, and hence it is that any sudden change of
environment is usually attended by disastrous consequences. Thus, after the
fish-like ancestors of air-breathing vertebrates had left the water and become
amphibians, they doubtless still had to go back to the water to lay their eggs,
in order that the eggs might have the proper conditions for their development.

Obviously the environment can only be altered with extreme slowness, and
one of the first duties of the parent is to provide for the developing offspring
conditions as nearly as possible identical with those under which its own develop-

390 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

ment took place. It is, however, inevitable that, as phylogenetic evolution pro-
gresses, the conditions under which the young organism develops should change.
In the first place, the mere tendency to acceleration of development, to which
we have already referred, must tend to dislocate the correlation between the
ontogenetic series and the environmental series. Something of this kind seems
to have taken place in the life-cycle of many Hydrozoa, resulting in the sup-
pression of the free medusoid generation and the gradual degeneration of the
gonophore. But it is probably in most cases change in the environment of the
adult that is responsible for such dislocation.

To return to the case of the amphibians. At the present day some amphi-
bians, such as the newts and frogs, still lay their eggs in water, while the
closely related salamanders retain them in the oviducts until they have developed
into highly organised aquatic larvie, or even into what is practically the adult
condition. Kammerer has shown that the period at which the young are born
can be varied by changing the environment of the parent. In the absence of
water the normally aquatic larve of the spotted salamander may be retained in
the oviduct until they have lost their gills, and they are then born in the fully-
developed condition, while, conversely, the alpine salamander, whose young are
normally born in the fully-developed state, without gills, may be made to deposit
them prematurely in water in the larval, gill-bearing condition.

There can be no doubt that the ancestral amphibians laid their eggs in water
in a completely undeveloped condition. The habit of retaining them in the body
during their development must have arisen very gradually in the phylogenetic
history of the salamanders, the period for which the young were retained
growing gradually longer and longer. It is obvious that this change of habit
involves a corresponding change in the environmental conditions under which
the young develop, and in cases in which the young are not born until they
have reached practically the adult condition this change directly affects
practically the whole ontogeny. We may say that the series

iH, E, E, : f : : ; ‘ 5 En has become

Ey’ E,' E,’ : : : é 3 2 é En’,
and as the change of environment must produce its effect upon the developing
organism the series

M, M, M,; , , : : : ‘ Mz will have become
M,’ M,’ M,’. : 4 ; : : M”’.

We must remember that throughout the whole course of phylogenetic evolu-
tion this series is constantly lengthening, so that what was the adult condition
at one time becomes an embryonic stage in future generations, and that the
series thus represents not only the ontogeny, but also, though in a more or less
imperfect manner, the phylogeny of the organism.

The character of each stage in ontogeny must depend upon (1) the morpho-
logical and physiological constitution of the preceding stage, and (2) the nature
of the environment in which development is taking place. We cannot, however,
distinguish sharply between those two sets of factors, for, in a certain sense,
the environment gradually becomes incorporated in the organism itself as
development proceeds, each part contributing to the environment of all the
remainder, and the influence of this internal portion of the environment ever
becoming more and more important.

The whole process of evolution depends upon changes of environment taking
place so gradually that the necessary self-adjustment of the organism at every
stage is possible. In the case of our amphibia the eggs could probably undergo
the first stages.of development, the preliminary segmentation, within the oviduct
of the parent just as well as in the water, for in both cases they would be
enclosed in their envelopes, and the morphological differences between the early
stages in the two cases might be expected to be quite insignificant. But it
must be the same at each term of the series, for each term is built upon the
foundation of the preceding one, and the whole process takes place by slow and
imperceptible degrees. ; .

It is true that by the time we reach the formation of the vestigial gill-slits
in the embryo of one of the higher vertebrates the environmental conditions are

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 391

very different from those under which gill-slits were developed in their aquatic
ancestors. But what then? Are not the gill-slits also very different? The
changed environment has had its effect. The gills themselves are never
developed, and the gill-slits never become functional; moreover, they disappear
completely at later stages of development, when the conditions of life become
still more different and their presence would be actually detrimental to their
possessor. The embryo with the vestigial gill-slits is, as a whole, perfectly well
adapted to its environment, though the gill-slits themselves have ceased to be
adaptive characters. They still appear because the environmental conditions,
and especially the internal conditions, which have now become far more
important than the external ones, are still such as to cause them to do so.

I think the chief difficulty in forming a mental picture of the manner in
which evolution has taken place, and especially in accounting for the phenomenon
of recapitulation in ontogeny, which is merely another aspect of the same
problem, arises from attempting to take in too much at once. There is no
difficulty in understanding how any particular stage is related to the correspond-
ing stage in the previous generation, and the whole series of stages, whether
looked at from the ontogenetic or from the phylogenetic point of view, can be
nothing else but the sum of its successive terms.

It will be convenient, before going further, to sum up the results at which
we have so far arrived from the point of view of the theory of heredity. We
have as yet seen no reason to distinguish between somatogenic and blastogenic
characters. All the characters of the adult animal are acquired during onto-
geny as the result of the reaction of the organism to environmental stimuli,
both internal and external. All that the organism actually inherits is a certain
amount of protoplasm—endowed with a certain amount of energy—and a certain
sequence of environmental conditions. In so far as these are identical in any
two successive generations the final result must be identical also, the child must
resemble the parent; in so far as they are different the child will differ from
the parent, but the differences in environment cannot be very great without
preventing development altogether.

So far, it is clear, there has been no need to think of the germ-cells ag
the bearers of material factors or determinants that are responsible for the
appearance of particular characters in the adult organism; nor yet to suppose
that they are, to use the phraseology of the mnemic theory of heredity, charged
with the memories of past generations. They have been regarded as simple
protoplasmic units, and the entire ontogeny has appeared as the necessary result
of the reaction between the organism and its environment at each successive
stage of development. This cannot, however, be a complete explanation of
ontogeny, for if it were we should expect all eggs, when allowed to develop
under the same conditions from start to finish, to give rise to the same adult
form, and this we know is not the case. We know also, from observation and
experiment, that the egg is in reality by no means a simple thing but an
extremely complex one, and that different parts of the egg may be definitely
correlated with corresponding parts of the adult body. It has been demon-
strated in certain cases that the egg contains special organ-forming substances
definitely located in the cytoplasm, and that if these are removed definite parts
of the organism into which the egg develops will be missing. We know, also,
that the nucleus of the germ-cell of either sex contains—at any rate at certain
periods—a number of perfectly well-defined bodies, the chromosomes, and these
also have been’ definitely correlated in certain cases with special features of the
adult organisation.

Before we can hope to complete our mental picture of the manner in which
organic evolution has taken place, if only in outline, it is evident that we must
be able to account for the great complexity of structure which the germ-cells
themselves have managed to acquire, and also to form some idea of the effect of
this complication upon the development of both the individual and the race.

We must consider the origin of cytoplasmic and nuclear complications of the
egg separately, for they appear to be due fundamentally to two totally distinct
sets of factors. In the first place we have to remember that during oogenesis
the egg-cell grows to a relatively large size by absorbing nutrient material from
the body in which it is enclosed. 1t is this nutrient material that is used for

392 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

building up the deutoplasm or food-yolk. There is good reason for believing that
the character of this nutrient material will change, during the course of evolu-
tion, pari passu with the changing character of the organism by which it is
supplied. Doubtless the change is of a chemical nature, for we know from pre-
cipitin experiments that the body fluids of closely allied species, or even of the
two sexes of the same species, do exhibit distinctly recognisable differences in
chemical composition. It also appears highly probable, if not certain, from such
experiments as those of Agar upon Simocephalus, that substances taken in with
the food and which bring about conspicuous modifications of bodily structure,
may at the same time be absorbed and stored up by the egg-cells so as to bring
about corresponding changes in the adults into which the eggs develop.

There seems therefore to be no great difficulty in comprehending, at any rate
in a general way, how the egg may become the repository of definite chemical
substances, organ-forming substances if we like to call them so, possibly to be
classed with the hormones and enzymes, which will influence the development in
a particular manner as soon as the appropriate conditions arise.

Unfortunately, time will not allow of our following up this line of thought
on the present occasion, but we may notice, before passing on, that with the
accumulation “of organ-forming substances in the egg we have introduced the
possibility of changes in bodily structure, to whatever cause they may be due,
being represented by correlated modifications in the germ-cells, and this is doubt-
less one of the reasons why the germ-cells of different animals are not all alike
with regard to their potentialities of development.°

We now come to the question of how the nucleus of the germ-cell acquired its
great complexity of structure. We are not concerned here with the origin of the
differentiation into nucleus and cytoplasm and the respective parts played by the
two in the life of the cell. The problem which we have to consider is the com-
plication introduced by the sexual process, by the periodically recurring union
of the germ-cells in pairs, or, as Weismann has termed it, amphimixis. This is
well known to be essentially a nuclear phenomenon, in which the so-called
chromatin substance is especially concerned, and it is a phenomenon which must
have made its appearance at a very early stage of evolution, for it is exhibited
in essentially the same manner alike in the higher plants and animals and in
unicellular organisms.

Let us suppose, for the sake of argument, that when amphimixis first took
place the chromatin of each germ-cell was homogeneous, but that it differed
slightly in different germ-cells of the same species as a result of exposure to
slightly different conditions during its past. history. What would be likely to
happen when two different samples of chromatin came together in the zygote?
The result would surely depend upon the interaction of the complex colloidal
multimolecules of which the chromatin is composed. Various possibilities would
arise. (1) The two samples might differ in such a way as to act as poisons to one
another, disturbing each other’s molecular equilibrium to such an extent that
neither could survive. This is possibly what happens when an ovum is fertilised
by a spermatozoon of a distinct species, though there are. of course, exceptions.
(2) They might be so alike as to be able to amalgamate more or less completely,
so that there would simply be an increase of chromatin of possibly more or less
modified constitution. (3) They might continue to exist side by side, each
maintaining its own individual character.

In the third case the union of the two different samples would give rise to a
mass of chromatin of twofold nature, and repetition of the process from genera-
tion to generation would, as Weismann has shown, result in ever-increasing
heterogeneity, until the chromatin came to consist of a great number of different
concrete particles, each of which might conceivably differ from all the others.
But when two heterogeneous masses of chromatin meet in the zygote there may
be all sorts of mutual attractions and repulsions between the different colloidal
multimolecules, for all three of our supposed cases may arise simultaneously,
and thus the results may become extremely complicated.

The chromatin of the germ-cells in all existing organisms is undoubtedly
heterogeneous, and this heterogeneity may be to some extent visibly expressed

5 Compare Cunningham’s ‘Hormone Theory’ of Heredity (Archiv fiir
Entwicklungsmechanik der Organismen, Bd. xxvi. Heft 3).

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 393

in its arrangement in more or less multiform chromosomes during mitosis. We
may provisionally accept Weismann’s view that these chromosomes are them-
selves heterogeneous, being composed of chromomeres or ids, which in their
turn are composed of determinants.

All this complexity of structure may be attributed to the effects of oft-
repeated amphimixis, a view which is supported in the most striking manner by
the fact that the nucleus in all ordinary somatic cells (in animals and in the
diploid generation of plants) has a double set of chromosomes, one derived from
the male and the other from the female parent, and by the well-known
phenomenon of chromatin reduction which always precedes amphimixis.

When we approach the problem of heredity from the experimental side we
get very strong evidence of the existence in the germ-plasm of definite material
substances associated with the inheritance of special characters. | Mendelian
workers generally speak of these substances as factors, but the conception of
factors is evidently closely akin to that of Weismann’s hypothetical determinants,
The cytological evidence fits in very well with the view that the factors in ques-
tion may be definite material particles, and it is quite possible that such particles
may have a specific chemical constitution to which their effects upon the
developing organism are due.

From our point of view the interesting thing is the possibility that arises
through the sexual process of the permutation and combination of different
factors derived from different lines of descent. A germ-cell may receive addi-
tions to its collection of factors or be subject to subtractions therefrom, and in
either case the resulting organism may be more or less conspicuously modified.

By applying the method of experimental hybridisation a most fruitful and
apparently inexhaustible field of research has been opened up in this direction,
in the development of which no one has taken a more active part than the present
President of the British Association. There cannot be the slightest doubt. that
a vast number of characters are inherited in what is called the Mendelian
manner, and, as they are capable of being separately inherited and interchanged
with others by hybridisation, we are justified in believing that they are separately
represented in the germ-cells by special factors. Important as this result is,
I believe that at the present time there exists a distinct danger of exaggerating
its significance. The fact that many new and apparently permanent combinations
of characters may arise through hybridisation, and that the organisms thus pro-
duced have all the attributes of what we call distinct species, does not justify us
in accepting the grotesque view—as it appears to me—that all species have arisen
by crossing, or even the view that the organism is entirely built up of separately
transmissible ‘unit characters.’

Bateson tells us that ‘Baur has for example crossed species so unlike as
Antirrhinum majus and molle, forms differing from each other in almost every
feature of organisation.’ Surely the latter part of this statement cannot be cor-
rect, for after all Antirrhinum majus and molle are both snapdragons, and
exhibit all the essential characters of snapdragons.

T think it is a most significant fact that the only characters which appear
to be inherited in Mendelian fashion are comparatively trivial features of the
organism which must have arisen during the last stages of phylogeny. This is
necessarily the case, for any two organisms sufficiently nearly related to be
capable of crossing are identical as regards the vast majority of their characters.
It is only those few points in which they differ that remain to be experimented
on. Moreover, the characters in question appear to be all non-adaptive, having
no obvious relation to the environment and no particular value in the struggle
for existence. They are clearly what Weismann calls blastogenic characters,
originating in the germ-plasm, and are probably identical with the mutations
of de Vries. These latter are apparently chromatin-determined characters, for,
as Dr, Gates has recently shown in the case of @nothera, mutation may result
from abnormal distribution of the chromosomes in the reduction division.°

We have next to inquire whether or not the Mendelian results are really in
any way inconsistent with the general theory of evolution outlined in the earlier
part of this address. Here we are obviously face to face with the old dispute
between epigenesis and preformation. The theory of ontogeny which I first:

° Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, vol. 59, p. 557.

394 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

put forward is clearly epigenetic in character, while the theory of unit characters,
represented in the germ-cells by separate ‘factors,’ is hardly less clearly a
theory of preformation, and of course the conception of definite organ-forming
substances in the cytoplasm falls under the same category. The point which
I now wish to emphasise is that the ideas of epigenesis and preformation are not
inconsistent with one another, and that, as a matter of fact, ontogenetic develop-
ment is of a dual nature, an epigenesis modified by what is essentially pre-
formation.

We have already dealt briefly with the question of organ-forming substances
in the cytoplasm, and it must, I think, be clear that the existence of these is in
no way incompatible with a fundamental epigenesis. We shall find directly
that the same is true of Mendelian ‘ factors’ or Weismannian ‘ determinants.’

We have seen that it is possible to conceive of even a complex organism as
inheriting nothing from its parent but a minute speck of protoplasm, endowed
with potential energy, and a sequence of suitable environments, the interaction
between the two bringing about a similar result in each succeeding generation,
with a slow progressive evolution due to the operation of the law of accumulation
of surplus energy. If any of the conditions of development are changed the
result, as manifested in the organisation of the adult, must undergo a correspond-
ing modification. Suppose that the chromatin substance of the zygote is partially
modified in molecular constitution, perhaps by the direct action of the environ-
ment, as appears to happen in the case of Tower’s experiments on mutation in
the potato beetle, or by the introduction of a different sample of chromatin from
another individual by hybridisation. What is the germ-plasm now going to do?
When and how may the changes that have taken place in its constitution be
expected to manifest themselves in the developing organism?

Let us consider what would be likely to happen in the first stages of
ontogeny. If the germ-plasm had remained unaltered the zygote would have
divided into blastomeres under the stimuli of the same conditions, both internal
and external, as those under which the corresponding divisions took place in
preceding generations. Is the presence of a number of new colloidal multi-
molecules in the germ-plasm going to prevent this? The answer to this question
probably depends partly upon the proportion that the new multimolecules bear
to the whole mass, and partly upon the nature of the modification that has taken
place. If the existence of the new multimolecules is incompatible with the
proper functional activity of the germ-plasm as a whole there is an end of the
matter. The organism does not develop. If it is not incompatible we must
suppose that the zygote begins its development as before, but that sooner or later
the modification of the germ-plasm will manifest itself in the developing
organism, in the first instance as a mutation. In cases of hybridisation we may
get a mixture in varying degrees of the distinguishing characters of the two
parent forms, or we may get complete dominance of one form over the other
in the hybrid generation, or we may even get some new form, the result depend-
ing on the mutual reactions of the different constituents of the germ-plasm.

The organism into which any zygote develops must be a composite body
deriving its blastogenic characters from different sources; but this cannot affect
its fundamental structure, for the two parents must have been alike in all
essential respects or they could not have interbred, and any important differences
in the germ-plasm must be confined to the ‘factors’ for the differentiating
characters. The fundamental structure still develops epigenetically on the basis
of an essentially similar germ-plasm and under essentially similar conditions as
in the case of each of the two parents, and there is no reason to suppose that
special ‘ factors ’ have anything to do with it.

We thus see how new unit characters may be added by mutation and inter-
changed by hybridisation while the fundamental constitution of the organism
remains the same and the epigenetic course of development is not seriously
affected. All characters that arise in this way must be regarded, from the
point of view of the organism, as chance characters due to chance modifications
of the germ-plasm, and they appear to have comparatively little influence upon
the course of evolution.

One of the most remarkable features of organic evolution is that it results
in the adaptation of the organism to its environment, and for this adaptation

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 395

imutation and hybridisation utterly fail to account. Of course the argument of
natural selection is called in to get over this difficulty. hose organisms which
happen to exhibit favourable mutations will survive and hand on their advan-
tages to the next generation, and so on. It has frequently been pointed out
that this is not sufficient. Mutations occur in all directions, and the chances of
a favourable one arising are extremely remote. Something more is wanted, and
this something, it appears to me, is to be found in the direct response of the
organism to environmental stimuli at all stages of development, whereby in-
dividual adaptation is secured, and this individual adaptation must arise again
and again in each succeeding generation. Moreover, the adaptation must, as
I pointed out before, tend to be progressive, for each successive generation builds
upon a foundation of accumulated experience and has a better start than its
predecessors.

Of course natural selection plays its part, as it must in all cases, even in
the inorganic world, and I believe that in many cases—as for example in pro-
tective resemblance and mimicry—that part has been an extremely important
one. But much more important than natural selection appears to me- what
Baldwin’ has termed ‘Functional Selection,’ selection by the organism itself,
out of a number of possible reactions, of just those that are required to meet
any emergency. As Baldwin puts it, ‘It is the organism which secures from
all its overproduced movements those which are adaptive and _ beneficial.’
Natural selection is here replaced by intelligent selection, for I think we must
agree with Jennings * that we cannot make a distinction between the higher and
the lower organisms in this respect, and that all purposive reactions, or adjust-
merts, are essentially intelligent.

Surely that much-abused philosopher, Lamarck, was not far from the truth
when he said, ‘ The production of a new organ in an animal body results from a
new requirement which continues to make itself felt, and from a new movement
which this requirement begets and maintains.’ * Is not this merely another way
of saying that the individual makes adaptive responses to environmental stimuli ?
Where so many people fall foul of Lamarck is with regard to his belief in the
inheritance of acquired characters. But in speaking of acquired characters
Lamarck did not refer to such modifications as mutilations; he was obviously
talking of the gradual self-adjustment of the organism to its environment.

We are told, of course, that such adjustments will only be preserved so long
as the environmental stimuli by which they were originally called for continue
to exercise their influence. Those who raise this objection are apt to forget that
this is exactly what happens in evolution, and that the sine qua non of develop-
ment is the proper maintenance of the appropriate environment, both internal
and external. Natural selection sees to it that the proper conditions are main-
tained within very narrow limits.

A great deal of the confusion that has arisen with regard to the question of
the inheritance of acquired characters is undoubtedly due to the quite unjustifi-
able limitation of the idea of ‘inheritance’ to which we have accustomed our-
selves. The inheritance of the environment is, as I have already said, just as
important as the inheritance of the material foundation of the body, and whether
or not a newly acquired character will be inherited must depend, usually at
any rate, upon whether or not the conditions under which it arose are inherited.
It is the fashion nowadays to attach very little importance to somatogenic
characters in discussing the problem of evolution. The whole fundamental
structure of the body must, however, according to the epigenetic view, be due to
the gradual accumulation of characters that arise as the result of the reactions
of the organism to its environment, and which are therefore somatogenic, at any
rate in the first instance, though there is reason to believe that some of them
may find expression in the germ-cells in the formation of organ-forming sub-
stances, and possibly in other ways. Blastogenic characters which actually
originate in the germ-cells appear to be of quite secondary importance. _

We still have to consider the question, How is it that organic evolution has

* Development and Evolution (New York, 1902), p. 87.
* Behaviour of the Lower Organisms (New York, 1906), pp. 334, 339.
® Histoire naturelle des Animaux sans Vertébres, tom. i. 1815, p. 185.

396 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

Jed to the formation of those more or less well-marked groups of organisms which
we call species?’ We have to note in the first place that there is no unanimity
of opinion amongst biologists as to what a species is. Lamarck insisted that
nature recognises no such things as species, and a great many people at the
present day are, I think, still of the same opinion. In practice, however, every
naturalist knows that there are natural groups to which the vast majority of
individuals can be assigned without any serious difficulty. Charles Darwin main-
tained that such groups arose, under the influence of natural selection, through
gradual divergent evolution and the extinction of intermediate forms. To-day
we are told by de Vries that species originate as mutations which propagate
themselves without alteration for a longer or shorter period, and by Lotsy that
species originate by crossing of more or less distinct forms, though this latter
theory leaves quite unsolved the problem of where the original forms that crossed
with one another came from.

I think a little reflection will convince us that the origin of species is a
different problem from that of the cause of progressive evolution. We can
hardly doubt, however, that Darwin was right in attributing prime importance
to divergent evolution and the disappearance of connecting links. It is obvious
that this process must give rise to more or less sharply separated groups of
individuals to which the term species may be applied, and that the differences
between these species must be attributed ultimately to differences in the response
of the organism to differing conditions of the environment. It may be urged
that inasmuch as different species are often found living side by side under
identical conditions the differences between them cannot have arisen in this way,
but we may be quite certain that if we knew enough of their past history we
should find that their ancestors had not always lived under identical conditions.

The case of flightless birds on oceanic islands is particularly instructive in
this connection. The only satisfactory way of explaining the existence of such
birds is by supposing that their ancestors had well developed wings, by the aid
of which they made their way to the islands from some continental area. The
conditions of the new environment led to the gradual disuse and consequent
degeneration of the wings until they either became useless for flight or, in the
case of the moas, completely disappeared. It would be absurd to maintain
that any of the existing flightless birds are specifically identical with the
ancestral flying forms from which they are descended, and it would, it appears to
me, be equally absurd to suppose that the flightless species arose by mutation or
by crossing, the same result being produced over and over again on different
islands and in different groups of birds. This is clearly a case where the
environment has determined the direction of evolution.

In such cases there is not the slightest ground for believing that crossing has
had anything whatever to do with the origin of the different groups to which the
term species is applied; indeed the study of island faunas in general indicates
very clearly that the prevention of crossing, by isolation, has been one of the
chief factors in the divergence of lines of descent and the consequent multipli-
cation of species, and Romanes clearly showed that even within the same
geographical area an identical result may be produced by mutual sterility, which
is the cause, rather than the result, of specific distinction.

Species, then, may clearly arise by divergent evolution under changing
conditions of the environment, and may become separated from one another by
the extinction of intermediate forms. The environmental stimuli (including, of
course, the body as part of its own environment) may, however, act in two dif-
ferent ways : (1) Upon the body itself, at any stage of its development, tending
to cause adaptation by individual selection of the most appropriate response; and
(2) upon the germ-plasm, causing mutations or sudden changes, sports, in fact,
which appear to have no direct relation whatever to the well-being of the
organism in which they appear, but to be purely accidental. Such mutations
are, of course, inherited, and, inasmuch as the great majority of specific
characters appear to have no adaptive significance, it seems likely that mutation
has had a great deal to do with the origin of species, though it may have had
very little to do with progressive evolution.

Similarly with regard to hybridisation, we know that vast numbers of distinct
forms, that breed true, may be produced in this way, but they are simply
due to recombinations of mutational characters in the process of amphimixis, and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 397

have very little bearing upon the problem of evolution. If we like to call the
new groups of individuals that originate thus ‘ species,’ well and good, but it
only means that we give that name, as a matter of convenience, to any group
of closely related individuals which are distinguished by recognisable characters
from the individuals of all other groups, and which hand on those characters to
their descendants so long as the conditions remain the same. This, perhaps, is
what we should do, and just as we have learnt to regard individuals as the
temporary offspring of a continuous stream of germ-plasm, so we must regard
species as the somewhat more permanent but nevertheless temporary offshoots
of a continuous line of progressive evolution. Individuals are to species what
the germ-plasm is to individuals. One species does not arise from another
species, but from certain individuals in that species, and when all the individuals
become so specialised as to lose their power of adaptation, then changes in the
environment may result in the extinction of that line of descent.

It is hardly necessary to point out that no explanation that we are able to
give regarding the causes of either phylogenetic or ontogenetic evolution can be
complete and exhaustive. Science can never hope to get to the bottom of things
in any department of knowledge; there is always something remaining beyond
our reach. If we are asked why an organism chooses the most appropriate
response to any particular stimulus, we may suggest that this is the response
that relieves it from further stimulation, but we cannot say how it learns to
choose that response at once in preference to all others. If we are asked to
account for some particular mutation, we may say that it is due to some modifi-
cation in the constitution or distribution of the chromosomes in the germ-cells,
but even if we knew exactly what that modification was, and could express it
in chemical terms, we could not really say why it produces its particular result
and no other, any more than the chemist can-say why the combination of two
gases that he calls oxygen and hydrogen gives rise to a liquid that he calls water.

There is one group of ontogenetic phenomena in particular that seem to defy
all attempts at mechanistic interpretation. I refer to the phenomena of restitu-
tion, the power which an organism possesses of restoring the normal condition
of the body after it has been violently disturbed by some external agent. The
fact that a,newt is able to regenerate its limbs over and over again after they
have been removed, or that an echinoderm blastula may be cut in half and
each half give rise to a perfect larva, is one of the most surprising things in the
domain of biological science. We cannot, at present at any rate, give any satis-
factory mechanistic explanation of these facts, and to attribute them to the
action of some hypothetical Entelechy, after the manner of Professor Hans
Driesch, is simply an admission of our inability to do so. Wecan only say that
in the course of its evolution each organism acquires an individuality or whole-
ness of its own, and that one of the fundamental properties of living organisms
is to maintain that individuality. They are able to do this in a variety of
ways, and can sometimes even replace a lost organ out of material quite different
from that from which the organ in question is normally developed, as in the
case of the regeneration of the lens of the eye from the iris in the newt. That
there must be some mechanism involved in such cases is, of course, self-evident,
and we know that that mechanism may sometimes go wrong and _ produce
monstrous and unworkable results; but it is, I think, equally evident that the
organism must possess some power of directing the course of events, so as
generally to secure the appropriate result; and it is just this power of directing
chemical and physical processes, and thus employing them in its own interests,
that distinguishes a living organism from an inanimate object.

In conclusion I ought, perhaps, to apologise for the somewhat dogmatic tone
of my remarks. I must ask you to believe, however, that this does not arise
from any desire on my part to dogmatise, but merely from the necessity of
compressing what I wished to say into a totally inadequate space. Many years of
patient work are still needed before we can hope to solve, even approximately,
the problem of organic evolution, but it seemed to me permissible, on the
present occasion, to indulge in a general survey of the situation, and see how
far it might be possible to reconcile conflicting views and bring together a
number of ideas derived from many sources in one consistent theory.

398 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

The following Papers and Reports were then read :—

1. Plankton. By Professor Herpuay, F.R.S.

2. Hxhibition of Lantern Slides of the Narwhal and Beluga.
By Professor H. JUNGERSEN.

8. Some Notes cna Collection of Australian Frogs.
By J. Bootu, M.C.H., B.Sc.

The work of which this paper is the outcome was undertaken in the hope
of finding some method of determination and identification of Batrachian
species, without resort to the slight dissection necessary to examine the sternal
apparatus and the sacral vertebre. The materia! made use of was the col-
lection of frogs at the Melbourne University, together with some of the speci-
mens from the National Museum, and a few privately collected.

In accordance with this original intention, stress was laid on external shape,
and in order to render the description of shape more definite the particulars
were expressed as far as possible numerically and in proportional measurements.
The length of the specimen, from snout to vent, was taken as a basis, and
other dimensions expressed in terms of it. ©

To facilitate these measurements, a scale was devised, by which the length
of the specimen in millimétres, and other dimensions in proportional units,
could easily be read off from the callipers. The particulars selected as most
satisfactory for measurement were :—The depth of the chest; the length and
breadth of the head; the length of the snout; the distances from eye to nostril,
and between the nares; the diameter of the orbit; the width of the upper
eyelid; the distance between the orbits; the diameter of the tympanum, and
distance from tympanum to eye; the length of hind limb; and the length of
the digits of the hand. These dimensions have been tabulated for a large number
of specimens.

It was found that the description and measurement of external features
could not replace observations of the skeletal girdles, the variations in which
seem to be of paramount genetic significance; while the external configuration
and aspect is more related to the mode of life of the animals, and largely
corresponds with the classification into:—swimming, climbing or tree, and
burrowing or cryptic frogs.

In the course of the work the relative value of the external characters
came under review. Of these, amount of webbing on the toes seems to have
been overrated, Professor Spencer having pointed out how very variable this
character is in several species collected by him in the interior. Colour and
markings are very definite in some cases, remarkably variable in others; but
usually varying in such a way as to suggest a normal form from which the
rest may be derived. This normal is probably to be found in strongly marked
young specimens. Of particular markings, the vertebral line, in some species
constant, in others, though normal, varies in distinctness to total absence, and
again in others is very definitely present or absent. Another normal marking
is the lateral face-streak, and nearly all face colourations may be considered
as variations of this. An external feature closely connected with habit is the
adpression of the thigh to the groin. In some species this gives rise to a
difference of colour and texture in the concealed parts, while in others the
groin is fully exposed and does not differ from the general surface.

With regard to classification, the scheme of the British Museum Catalogue,
as applied to Australian frogs, becomes reduced to three families of the
Arcifera, Cystignathide, Hylide, and Bufonide, and (on account of the record
of three species of the genus Austrochaperina, Fry) the family Ranide of the
Firmisterna.

A list of the Australian species, with references to descriptions and notes

on the specimens examined, and tables of the proportionally measured dimen-
sions, were appended.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 309

4. Species of Victorian Lampreys. By J. A. Leacn, D.Sc.

Richardson (1848) was the first to name an Australian lamprey (Petromyzon
mordaz).

ea in the British Museum Catalogue (1851), made Richardson’s specimen
the type of his genus Mordacia, and made two other Australian lampreys the
types of his genera Geotria and Velasia.

Giinther, in ‘The Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum’ (1870),
accepted Mordacia mordax, but included Velasia in the genus Geotria. Giinther
later gave the name (Greotria allportii to a Tasmanian specimen. Ogilby and
Regan both include this species in Geotria australis.

Count Castlenau (1872) created two new genera founded on immature forms,
thus increasing the Australian species to six. Ogilby (1894), in ‘A Monograph
of the Australian Marsipobranchii,’ reduced the species and genera to three.
He revived Gray’s genus Velasia and named the Australian form V. stenostoma,
though he did not specify characters to separate it from V. chilensis.

Plate included Velasia in Geotria, but separated G. stenostoma from
G. chilensis ; he considered that both occur in Australia.

Regan, in ‘A Synopsis of the Marsipobranchs of the Order Hyperoartii’
(1911), placed the Australian species in G. stenostoma and restricted the species
G. chilensis to South America. He created a new species (G. saccifera) for a
New Zealand specimen of the pouched form.

An examination of forty-six specimens of lampreys in the University Museum
and National Museum, Melbourne, showed two species of Mordacia, and that a
new species of Geotria is required for specimens intermediate between the
broad-headed, pouched form and the narrow-headed Velasia form; as these
connect the two extremes it is unnecessary to retain Velasia as a separate
genus.

The great variation in the chief characters, and the small number of
lampreys available for examination, are undoubtedly the chief causes of the
creation of so many species, and the discarding of these by subsequent workers.

The horny teeth are easily removed and the appearance of the mouth after
their removal is different. The state of distension of the mouth revealing the
whole of the teeth or the points only of the tongue teeth and supraoral teeth is
important in determining the appearance of these structures. Even the teeth
of the supraoral lamine, a generic characteristic, at least, vary. Plate figures a
Geotria with five cusps instead of four on the supraoral lamina. One Mordacia
examined has four pointed cusps on one lamina, while the lamina of the other
side has three. Castlenau said : ‘I find the greatest difficulty in the determina-
tion of the Victorian fishes of this family. . . . The most important character,
the dentition, seems to be subject to the most extraordinary variations; in fact,
I cannot find it exactly similar in two specimens.’

Regan used the relation of the length of the first dorsal fin to the distance
between the two dorsal fins as one of three distinguishing characters. In six
specimens of G'eotria chilensis taken alive during an eel fare at the Hopkins
River Falls near Warrnambool, the interspace varied from -6 of the length of the
fin to 1-3 times the length, a variation of over 100 per cent. Regan used this as
one of three variable characters when separating nine specimens of Geotria into
four species.

Ogilby regarded the presence of pores on Velasia as a generic character.
Pores occur on all the specimens of Geotria and Velasia examined. On one large
pouched Greotria australis the pores form a definite ‘lateral line.’ Plate figured
pores on each species he recognised,

The pouch is a puzzle. It is not a secondary sexual character for it occurs in
both sexes.

It seems necessary to recognise five species of Victorian lampreys.

5. Notes on the Ringing of Birds. By BE. D. pe Hamen,.

_Aluminium bands of different sizes stamped with the address ‘ Witherby,
High Holborn, London,’ and also bearing a distinctive number, are bent into an

400 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

open-sided ring which can readily be passed over the tarsus of a bird and
closed, taking care that it can move easily between the foot and the knee, and
the bird is then released.

The species number, date, locality, and circumstances are recorded on a
form supplied with each packet of twenty rings. These rings are issued by
Messrs. Witherby to subscribers to their magazine ‘ British Birds’ who are
willing to assist, and are carefully registered.

When one of these marked birds is recaptured and the incident reported the
information is added to the register, and from these details an annual report
with maps is prepared, and published by Messrs. Witherby under the auspices
of the British Ornithologists’ Club, the eighth, for 1913, being now ready. Thus
the ultimate course and length of bird migration will be defined.

It is requested that all wild birds may be ringed, as it is found that even the
most constant varieties wander to considerable distances.

A very large number of rings have been utilised, and about five per cent. of
these retaken and reported. In addition to the English scheme, this work is
being carried on by Professor Mortensen from Viborg in Denmark, and by others
in Germany. The results are most encouraging. Adult swallows marked in
pairs have been traced from Ayrshire and Staffordshire in England to Natal and
the Orange Free State in Africa, and back to Staffordshire, but in each case
only one of the pair has been retaken as they always have new mates.

Nestlings seldom return to their birth-place. Thrushes, blackbirds, and
robins marked in England have been recaptured in Ireland and France. Cor-
morants, nestlings from Wexford in Iveland, in Finisterre, Brittany, Portugal,
and Spain; mallard and wild duck in France; a pochard I marked in Warwick-
shire was retaken six months later at Butzow in Mecklenburg; a turtle-dove in
Portugal.

Abroad the same work has been carried on since 1898, and a starling from
Russia reached Yorkshire ; a widgeon from Denmark reached Wales; tufted duck
from Finland reached Ireland, and a Prussian black-headed gull was recaptured
in Norfolk.

6. Report on the Biological Problems incidental lo the Belmullet
Whaling Station—See Reports, p. 125.

7. Report of the Committee on the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.
See Reports, p. 163.

8. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at
Naples.—See Reports, p. 162.

9. Report on the Position of the Antarctic Whaling Industry.
See Reports, p. 123.

10. Final Report on Experiments in Inheritance.—See Reports, p. 163.

11. Report of the Committee on the Nomenclator Animalium Genera
et Sub-genera.

12. Report on the Feeding Habits of British Birds.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 401

13. Report on the Inheritance and Development of Secondary Sexual
Characters in Birds.

14. Report on Zoology Organisation.

15. Report on the Formulation of a Definite System on which
Collectors should record their Captures.

16. Report on a Natural History Survey of the Isle of Man.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 19.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On Scent-Distributing Apparatus in the Lepidoptera.
By F. A, Drxty, M.D., F.RB.S.

Tt is well known that certain specialised scales found in various situations
on the wings, bodies, and limbs of Lepidoptera are concerned in the distribution
of a scent, which in many cases is characteristic of the species. These scales
may occur in both sexes, but certain forms of them have only been found in
males; among these are the plume-scales of the Pierines and Nymphalines.
The Pierine plume-scale often affords a ready means of identifying the species,
and is frequently of service in throwing light on questions of affinity. Thus,
the interesting butterfly Zeuciacria acuta Roths. and Jord., recently discovered
in New Guinea, has been considered by some authorities to be nearly akin to
the African genus Pinacopteryx, and by others to the Australasian genus
ELlodina. But the scent-scales with which it is abundantly furnished bear no
resentblance to those of any Pinacopteryx, while Hlodina appears to be entirely
devoid of these structures. On the other hand, the scent-scales of Leuwciacria
strongly recall those of Delias, a genus well represented in the Australian
Province, and especially so in New Guinea. Scales of a somewhat similar
character are also found in Huphina, another genus with an Oriental and Aus-
tralasian distribution, and probably not far removed from Delias in point of
affinity. In a further structural feature Zeuciacria is nearer to Huphina than it
is to Delias, and it may possibly turn out to be a connecting link between these
two assemblages. But from the evidence of the scent-scales it seems safe to
conclude that such resemblance as exists to Pinacopteryx and Mlodina is only
superficial. The well-known ‘battledore scales’ that occur on the wings of
Lycenids furnish a means of separating two species, Plebeius cegon and P.
argyrognomon, which are often indistinguishable by ordinary methods of
examination.

In some cases, though not in all, a special adaptation exists with the object
of economising the scent until it is required for purposes of sexual recognition
or attraction. The costal folds of the forewing in many Hesperids, noticed by
Doubleday and Westwood, and first adequately described by Fritz Miller, are
examples of this kind of provision. Another structural feature serving the
same purpose is the collection of the scent-distributing scales into a patch on
that portion of the fore or hind wing which is covered in the position of rest.
This arrangement is seen in many Pierines; it occurs also in Satyrines and
Nymphalines. No example of a male characterised by special scent-scales was
known to Fritz Miiller among the Erycinids. Such, however, do exist; as, for
example, in the genera Mesosemia and Pandemos, where the scent-patches
occlude one another in the attitude of rest, as notably in the genus Dismorphia

1914, pD

402 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

among the Pierines. The structure of these scent-distributors among the
Lepidoptera is still to a large extent an unexplored field, and their study affords
a promising subject for further investigation.

2. Discussion on Mimicry in Australian Insects, introduced by
Professor EH. B. Pourton, F.R.S.

It is extremely interesting to compare the phenomena of mimicry as they are
exhibited in the different parts of the world. We find that the models in each
tropical region are as a rule related, and often very closely related, to those of
the other regions. Nevertheless, in spite of these relationships, the models
commonly exhibit patterns which are peculiar to each region. Thus the
Danaince and their allies, the tropical American Jthomiine, always tend to be
mimicked by other butterflies, although their patterns in each of the great
tropical regions are for the most part very different from those in the others.
The same conclusions emerge when other great groups of models are compared,
and the whole body of facts affords strong indirect evidence in support of the
hypothesis that mimicry is an advantageous resemblance which has grown up
under the influence of natural selection.

Australia is the most isolated of all the inhabited continental tracts on the
earth’s surface, and its isolation is reflected in its peculiar fauna and flora. How
far is it reflected in the insect-models and their mimics? Up to the present
time the subject has been but little studied in Australian material, but we can
nevertheless see our way to certain conclusions of much interest.

Perhaps the most widely spread models in the world are the black yellow-
banded stinging Hymenoptera. The central members of these powerful com-
binations are wasps (Diploptera), around which are ranged sand-wasps (Fossores),
and, in far smaller numbers, bees (Anthophila), followed by mimetic species
of the Phytophagous Hymenoptera, and of other orders—Diptera, Coleoptera,
Lepidoptera, ete. Throughout this dominant combination of models and mimics
the subcylindrical body is black, encircled by many bright yellow bands.
Although widespread over the world it is especially powerful in the north
temperate zone. In Australia, however, its place is taken by a combination
with a very distinct pattern. The bands are deep brownish orange instead of
bright yellow, and they are few and broad instead of many and narrow. This
pattern runs through a large and complex set of models and mimics. It is very
convincing to compare such a mimetic Asilid fly as the European Asilus
crabroniformis with the Australian species, and to observe how their very
different patterns resemble those of the respective Aculeate models. An equally
significant comparison may be drawn between the mimetic Longicorn beetles of
these two parts of the world.

The conspicuous sluggish Lycid beetles form another dominant group of
models in all the tropical regions, and here, too, a powerful Australian com-
bination exhibits a peculiar colouring, and in some respects a peculiar
constitution.

Material already received from Commander J. J. Walker in the Sydney
district and from Mr. A. Eland Shaw at Healesville, Victoria, shows that the
Australian contribution to the study of mimicry is sure to be of the highest
interest and importance.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 18.
Joint Discussion with Section K on the Nature and Origin of Species.
See p. 579.
The following Papers were then read :—

1. An Expedition to the Abrolhos Islands. By Professor W. J, Daxry,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 403

2. Some Features in the Diurnal Migrations of Pipits, Wagtails, and
Swallows, as observed at Tuskar Rock Light-Station, Co. Wez-
ford. By Professor C. J. Parren, M.A., M.D., Sc.D.

In certain periods of spring and autumn a stream or procession of migrants
passes the Tuskar Rock Light-station daily. Owing to the barren nature of the
Rock—wave-swept to a large extent in rough weather—paucity of food, and lack
of fresh water, comparatively few of the travellers descend and alight. As they
hasten past, the altitude of their flight relative to the level of the lantern is a
matter of interest, seeing that so many nocturnal migrants strike the glass.

Most birds direct their flight towards the land, 7.c., S.E. to N.W. or due
E. to W. Even birds presumably on emigration seem.to make for the land.
Pipits and wagtails travel about twenty miles an hour; swallows and martins
about 90 miles an hour. On account of the very limited area of the Rock and
the considerable altitude at which many of the birds fly, the descending flight
for the purpose of alighting, when attempted, is almost perpendicular. Several
original photographs from life of the species dealt with in this paper have been
secured and used as illustrations.

SYDNEY.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Dr. R. C. L. Perkins’ Researches on the Colour-Groups of Hawaiian
Wasps. By Professor E. B. Poutton, F.R.S.

Dr. Perkins’ researches, recorded in ‘Fauna Hawaiiensis,’ in ‘ Proc. Ent.
Soc., Lond.,’ 1912, p. lvi, and ‘ Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond.,’ 1912, p. 677, have
thrown a flood of light upon the evolution of colour-groups in one of the most
isolated of all the land areas that afford favourable conditions for a fauna and
flora. It is probable that the comparatively simple phenomena exhibited in the
Sandwich Islands will be found to have a special bearing upon the infinitely more
complex conditions found in the most isolated of the inhabited continents.

The only indigenous wasps of the Sandwich Islands belong to the genus
Odynerus (in the broad sense), and Dr. Perkins concludes that the 102 species
have been derived from two original immigrants—a black, yellow-banded species
from some unknown direction, and at a much later but still very ancient date,
a black, dark-winged species probably from Asia. The latter is extremely
dominant, but it found the islands already occupied, and has thus only split
up into four species, as against the ninety-eight produced by the original invader,

Dr. Perkins similarly concludes that the fifty-three indigenous bees, all
belonging to the genus Nesoprosopis, and the eighteen indigenous Fossores
(Crabronide) were derived respectively from a single Asiatic immigrant bee and
a single Asiatic Crabronid.

This assemblage of closely related species of wasps has formed colour-groups
in the different islands, attracting also many of the species of bees and Fossores.

Kauai, the most N.W. island, possesses only one important colour-group—
black, dark-winged insects with two white or yellow bands. Here the pattern
of the earliest immigrant wasp was probably retained, although combined with
dark wings, perhaps due to mimicry of the second immigrant. The latter on
Kauai has given rise to species with yellow bands.

Oahu, the next island proceeding in a S.E. direction, has four colour-
groups, of which two resemble that on Kauai in the possession by some species
of pale bands, although fainter than in the N.W. island. Another group con-
taining black, dark-winged insects is probably due to a mimetic approach
towards the second original immigrant, a very abundant insect. The fourth
group is much marked with red.

DiDLe

404 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

On Maui, Molokai, and Lanai there are three groups, one red-marked, one
black and dark-winged, and one with pale bands on some of its species.

On the largest island, Hawaii, in the S.E., all the groups tend to fuse into
a single large assemblage of black, dark-winged insects.

The species form structural groups of which the members, although obviously
closely related, enter different colour-groups in the various islands. In other
words, the colour-grouping is entirely independent of zoological affinity.

2. The Development of Trypanosomes in the Invertebrate Host.
By Professor Hh. A. Mrncutn, F’.R.S.

If an analysis and cémparison be made of those instances in which it can be
claimed that the development of a given species of trypanosome in its invertebrate
host is known in at least its principal traits, it is seen at once that in every
such instance there is a part of the developmental cycle which is constant in
occurrence and uniform in character, and another part which is of inconstant
occurrence and very variable in character.

In the constant part of the cycle the parasite always assumes the crithidial
type of structure and multiplies incessantly in this form to produce a lasting
stock of the parasite, certain individuals of which change sporadically from the
crithidial into the trypaniform type and so become the final, propagative form of
the development, destined to pass back into the vertebrate host and establish the
infection in it. During hunger-periods the crithidial forms may pass tem-
porarily, in some cases, into the resting, non-flagellated leishmanial form, until
food is again abundant, when they form a new flagellum and revert to the
crithidial type of structure.

The inconstant part of the cycle, when it occurs, is intercalated at the very
beginning of the development in the invertebrate, and lasts but a relatively
short time; it is derived directly from the trypanosomes taken up by the
invertebrate from the vertebrate host, and takes the form of an active multipli-
cation of the parasites in either the trypaniform or leishmanial condition. In
the cases where this early multiplicative phase is wanting altogether, the
trypanosomes taken up by the invertebrate host pass at once into the crithidial
phase.

When a further comparison is made between the development of trypanosomes
in the invertebrate host and the development of the closely allied species of
Crithidia and Leptomonas which have no alternation of hosts or generations,
but are confined during their entire life-history to particular species of inverte-
brate hosts, it is seen at once that the life-cycles of these parasites of inverte-
brates are similar in all essential points to the crithidial phases of trypanosomes
in their invertebrate hosts. It is evident, therefore, that the crithidial phase in
the development of a trypanosome is to be interpreted as a reversion to, or
recapitulation of, the type of development that occurred in the ancestral form
which was originally a parasite of the invertebrate alone, before it had obtained
a footing in the vertebrate host or had acquired the trypanosome-like type of
structure ; while the multiplicative phases of variable character preceding the
crithidial phase in trypanosome-development are to be regarded as having been
intercalated secondarily into the life-cycle and of no phylogenetic significance.

3. A Comparison of the Sizes of the Red Cells of some Vertebrates.
By J. Burton Crevanp, M.D.

In searching blood-films from Australian birds for parasites, it was noticed
that the red corpuscles of a heron were distinctly larger than those of the
various Passerine birds examined. This led to systematic measurements of the
sizes of the red cells of various Australian vertebrates. The slides examined
have been all stained by ‘dry’ methods, wet fixation and staining methods
being impracticable in the field. Experience shows, however, that this method
may be relied on for the purpose in view.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 405

Amongst the fishes, the Dipnoi have enormous red cells, those of Ceratodus
forsteri being 39 X 23 to 25 mw. The Elasmobranchs have also large cells,
varying from 18X12°5 to 23x13°5y Amongst Teleostean fishes the size is much
smaller. The cells are also rounder. In Vherapion unicolor they are nearly
spherical in size 6 to 8 w. Other species range from 9X7 up to 13°5x10°3 yw
in a catfish.

The reptilia, snakes, lizards, and tortoises have red corpuscles ranging usually
from 16 to 219 to 11 uw, though in some cases, as in the genus Hygosoma, the
size tends to be smaller (14 to 168 to 10 x).

Batrachians show red cells usually of from 18 to 20x10 to 144.

Amongst birds, the emu has the largest (15°5 to 16°5x8°5 to 9°5 mw). The
Pedicipediformes, Sphenisciformes, Ardeiformes, and Pelecaniformes come next
(approximately 148 uw.) Charadriiformes are generally a little smaller. The
pigeons, hawks, parrots, kingfishers, and cuckoos come next, the kingfishers
being perhaps the largest of these. In the Passerine birds there is a definite
tendency to smaller cells, ranging from 10 to 12x5 to 7 mw, with the exception
of the family Corvide, where the size approximates more to the previous group.

These figures seem to indicate that with specialisation has eventually come,
both in fishes and in birds, a diminution in size of the red cells. The cumber-
some corpuscles of Ceratodus have doubtless played a part in the gradual
extinction of the Dipnoan fishes. The relationship of the various classes to each
other is clearly shown in the size of the red cells.

4. Notes on some Australian Hematozoa.
By J. Burton Cizvanp, M.D.

Owing to the geographical isolation of Australia, the study of the blood para-
sites of the vertebrates, especially of such as have no easy means of passing
over stretches of ocean, is of considerable interest. In some cases, such as the
marsupials, interesting speculation arises as to whether the Hematozoa found
in them reached Australia (1) with the marsupials when these originally came;
or (2) as parasites of the invertebrate host by a separate arrival; or (3) whether
their appearance represented the adaptation in Australia of a parasite, at one
time confined to an invertebrate host, to a habitat partly in the vertebrate and
partly in the invertebrate host.

In marsupials Hzmogregarines have been found. Breuil has recorded in a
bat the presence of a Trypanosome and of a Plasmodium. In birds, Plasmodium
precox has been recorded in a falcon, and a Plasmodium has been found in the
black swan. Plasmodium has also been recorded in the introduced sparrow.
Plasmodium seems to be rare in birds compared with the presence of Halteridium.
Halteridia are common in Australian birds, and have been found in all the
States with the exception of Tasmania, though they have been found on
Flinders Island in Bass Straits. The appedrances of the forms found vary
somewhat, suggesting specific differences. Trypanosomes have been found in
several species, but seem confined more especially to Queensland and northern
New South Wales. With the same distribution, and often in the same infected
birds, large parasites may be found in distended red cells. The parasite in the
red cell is spherical and indents the nucleus of the host-cell, which is stretched
over it so as to form a cap. I am of opinion that this is the intracorpuscular
form of the Trypanosome with which it is usually associated, although my
former colleague, Dr. Harvey Johnston, who was associated with me in first
describing this form, has since referred to it as a Leucocytozoon, as does
Breinl. The corpuscles are certainly not elongated in the remarkable way in
which they are in infections by Leucocytozoon ziemannii. Microfilarie are
common in birds.

Reptiles.—Hemogregarines are common in snakes and lizards. Trypano-
somes and Hemogregarines are met with in tortoises, as well as a Hmo-
cystidium. A Hemocystidium has been met with in a gecko, and microfilaria
in the water lizard, Physignathus lusueurii.

406 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

Amphibia.tA Hemogregarine has been met with in one species of frog
only, Trypanosomes in several species.

Fishes.—Trypanosomes have been found in the freshwater eel and in a
catfish.

5. Adaptation and Inheritance in Silkworms.
By Professor Orro Maas.

The experiments in the feeding of silkworms on the leaves of our well-known
vegetable Scorzonera hispanica, tormerly undertaken by Harz, Tichomiroff, and
others, for practical purposes, have been repeated by me on theoretical grounds,
as well as by different methods.

As none of the breeds cultivated by Harz’s selective method have survived,
selection appears not to operate at the length of generations, and consequently
the much-vexed question of the heredity of acquired characters cannot be omitted.
General constitution, ‘ Wichsigkeit,’ plays its part as well; qualities are trans-
ferred according to now well-known laws of heredity, especially Mendel’s, the
breeds have to be analysed, in this regard as well, and crossings of normally
fed with Scorzonera-fed are to be tried.

Hence the necessity for working on a larger scale, which I began (after
some orientating experiments in 1910 and 1911, on the possibility of feeding
and selecting some breeds) in 1912. The same material for breeds has to be culti-
vated in different places, to avoid local failures; different races of silkworms
have to be tried on the same food, and different feeding on the same race
(mulberry, Scorzonera, and half Scorzonera and half mulberry), in order to get
a material for suitable crossings, and to produce new possibilities. c

In accordance with Kellogg, in spite of all gradations, four main types may
be distinguished, of which I used chiefly three (with different eggs, colours,
and shape of cocoons and moth-pattern), designated here for convenience with
the letters Jap., It., and T., and of these three races different grada-
tions have been applied ; for instance, Japanese freshly imported, and Japanese
cultivated for years in Europe; Japanese of the wild form (mandarina) ; Italians,
whose parents had been fed by myself, 1911, with Scorzonera, and others normal
from the sericultural institutions ; Tessin normal and with Scorzonera-fed parents,
&e. Results of the 1912 feeding are, among others: {1) the It. and T., whose
parents had Scorzonera, 1911, did not get well through the same treatment, but
died out in spite of every care, in several localities, whereas the freshly imported
Jap., It., and the normal T. sustained the new food comparatively well. (2) Still
Scorzonera-fed in 1912 held together with mulberry-fed ones of the same race &c.
show great differences. A much smaller percentage comes to the respective
moultings, much longer time is required (fifty-six days instead of thirty-six), and
there is especially a long hesitating and wandering period of the big, well-fed,
worm, till it begins to spin. (3) Its cocoon, however, is not inferior, either in
size, density, or strength of thread. The crossings of the various breeds show
marked differences in their productiveness. The capacity of fertilisation (active
and passive) of Scorzonera moths, even of first-rate cocoons, is apparently much
inferior (this can be verified not only by general comparison, but also by trying,
for instance, the same male with different females and vice versa); fecundity,
judged by the number of deposited eggs in the same race, is much less ; in many
cases the females could not fasten their eggs (though that was here not a race
character). Also of the fertilised eggs many more decay than in normal egg-
deposits, and of the remaining a much smaller number is able to hatch in the
next year (v. infra). :

All these damages are most significant, if both parents are Scorzonera-fed
(thus a number of possibilities are at once excluded from further propagation),
while in the case where one parent was normally fed the mating could be as
fertile as a normal one. In 1912 all possibilities of race-crossings and treatment
were tried (a distinction also was made if the male had Scorzonera and the
female mulberry or vice versa), altogether over thirty, which formed the starting
material for 1913.

Of these egg-deposits single ones always have been selected (to work on
‘pure lines’ for other purposes, of which T shall give an account elsewhere),

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 407

but of the remainder a number were always of equal descent regarding race, food
in male and female, &c. Those have been united respectively, to form ‘ popula-
tions,’ and such populations have been divided and distributed again in 1913 in
different localities, and also with different gradations of food, so that last year
more than thirty ditterent breeds on different treatments, altogether more than
a hundred, have been raised by myself and by my assistants.

In spite of the local dispersion or just on account of its impartiality the
result has been very uniform. Almost all the breeds resulting from both
Scorzonera-fed parents, even the well hatched, caused much more difficulty in
raising with Scorzonera again, died out, or came to spin only in small percentage,
while the Scorzonera x mulberry or mulberry XScorzonera breeds showed a strong
advantage and combined, so to say, the ‘adaptation’ of one parent with the
healthy state of the other (still more some of the half-Scorzonera, half-mulberry-
fed combinations), and seem to be superior to pure mulberry descendants in
strength, and in faculty of going through the Scorzonera treatment to spinning.
(That may be valid, of course, only for a certain number of the offspring, which
number follows the Mendelian law.)

Whether really ‘crossing favours adaptation’ can be decided by this year’s
(1914) breedings ; a further gradation prepared by corresponding copule of 1913.
These copulz have been tried as much as possible within the same race to
avoid confusion, but with the utmost possible variety of Scorzonera handicap-
ping, as the grandparents besides the parents have to be considered.

For instance, I., the 1914 breed, both parents 1913 Scorzonera-fed ; (a) all
four grandparents 1912 Scorzonera-fed ; (6) both grandparents of one side 1912
Scorzonera-fed, of the other side Scorzonera x mulberry (=three’ grandparents
Scorzonera, one mulberry-fed). Further gradations to male and female: (c)
grandparents on both sides Scorzoneraxmulberry-fed or on one side both
grandparents Scorzonera-fed, on the other both mulberry-fed (=two grandparents
Scorzonera, two mulberry-fed), but in different combinations; (d) grandparents
of one side Scorzonera x mulberry, of the other both mulberry-fed (one grand-
parent Scorzonera, three mulberry-fed) ; (e) different combinations of the half-
Scorzonera-mulberry grandparents (i.e. fed up to the fourth moulting with
Scorzonera, then with mulberry).

II. Of the parents in 1913 one with mulberry (grandparents also mulberry),
the other parent with Scorzonera (grandparents various gradations, vide I.), &c.

The results of 1914, as far as I can check them at present, have confirmed
those of 1912 and 1913, giving corresponding gradations of the crossed and of
the pure breeds with regard to their adaptation to the Scorzonera treatment.
Of some biological results, the instincts of the young worms to attack and leave
different kinds of food, their tropisms, I shall give an account elsewhere, also
of some special experiments of inheritance relating to the melanism, called
the * moricund,’ to the ‘sport’ of ‘non-spinners,’ or abnormal ‘ atavistic’ wing-
patterns.

6. Notes on Peripatus and on Australian Land Planarians.
By T. STEEx.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Studies on Hchinoderm Larvae. By Dr. T. Morvensen.

2. On the Worm Parasites of Tropical Queensland. By Dr. W. Nicou.

Tt is only five years ago since the study of worm parasites was taken up
systematically in Australia. Earlier work had been of a desultory nature. In
tropical Australia little work was done until the foundation of the Australian
Institute of Tropical Medicine; since then a large and representative collection
has been made. This paper gives a brief account of that collection.

408 @RANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

The most common human parasites are the hook worms (Ankylostoma and
Nicator). Other human parasites are not more common than in temperate parts,
while hydatids are much rarer than in other parts of Australia. The parasites
of domesticated animals have not received much attention and only a few
scattered records occur. The most outstanding parasite of the dog is Diro-
filaria immitis, which infects the heart and lungs and appears to cause much
mortality. In rats the characteristic parasite is the large Kchinorhynch,
Gigantorhynchus moniliformis.

The parasites of marsupials and monotremes are interesting. Filaria worms
are fairly common in wallabies and opossums, while wallabies frequently har-
bour a large mass of Strongylids in their stomach. The Echidna is frequently
infected with tapeworms and a curious little red, spiral-shaped Nematode
hitherto undescribed. Similar Nematodes occur in fruit bats and snakes. Not
the least interesting mammalian parasite ‘is that described by S. J. Johnston
from the dugong, a Trematode which possesses an entirely new type of structure.

The birds do not show many parasites that are peculiarly Australian or
tropical. This is probably due to their migratory habits. The reptiles and
frogs afford several forms which are typically Australian and a few which
appear to be essentially tropical. °

It is amongst the fishes that we find the most distinctive parasite fauna.
This applies particularly to Trematodes, and it will probably be found that a
large proportion of the Australian Trematode parasites of fishes represent new
generic types, and in some cases perhaps new family types.

On the migration of Onchourea lurvee through the capsule of the worm nodule.

The life-history of the parasitic worm which causes nodular disease in cattle
still remains a mystery. A considerable amount of experimental work has been
done on the subject, but few positive results have been obtained.

In 1911 T. H. Johnston published a summary of the work which had been
done up to that date, and came to the conclusion that the most probable inter-
mediary host is a mosquito, a louse, or a cattle-Hy. Since that time four
important contributions have been added by Australian workers. The first of
these was by Cleland, who made the discovery that some calves which had been
reared on Milsom Island, New South Wales, and had never left the island, had
become infected with worm nodules. This showed that all the factors con-
cerned in the transmission of the disease are present on the island, and therefore
narrows the scope of investigation considerably. Cleland came to the con-
clusion that a biting fly or a mosquito is the most probable intermediate host.

The second paper is by Gilruth and Sweet, who concluded that fresh
infection only occurred in young animals. They showed that direct infection is
improbable, and formed the opinion that some biting insect is the most likely
transmitter.

On the other hand Breuil performed some experiments which seemed to
indicate the possibility of infection by means of water. He was able to induce
larve to penetrate the unbroken skin and to emerge into water, where they lived
a short time. His attempts, however, to infect various aquatic animals with
these larvas were not successful. Quite recently Cleland has published further
observations. He found that Onchocerca larve could be ingested by the stable-
fly (Stomoxys) and live in it for several days, but he could detect no develop-
ment ‘in these larve. He also discovered free adult worms in cattle, making
their way through the tissues of the hind leg from the foot upwards.

It was with the view of confirming Breuil’s experiments that the present
work was undertaken. The technique employed was similar, but various modifi-
cations were adopted to ascertain the effect of temperature, rainfall, &e. In
none of the thirty experiments, however, was any positive result obtained.

The procedure consisted in applying sterile water on a calico pad or in a
glass vessel to the shaved skin over a nodule, and examining the water a few
hours later. The negative results obtained in these experiments show that some
factor was lacking which was present in Breuil’s investigations.

Further experiments were performed with nodules excised from slaughtered
cattle. These nodules were immersed in water under varying conditions for

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 409

different lengths of time, and both the water and the nodule were examined
thereafter for the presence of larve.

The earlier experiments were not very successful, but they showed that a
few larve could make their escape from the nodule into the water. Later
experiments, however, showed that the larvae could emerge through the worm
capsule in large numbers, and fairly continuously for some time after the death
of their host.

The effect of acid and alkali was tried, but they did not appear to stimulate
the emergence of the larve from the nodules. Increase of temperature also
was not found favourable.

All the nodules used were carefully examined both before and after the
experiments to ensure that no tear or rupture was present in the capsule.
Damaged nodules were rejected.

In further experiments of the same nature certain nodules were fixed after
varying periods of immersion in water, and thereafter cut into serial sections.
In most of the nodules larve were found in considerable numbers in the wall
of the capsule. Usually they were uniformly distributed in one or more layers,
corresponding to the denser strata of the capsule. The impression was received
that the water had some definite effect upon the worm mass inside the nodule,
stimulating the larve to make their escape through the capsule. This effect
was not usually produced until after several hours’ immersion.

It is worthy of note that the adult worms were found to live for more than
two days after removal from this host, and that living larve continued to
escape from the capsule for at least three days. Attempts to keep the larve
alive in water were not successful, as they did not survive for more than forty-
eight hours at room temperature.

The results of these experiments go to show that Onchocerca larve can and
do make their escape through the capsule of the worm nodule, usually in small
numbers, but at times or in some cases in comparatively large numbers. These
results do not necessarily support the theory of water-borne infection, but they
show that, even if the infection be insect-borne, it is not necessary to suppose,
as has been done, that at some period of its life the worm sheds its larve into
the blood stream. The numbers of larve escaping from the nodules are sufi-
cient to ensure a moderate chance of infection in any biting ‘insect. The fact
that the larve may be induced to penetrate the unbroken skin by the applica-
tion of water may be merely an accident, but it shows that the larve find
their way very close to the surface, and may therefore be very readily ingested
by any biting insects.

3. Jot Discussion with Sections C, HE, and K on Past and Present
Relations of Antarctica in their Biological, Geographical, and
Geological Aspects.

Sir Douctas Mawson: I propose to deal particularly with recent geographi-
eal advances in Antarctica and to lay special stress upon the work which has
been performed by the Australasian Expedition. We are now all satisfied that
there is a great continent at the southern extremity of the world. Possibly,
were the ice to be melted, there would be, not one large land unit, but several.
We feel sure, however, that there would be at least one large elevated piece of
land in the Australian Quadrant,! but there are many who hold that there
would be at least a second piece represented by the land south of America,
sometimes called West Antarctica. It is, indeed, probable that this latter mass
would be found to be split up into a number of small isolated fragments.

South Victoria Land and the Ross Sea Region have been explored or touched
upon by eight expeditions, of which several, particularly those of Scott, Shackle-
ton, and Amundsen, have accomplished important land work. In Victoria

1 For convenience the Antarctic Regions may be considered as divided into
four Quadrants, commencing from the meridian of Greenwich, and each named
after the lands or seas to the north: hence, African Quadrant, Australian
Quadrant, Pacific Quadrant, and American Quadrant.

410 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

Land the continent rises to great heights, at least 12,000 or 15,000 feet being
visible from the sea. Indeed, Amundsen reports finding mountains up to
19,000 feet in height near the Pole itself. Little was known of the extension
of the continent to the west of Victoria Land until recently, when the Austral-
asian Antarctic Expedition visited that region. Two expeditions in 1840, one
French and one American, spent a short time in those seas, but neither landed
upon the mainland, though the French reached a rocky islet off the coast. They
both saw parts of the mainland, but their reports were vague, and served only
to stimulate interest in that portion of Antarctica.

The 60 degrees of that portion of Antarctica to which we sailed some three
years ago then presented really a virgin field. Now we have brought back the in-
formation that it is continuous land, and that it is covered by a very thick and
solid ice-cap, which flows out from the central portions of that high continent.
In that portion the coast-line is not anything like so steep and precipitous as on
the Ross Sea side. ‘The German Expedition of 1901 made the land at what they
called Gaussberg, just to the west of the Australian Quadrant. Their ship was
frozen into the pack some distance from the land, and they sledged to the latter
during the winter, but time did not permit of any extensive land work. The
Swedish Expedition in 1901 and several French expeditions since then have
done very good work south of America, amplifying the outline already started in
that region long ago. A joint British and Swedish Expedition—in the course of
preparation—proposes to carry on the work in that locality. The Scottish
Expedition of a few years ago sighted the continental ice-sheet at what they called
Coats Land, in the Weddell Sea. There it is a steep, straight ice-face—nothing
but ice—which rises inland to considerable heights. The German Expedition
of 1911, the same period as our own expedition, reached what appears to be
the southern extremity of the Weddell Sea, and actually sighted rocky land
beyond the ice coast. However, they were prevented from doing any land work.
It now remains for future expeditions to tell us exactly what exists south of
the Weddell Sea.

Of the African Quadrant practically nothing is known. It has been sighted
only in one place—Enderby Land—by a whaler in 1820, Though the discovery
of Enderby Land has not since been checked, I feel certain of its existence,
after comparing the meteorological conditions logged by Briscoe in that neigh-
bourhood and those met by us off Adelie Land in the same latitude further east.
The Pacific Quadrant also is almost a blank, nothing being known excepting
King Edward Land on the extreme west.

After surveying the geographical data available we conclude that there is
about the South Pole a continent of about 5,000,000 square miles in area. It
consists almost entirely of a great ice-cap, rocks seldom out-cropping excepting
actually upon the coast.

I will confine my subsequent remarks to the 60° of the Australian Quadrant
entered by our own expedition. The voyages of the S.Y. Aurora are so
numerous that, to save confusion, I shall refer only to the more important.
In Macquarie Island, a subantarctic possession of Tasmania in 55° §. lat., we
had a party of five stationed for two years, making a complete examination of
that fascinating island, and sending up to Australia by wireless regular daily
weather messages. Adelie Land was the situation of our main Antarctic base,
where eighteen of us wintered and carried out a general scientific and geographi-
cal programme for two years. When the wireless was working well, messages
were sent up to Australia by relaying through Macquarie Island. About 1,100
miles west of the Main Base station was our western Antarctic base, under the
charge of Mr. Frank Wild. The party consisted of eight men all told. As
the ship had not been able to reach solid land in that vicinity, on account of
solid floe-ice, the party had wintered actually on a floating shell-ice formation
the Shackleton Ice-shelf—seventeen miles from new land, called Queen Mary
Land. Between the two Antarctic bases much new land had been met by
Captain Davis. In other places the ship sailed over what had been marked as
land from vague reports of the early explorers. In 1840 mapping was neces-
sarily rougher than at the present time, but Wilkes particularly exceeded the
allowable errors in his charting. I have come to the conclusion that Wilkes’s
mistakes have arisen from errors of judgment in mistaking solid pack-ice for

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION b. 411

land. It is not difficult to fall into such errors, but an appreciation of the
possibility of such errors leads one to wait until further proof is obtained
before stating that any apparent landfall is actually land. The mirage effects,
when looking over pack-ice, are sometimes very misleading. ‘There is no time
to deal in detail with the errors discovered in Wilkes’s charts. Only in one
place, Adelie Land, did we find land where shown on the American charts. In
several other places the existence of land was disproved. Elsewhere the ice
conditions were adverse, so that we were not able to penetrate as far as Wilkes,
with the result that several of his landfalls still call for confirmation. Though
Captain Davis was not able to push the ship sufficiently far south to get a view
of Knox Land, strong confirmation of its existence is afforded by the data
acquired by us on land and sea in that neighbourhood: in fact our soundings
show that even if Wilkes’s landfalls between Adelie Land and Queen Mary
Land be out, the borders of the continent will be found not far to the south.

[Then followed further reference to the work of the Australasian Antarctic
Expedition, profusely illustrated by means of lantern slides, some of which were
colour-photographs. The points dealt with were the following :—

1, Extensive sledging journeys in Adelie Land, King George Land, and Queen
Mary Land; the aggregate of all journeys, including supporting parties, exceeded
4,000 miles.

2. The use made of wireless telegraphy to fix a fundamental meridian in
Adelie Land.

3. The continent south of Australia is of the nature of a high plateau, rising
to 3,000 feet within twenty miles of the coast, but continuing steadily to rise
further to the south. The coasts are, for the most part, of the nature of ice
cliffs, where the ice-cap at the water-front still rides on a rocky bottom. Only
occasionally do rocky capes break the icy monotony.

4. Floating extensions of the land-ice are met with at intervals, sometimes
as tongues from the valley depressions of the borders of the continent, at other
times as immense aprons. The most notable of the latter, named the Shackleton
Shelf, extends 180 miles from the land.

5. A fringe of rocky or ice-capped islets is a feature of much of the coast.

6. The Continental Shelf is remarkable for its inshore trough : this appears to
be a regular feature. As one passes out to sea the water at first deepens, then
shoals, before finally plunging down into the ocean depths.

7. The ship’s party carried out extensive oceanographic investigations,
including a large number of deep-sea soundings.

8. Biological collections were made at each of the three land bases and
from the ship ; dredgings were made in depths down to 2,000 fathoms. On land
the eggs of the Antarctic petrel and of the silver-grey petrel were found for the
first time, and several new birds and their eggs were added to the collection.
On Macquarie Island a special study was made of sea-elephants.

9. The rocks of Adelie Land and Queen Mary Land proved to be chiefly very
ancient gneisses and schists. At Cape Hunter in Adelie Land an ancient
sedimentary series, in part phyllites, is to be seen. On the coast of King George
Land there extended tor many miles rocky cliffs 1,000 feet in height ; the upper
half is columnar dolerite, below is a sedimentary series containing bands of coal
and carbonaceous shales. Woody matter was dredged up at several points along
the Antarctic coast. At Macquarie Island the rocks are chiefly igneous—for
the most part gabbros. Everywhere the island has been overridden by ice,
leaving behind many small glacial lakes and a mantle of till.

10. The simultaneous records obtained by three stations, each about 1,000
miles apart, and all in an entirely new sphere, from which no figures have before
been returned, will prove of great value when worked up. The weather con-
ditions at Macquarie Island were ‘ wirelessed ’ up to the Commonwealth Weather
Bureau every day for two years. During a part of the time it was found possible
to do the same from Adelie Land. In Adelie Land the most terrific climate
ever recorded was found to prevail. The average wind velocity for the year
was found to be 50 miles per hour. 1t sometimes blew at 90 miles per hour for
24 hours; velocities of over 100 miles per hour were often reached, and on one

419 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

occasion 116 miles were recorded in a single hour. When the wind came down
in cyclonic gusts it often exceeded a puft velocity of 200 miles per hour. The
instrument used for ascertaining the average hourly velocities was the self-
recording Robinson cup-anemometer.

11. An unusually extensive magnetic record was obtained, including con-
tinuous magnetograph curves at Cape Denison for a period of eighteen months.
This station is the nearest yet established to the South Magnetic Pole. A series
of careful field determinations were made to within a few miles of the Magnetic
Pole. Systematic observations of the Aurora Polaris were made in conjunction
with the magnetic and wireless observations.

12. In Adelie Land special account was taken of bacteriology.]

Mr. Grirrith Taytor: The present brief account of my work on Captain
Scott’s Expedition deals with regions near 78° S., extending from Granite
Harbour to Mount Discovery.

The walls of all the glacial valleys, as well as the mighty Scarp of Lister,
show a series of stages of glacial sculpture which are believed to illustrate a
process of evolution. Snow-slopes give rise to couloirs which can be seen passing
into rounded forms or ‘half-funnels’ (in Granite Harbour) and so into true
cwms (or cirques). In suitable localities (such as below Mt. Lister) headward
erosion has changed a cwm into a ‘finger valley.’ These with other higher
cwms tend to form a radiating system resembling the relation of the fingers to
the knuckles of a hand.

Great glacial troughs or Trog-taler are well shown in the Ferrar and Taylor
Valleys. The latter is free from snow or ice for twenty miles; and it is crossed
by several barriers or ‘ Riegel.’

Examples of erosion by planation arise rarely under present circumstances.
Most of the glaciers are comparatively free from débris and their drainage
waters are clear instead of milky. Strie are infrequent. There is much water
during summer, as along the Koettlitz Glacier, which is drained by the twenty-
mile long Alph River.

The glaciers exert little pressure at their sides, and are usually bounded by
a lateral moat, often over a hundred feet deep. Wind, water, and ‘ freeze and
thaw’ are potent agents here in carrying off the results of erosion, which is
chiefly due to ‘freeze and thaw.’

The Riegel (bars) of the Taylor Valley closely resemble those of the European
Alps. The largest is 3,000 feet high and almost blocks the Valley where the
latter is four miles wide. A narrow defile 1,600 feet deep and about 400 yards
wide is cut through its northern end; like the defiles of Bergun, Faido, Mesocco,
&c., in the South-East Alps.

The cwm and finger valleys are bounded by steep ridges 1,000 feet high (as
at Devil’s Bowl and Davis Valley). They could not be cut out by normal
glacial erosion; moreover, they are often only a mile or two in length.

It is suggested that the ‘ palimpsest’ theory welds these two difficulties of
Riegel and cwm erosion. The cwm erosion headward cutting occurred first,
possibly, along pre-glacial valleys, and cut out finger valleys and steps, which
later were overwhelmed by true outlet glaciers flowing out from the Ice Plateau.
Thus the Riegel are relics of the old cwm-heads. The basins were excavated by
nivation round the slowly receding snouts of almost stagnant glaciers.

The by-gone separation of the Ferrar and Taylor Valleys is described,
though now they are apposed in Siamese-twin fashion.

Professor T. W. EpcawortH Davin: In regard to Mr. Taylor’s able
exposition of cwm erosion, I think he has proved his point, for many of these
valleys which have been so deeply recessed into that huge strip of land which
may be called the Antarctic ‘horst.’ I would suggest, however, that we must
not press that cwm theory too far. We must expect, and really do find, evi-
dence of transverse faulting in the so-called ‘ Beacon Sandstone ’ formation. The
Beardmore and the Mackay glacier valleys represent, to my mind, regions of
cross faulting and downward slipping which have produced low points in the
horst, sagged areas forming in the great rampart of the range low gaps through
which the inland-ice has overflowed into Ross Sea. In the case of the main

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 413

outlet valleys, I do not think that we should ascribe their whole excavation to
the work of cwm glaciers. I do not know whether Mr. Taylor would press for
that. These main valleys seem partly tectonic, partly glacial, and very possibly,
in their earliest inception, partly fluviatile.

Next, in regard to the Great Ice Barrier, the Ross Barrier—the huge
equilateral triangle with sides about five hundred miles in length—is fed by a
very large number of glaciers. It has been said by some that it is merely sea-
ice thickened by additions of annual snows going on for thousands of years,
until at last a thick mass results of sea-ice at the base, while the snows and
névés of a thousand or more years form the remainder of its bulk. I would
point out that if that were the case, we would surely expect the Ross Barrier
to have a pretty even cliff facing the ocean. But we do not find that condition
at all; we find it is very variable in height—from twenty feet in some places to
a hundred and fifty feet in others. As this thickness is so extremely uneven, it
seems to me probable that the Ross Barrier is composed, certainly in its inland
portion, and probably in its sea face, of the fanned-out ribs of glacier-ice derived
from the contributing glacier valleys which pour into its sides, both from the
south-east and from the south-west. JI think, then, that this great variability of
thickness is proof that there is something more than mere sea-ice and old
névé deposits (not but what the latter is an important contributor) helping to
form that wonderful ice-mass, which was, perhaps, paralleled by the Pleistocene
North Sea ice-sheet of Europe, which impinged upon the shores of Yorkshire,
and produced those big lakes near York itself.

Next the question has been raised as to whether the land-mass of Antarctica
has been fixed at the South Pole from early geological times, or whether it has
migrated. In Cambrian times we know that there was an extensive development
of the Archeocyathine limestones. These have been described by Mr. Taylor.
Quite lately great blocks of Archzocyathine limestone, dredged by Dr. W. S.
Bruce from depths of about 1,700 fathoms to the north of the Weddell Sea,
have been identified as such by Dr. Gordon. There is evidently a great develop-
ment of these Archxocyathine limestones both on the Australian and on the
American side of Antarctica. Mr. Taylor has shown that the Archeocyathine
never extended into the tropical portions of the world, and on the whole were,
therefore, probably inhabitants of cool waters. This evidence suggests that the
axis of rotation of the earth, so far as the Southern Hemisphere, and probably
the Northern Hemisphere too, are concerned, was perhaps approximately where
it is now, even as far back as Cambrian time. One cannot, of course, press this
statement until a great many more localities for the occurrence of the Archzo-
cyathine have been identified. The problem of the occurrence of a Permo-
Carboniferous flora within 5° of the South Pole itself will no doubt be touched
upon by Professor Seward.

In regard to the possible biological analogue of modern Antarctica with
Permo-Carboniferous Australia it may be stated’ that in Antarctica we find an
abundance of the ‘sea mats,’ a feature which attracted special comment as far
back as the date of Sir James C. Ross’s Expedition. Similarly, we find that
Fenestellide are very common in our Permo-Carboniferous beds, both in the
Lower and Upper Marine Series, both of which are partly glacial in origin.

In the Antarctic we find a large pecten, Pecten Colbecki, enormously
abundant in the raised beaches, where it dominates every other form of mollusc.
Also in Antarctica we find that sponge spicules are extraordinarily abundant;
indeed, the floor of the Ross Sea must be as white as snow with sponge spicules.
In the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of N.S. Wales large Aviculopectens are very
numerous, and sponge spicules not uncommon.

A point which I wish to emphasise because it is perhaps new, is that in our
Permo-Carboniferous rocks we have a widespread development of curious mineral
in our marine semi-glacial beds, to which we have given the name of ‘glen-
donite.’ This glendonite is associated with glacial erratics; we find it parti-
cularly in our Upper Marine Permo-Carboniferous rocks. It is a pseudomorph
after glauberite. Sir Thomas H. Holland tells us that, in Lake Sambha in
Rajputana, soda sulphates, with a little sodium chloride, are concentrated and
thrown out in the water in winter, on account of the sulphates being less soluble
in cold water. Mr. H. T. Ferrar, to whom members of the Shackleton

414 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

Expedition are very deeply indebted for his valuable work on geological Antarc-
tica, has shown that soda sulphate, mirabilite, now crystallises out in Antarctica,
as confirmed by my colleague, R. E. Priestley. It is only in our Permo-
Carboniferous rocks, where we obtain indications of ice action, that we also find
these glendonites ; therefore it seems to me that, inasmuch as they were developed
= ce ae with glacial erratics, probably the water at that time was very
cold.

Next I should like to emphasise the fact that Antarctica is meteorologically
a great force centre, and that its presence in the Southern Hemisphere is of
the utmost importance to the inhabitants of Australia, not only for the under-
standing of the past distribution of animals and plants, but particularly from
the point of view of meteorology. There can be no question that if Antarctica
were wiped off the map now, there would be much less stirring up of the
atmosphere in the Southern Hemisphere than there is to-day. There is no
doubt that Antarctica acts as a great refrigerator of the atmosphere, causing a
steady down-draught, and it is on this account that it is a big factor in
Australian meteorology.

In conclusion, may I state that I consider Sir Douglas Mawson has done
a great work for science in establishing the meteorological wireless station at
Macquarie Island, now taken over by the Federal Government? When one
thinks of the great benefit that results from the more accurate weather fore-
casting made possible by this station, forecasting on the accuracy of which
not only so many industries but the very lives of our sailors depend, one feels
that all the money expended on Antarctic expeditions, all the hardship and
suffering, and even loss of heroic life, that they involve, are justified by the gain
to scientific knowledge in the service of humanity.

Professor Pencx : I desire only to make a few remarks as to the geological
structure of Antarctica. It seems to me there is a very great difference in the
geological structure of the western and eastern parts of Antarctica. Along the
Beardmore Glacier there is no trace of mountain-making by folding since the
Paleozoic age. On the other hand, the region south of South America has the
structure of the Andes, and it has been shown that there are the same rocks in
the western part of South America as in western Graham Land, and a very
similar section of Mesozoic rocks in Patagonia and in eastern Graham Land.
We see in Australia the counterpart of eastern Antarctica. How are these two
parts of Antarctica joined together? I think this is still a very open question,
and one which offers a wide field for future exploration.

Mr. H. T. Ferrar: Firstly, I would point out that the hill marked J on the
‘Discovery’ maps is separated from the foot of the Royal Society Scarp by a
transverse valley which we called the Snow Valley. On a sledge journey up the
Blue Glacier we were able to look along this valley and recognise Mount Kempe
standing at its southern end : on a journey to the summit of Brown Island we
were able to see into this valley over the tops of the Southern Foothills which
have a sharp and definite crest. One of the lantern slides just shown by
Mr. Taylor exhibited a long cloud hanging as a festoon along the scarp of the
Royal Society Range, and reaching from the northern foot of Mount Kempe
up to the western foot of the hill J, which I think betrays the presence of this
transverse valley, although its existence is denied by Mr. Taylor. I do not
agree with Mr. Taylor that these ‘ finger-valleys,’ as he terms them, head in the
corries of the Royal Society Range. I think the ice-masses in them are remnants
of glaciers which once had their origin on the east face of the Royal Society
Range, and then pushed across the transverse valley into McMurdo Sound. The
ice-masses have now slipped away from their sources, and are the ‘ice-slabs’
shown somewhat conventionally on the ‘ Discovery’ maps. The late Dr. Wilson
at the south end, and myself at the north end of the Southern Foothills, proved
that the ice in these so-called finger-valleys does not now meet that shed from
the Royal Society Scarp. I think Mr. Taylor journeyed too close in under these
foothills to realise that this transverse valley really exists.

Secondly, we had the good fortune to see the Royal Society Range from
several points of view, and to us it stood out as an obloid crust-block with a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 415

transverse valley (the Emmanuel Glacier) separating it from the hinterland of
this latitude.

Thirdly, the three valleys indicated on the ‘Discovery’ maps to the north-
ward of the Inland Forts probably have some connection with the Wright and
Debenham outlet glaciers mapped by Mr. Taylor’s party on their journey to and
from Granite Harbour. ‘

With regard to the Great Ice Barrier, I agree with Professor David as to
the origin of the ice of the Ross Barrier and other floating Piedmont glaciers,
and hold to my view that they are due to the inland-ice draining through the
outlet valleys, and crowding upon itself on the coastal platform of the continent.

[The following slides were then exhibited :—

(1) The Admiralty Range, showing fault-block ranges of mountains.

(2) The Beacon Heights, with no suggestion that the Beacon Sandstone on
the sides of the Ferrar Glacier was other than a single formation intruded by
sills of dolerite. r

(3) The Cathedral Rocks (with granite hills in the foreground), showing the
rocks in ascending order which go to build up this portion of Antarctica.

(4) The Kukri Hills—a line of junction between schists and gneisses only
slightly eroded by a glacier occupying what is probably a fault-trace. .

(5) A view of Knob Head Mountain, to explain the movement of the ice of
the Ferrar Glacier and of the South West Arm, into Taylor Valley.

(6) The Inland Forts, rasped but hardly eroded by the ice which once passed
between them from the Ferrar Glacier over into another drainage system.

(7) The channel between ice and rock at the foot of Knob Head Mountain,
showing how spur-truncation is brought about by the agency of water rather
than by a rock-charged ice-rasp; also uplift of englacial material where two ice-
streams meet.

A map of Antarctica and the Southern Seas was next referred to; the east-
west folds of South Africa and Victoria (Australia) were indicated, as was also
the submarine furrow between this ridge and that of the Crozets, Kerguelen,
&e., and yet another furrow between this island-ridge and the main coast of
the Antarctic, and reference was called to the late Dr. J. Milne’s view that east-
west belts of the earth’s crust were more rigid than meridional belts.

Antarctica itself would seem to have been subjected to a torsional stress,
which was relieved by rupture along a meridional line now marked by the steep
coast of South Victoria Land. That portion embracing Coats Land, Enderby
Land, Adelie Land, and South Victoria Land stood firm, while that portion
now beneath the Ross Sea and including Edward VIT. Land foundered; owing
to gain in angular velocity consequent on the earth’s rotation it foundered east-
ward, and slipped round in an easterly direction until retarded by some obstacle
near the longitude of Cape Horn. The pressures created by this retardation
probably caused the crustal buckle or Andean fold of the Graham Land region.]

Mr. F. Srittwett: At Commonwealth Bay in Adelie Land is a small rocky
promontory of about half a square mile in area. Around it were found slight
evidences of recent relative uplift. The rock itself was a gneissic granite, which
was very fresh and showed very little surface weathering. (Samples on the
table indicated the fresh character of the rock at sea-level.) Inland was another
exposure of rock which, in contrast to the sea-level rock, showed marked weather-
ing. This inland rock was similar in character to the sea-level rock, and had
evidently been exposed a much longer time, and it clearly showed that the sea-
level rock had not been exposed sufficiently long to weather. The ice-ablation in
the winter months was considerable and amounted to about four inches, and
exceeded the summer accretion. It is quite possible then, that Point Denison
has been exposed within the last hundred years—a very recent change. From
the accounts of the second Base Party, 1,100 miles westwards from Adelie Land,
the snow-accretion seemed to be in excess of the snow-ablation. The conditions
thus appear to be variable in this quadrant of the Antarctic.

Captain Jon K. Davrs : Much has been said regarding the past and present
of Antarctica; I propose to say a few words on future investigation, which
will so greatly benefit by the work of those who have gone before. Land

416 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

journeys, important as they are, must be supplemented by the investigation of
the coast line if we are to progress towards the completion of an outline map
of Antarctica. The Antarctic Coast line has been estimated by Professor
David at 15,000 miles, only 4,000 of which have been explored; it is high time
that a complete circumnavigation of the Continent was undertaken and its out-
lines correctly laid down upon our maps.

The Australasian Antarctic Expedition under Sir Douglas Mawson may be
said to have begun this work of circumnavigation. Sixty degrees of longitude
in the Australian Quadrant were investigated by this expedition. When heavy
pack made a near approach to the coast impossible, the aid of the sounding
machine was invoked, and supplied evidence as to the probable distance of
the land. Asa result of the voyages of the ‘ Aurora,’ a complete section of the
sea-floor between Hobart and the Antarctic is available. This section shows the
big rise 200 miles south of Hobart, where the water shoaled over 1,000 fathoms
in 50 miles. This rise was traced for a considerable distance on a southerly
course (about 125 miles). The least depth found on this ridge was 545 fathoms.
Compared with soundings taken in adjacent waters to the east and west, which
ranged from 2,700 to 1,670 fathoms, it may be conjectured that the ridge rises
at least 10,000 feet above the general level of the sea-floor in the neighbourhood.
The bottom for the most part is hard and rocky, but no specimens of the rock
were obtained. Further south another smaller rise was indicated—investigation
in this locality will probably disclose others. Improved methods, and the ex-
perience gained by recent expeditions should enable future explorers to return
not only with a map of the lands they have seen, but also with a knowledge
of the floor of the ocean over which they have sailed.

The work of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition ended at Gaussberg.
From this point another 90° of longitude stretch westward known as the African
Quadrant, the most promising field for exploration remaining in the Antarctic.

An interesting feature of the work of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition
was that close to the position assigned by Wilkes to Termination Land a huge
ice-formation (of the same type as the Ross Barrier) extending over 160 miles
from the mainland was discovered. The seaward end of this formation was
named by us Termination Barrier Tongue, its position is one of considerable
interest in view of the unsuccessful attempts of the ‘Challenger’ and the
‘Gauss’ to locate Termination Land further west.

Lieut. Wilkes, in his narrative of the voyage of the ‘ Vincennes’ wrote as
follows :—‘On February 17 (1840) about 10 a.m. we discovered the barrier
extending in a line ahead and running north and south as far as the eye could
reach [this evidently refers to a line of pack-ice]. Appearances of land were also
seen to the south-west, and its trending seemed to be to the northward. We
were thus cut off from any further progress to the westward, and obliged to
retrace our steps . . . we were now in longitude 97° 37’ E. and latitude
60° O1’ S.? The appearance of land referred to was placed on the published
charts of the expedition nearly fifty miles from the position given above and
named Termination Land. Allowance being made for the difficulty of obtaining
precise longitude in those days, everything points to the fact that Wilkes did
sight the great ice-tongue we afterwards rediscovered.

The configuration of the great inlet in the pack-ice as shown on Wilkes’s
chart, and named Repulse Bay, made it evident to us that some obstruction
(either land- or barrier-ice) interfered with the free passage of the pack-ice
to the west; our subsequent discovery confirmed this belief, and provided the
confirmation given as to the accuracy of the work of this courageous pioneer in
the locality.

Professor R. N. Rupmost Brown: Professor Penck has referred to the
importance of the structure of Antarctica. That, to my mind, is the chief
geographical problem to be solved in the Antarctic. There has been speculation
as to whether Antarctica is one land mass, or two with a strait between them.
It seems to me there is no room for that strait across Antarctica, because of
the discoveries by Shackleton and Amundsen of the land bounding the Ross
Sea. On the Weddell Sea side discovery has left a gap in the coast line, where
there is certainly room for the strait, and yet probabilities are against it.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION b. 417

It is in that region of the Weddell Sea where the doubtful Morrell Land or
New South Greenland is placed. Without going into all the evidence regarding
Morrell, this much I would like to say, that nobody has ever sailed over the
position of Morrell Land, or disproved the position of it since it was first
reported. Toss, a very cautious explorer, reported appearance of land about its
northern extremity. The Scottish Expedition could not get into that region
because of the heavy ice, but the soundings seemed to shelve towards Morrell
Land. It is true that Lieut. Filchner reported that he disproved Morrell Land ;
however, he did not go sufficiently far west to sight it, so his statement is of
no value.

The Weddell Sea has been very much neglected. The Ross Sea quarter has
had great attention paid to it, probably because it is the nearest and most
direct way to the Pole.

Nobody has yet landed on Coats Land, nor on Leopold Land. There was no
possibility of landing on the ice-cliff of Coats Land when the ‘Scotia’ dis-
covered it in 1904; but there was no doubt whatever about that ice-cliff being
a part of the ice-cap pouring off the continental land. The deep-sea soundings
and deposits by themselves showed that, but what I would like to emphasise
is this: that Coats Land seemed to rise in the interior to great heights, but
we were not certain of the distance of these heights. Most of us, and particu-
larly those with longer sight and more experience in polar seas, were convinced
that this was the plateau rising into the interior to heights of perhaps 10,000
or 15,000 feet. Future exploration will, I believe, confirm this. It is to be
hoped that Sir Ernest Shackleton will be enabled to start on his trans-continental
expedition, because he will score a new track across Antarctica, and incidentally
will solve this problem of the structure of Antarctica towards the Weddell Sea.

Dr. G. C. Stmpson : I desire to refer to only one matter connected with the
Antarctic. I do not think we realise sufficiently that the southern hemisphere
is much colder than the northern hemisphere, and the reason for this difference
in temperature is certainly not understood by scientists. When we think of the
temperature of a place, we think of the temperature in the lower atmosphere.
Now the mere passage of light through the atmosphere will not warm it. The
main method in which the atmosphere becomes warmed up is by the sun shining
on something it can warm. Now, in the Northern Hemisphere there are large
masses of land which can absorb the sun’s energy, and then give the heat to the
atmosphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, on the contrary, the whole mass of
land within the Antarctic continent is covered with ice which is practically
a perfect reflector, and therefore when the sun shines on to it a large proportion
of the energy is reflected into space. I do not think scientists have quite
realised how important that is—that 5,000,000 square miles of the earth’s surface
in the Southern Hemisphere reflect into space a large part of the energy received
from the sun. I feel certain that this is one of the chief reasons for the
difference in temperature between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Mr. CHartes Hepiey: Naturalists have deduced the age, climate, contour,
fauna and flora of Tertiary Antarctica from the nature of the Antarctic refugees
now living in southern lands. Biologists note that many similar forms, either
recent or fossil, are repeated in various southern islands or continents. For
instance, there are the monotremes, once perhaps a numerous group, of which
two widely different types survive in Australia, Tasmania, and Papua. The
bones of other monotremes occur in South American deposits. Then there are
the Thylacines, recent in Tasmania, and fossil in South America and Australia.
Either we must consider that these groups arose independently in each
hemisphere, or that they spread from the one to the other. In the latter case,
a South Polar land offered the most direct way from home to home. The
simplest explanation of the distribution of marsupials, past and present, is that
they originated in South America, spread by way of Archihelenis to Western
Europe, by way of the West Indies to North America, and by way of
Antarctica to Australasia. /

Turning to the Amphibia, both the Hylide and the Cystignathide have
their chief seat in South America; both extend to Australasia, where they

1914. EE

418 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

are best developed in the south-east, and gradually vanish before reaching the
Moluccas. Here again the most direct road between the two centres lies across
Antarctica. By cumulative evidence from plants, both cryptogams and
phanerogams, from animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, of many and of
varied types, we are led to the conclusion that the way they might have gone
was the way they actually went.

A problem which geographers seek to solve is—whether there are now one
or two Antarcticas, and again we may ask whether in the Miocene there was one
Antarctica or two Antarcticas? If there was only one, why did it not distri-
bute its faunal contents evenly between Australia and New Zealand? But if
there were two, or more, did one contribute to the population of New Zealand,
and another to that of Australia?

Though the fauna and flora of New Zealand are obviously indebted to
Tertiary Antarctica, yet New Zealand has not received any of the verte-
brates mentioned; there are neither monotremes, marsupials, Hylide, nor
Cystignathide. Further, the differences are positive as well as negative. In
New Zealand there is a group of earthworms, the Acanthodrilids which recur in
South America, but not in Tasmania or Australia. The fuchsias, which are
mostly South American, have a few outliers in New Zealand, but none in Tas-
mania; the bushy Veronicas are mostly from New Zealand, but there are a few
in South America, and none in Tasmania.

The Antarctic constituent in the Australian flora and fauna includes both a
frigid and a subtropical element. How was it that both these incompatible
elements could issue from the same source? ‘The answer offered is that then, as
now, a high plateau existed in central Antarctica, where the frigid forms had
their station, while the subtropical species existed on the coast. While the
climate cooled, the land-link between Antarctica and Tasmania endured till
the alpines in their turn followed the retreat of the subtropical forms
northwards.

The conclusions reached from this comparison of southern flora and fauna
are that: (1) at or about the Miocene a subtropical climate prevailed within
the Antarctic circle; (2) before, during, or after this warm epoch, land exten-
sions jutted north from Antarctica to New Zealand, to Patagonia and to Tas-
mania; (3) southern floras and faunas availed themselves of the opportunities
for migration offered by these extensions. Relics of these migrations are our
only evidence of such changes of land and climate.

Professor A. C. Srwarp gave a brief account, illustrated with lantern
slides, of some of the fossil plants collected by members of Captain Scott’s
second expedition, with special reference to Dr. Wilson’s discovery of Glossopteris
in latitude 85° South. Fragments of well-preserved leaves of Glossopteris indica
found in the rocks of Buckley Island, a nunatak on the Beardmore glacier,
afford important evidence both as to the age of the Beacon Sandstone formation
and as to a former connection between Antarctica and Gondwana Land. The
geological distribution of Glossopteris in other parts of the world suggests that
the strata of the Buckley Nunatak must be assigned to the Permo-Carboni-
ferous period. In addition to Glossopteris, the Polar party found fragments of
gymnospermous wood and impure beds of coal. Mr. Priestley, a member of
Commander Campbell’s party, obtained a large piece of petrified wood from a
sandstone boulder on the Priestley glacier in latitude 74° §., which on investi-
gation proved to be a gymnospermous stem of considerable botanical interest ;
the wood shows well-marked rings of growth and exhibits Araucarian charac-
teristics, but in view of the possession of certain peculiar features it has been
described under a new generic name as Antarcticoxylon Priestleyi. This stem,
though particularly interesting from a botanical point of view and as demon-
strating the occurrence of well-grown trees on the Antarctic continent, does not
afford any conclusive evidence of geological age. Associated with the partially
decayed tissues of Antarcticoxylon was found a winged pollen-grain, described
as Pityosporites sp., which bears a striking resemblance to the pollen of recent
Abietinez.

In conclusion, reference was made to the bearing of these important dis-
coveries on climatic considerations, and it was pointed out that, while there is

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 419

clear evidence of a considerable change in climatic conditions since the period
when Glossopteris flourished on the Antarctic continent, there is no adequate
reason to assume any change in the position of the earth’s axis. Meagre as it
is, the material collected by the Polar party calls up a picture of an Antarctic
land on which it is reasonable to believe were evolved the elements of a new
flora that spread in diverging lines over a Paleozoic continent, the disjuncta
membra of which have long been added to other land-masses, where are preserved
both the relics of the southern flora and of that which had its birth in the north.
The President (Prof. W. Barrson) then declared the discussion closed.

4. Heredity of some Emolional Traits.
- By Professor C. B. Davenport.

While sociologists, who lay great stress on the importance of conditions in
determining human traits, have been forced to admit the hereditary basis of
feeble-mindedness, they still hold, for the most part, to the view that in the
moral field heredity plays little part. Both to test this view and _ because
of the theoretical importance of the subject, the topic of inheritance of the
traits of persons of the criminalistic type was undertaken.

The base of the study is the family history of 165 wayward girls in State
institutions of the United States. The family histories were secured by
specially trained ‘ field-workers,’ operating in conjunction with State Institu-
tions and the Kugenics Record Office. In addition, for the study of special
topics a mass of other family histories, some 2,500 in number, was drawn upon
freely.

As a general result of these studies about twenty traits were considered in
some detail. Many did not yield any clear-cut results; but in at least five
cases the hereditary factor was clear and evidently determined the behaviour.

1. The tendency to tantrums—or violent outbursts of temper—in adults is
inherited as a dominant trait; that is, it does not skip generations. In several
scores of histories it was possible to trace the tendency back three, four, and
eyen five generations.

2. Violent eroticism, or striking lack of self-control in the sex sphere, is
also a positive character, and likewise is traced back without breaking genera-
tions; and half of the offspring of a highly erotic person show similar irresistible
impulses.

3. Impulsions to suicide are accompanied by depressions. In harmony with
what has been shown for some types of mania-depression insanity, it appears
that this depression is inherited as a recessive or negative character. It
ordinarily skips generations; but the tendency is ordinarily found on both sides
of the parentage of the affected individual.

4, 5. Two other traits appear, remarkably enough, as sex-linked characters.
They are transmitted through mothers to some or all of their sons. They
appear in daughters, typically, only when shown by the father, and the tendency
is carried also by the mother. If both parents show the trait all children have
the tendency to develop, in due time, the trait. These traits are dipsomania
and certain other types of irresistible impulsions to drink, and nomadism, or
the impulsion to wander.

5. The Hormone Theory of the Heredity of Somatic Modifications.
By Dr. J. T. Cunnincuam, M.A.

Darwin’s theory of the origin of species was founded on the assumption that
species were divided by differences of adaptation. It may be true that allied
species sometimes differ slightly in their mode of life, and show differences
of structure corresponding to these differences of action; but investigation has
entirely failed to prove any utility or bionomical significance for many specific
and other diagnostic characters, and the assumption that such characters are
due to correlation with adaptive characters is without foundation.

Mendelism in itself throws no direct light on the origin of characters; it

_deals merely with their transmission. It is inferred, however, by the
EE 2

490 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. x

Mendelians that characters transmitted as units must have arisen as units, and
it 1s certain that Mendelism has shown how loss of characters and new com-
binations produce new varieties or types. It is reasonable to conclude from
present knowledge that non-useful diagnostic characters have arisen as the
result of gametogenesis and conjugation; but the principles of Mendelism or
mutation are not applicable to the phenomena of adaptation.

In the first place when we see, as in the frog, the flat-fish, or the caterpillar,
adaptation to two quite different sets of conditions in the individual life, it is
impossible to believe that such transformation was due to mutations not caused
by the external conditions. There is no evidence that the necessary gradual
changes could occur unless the conditions produced them; if so, why have they
not occurred in other cases when the conditions were absent.

In the second place we have the phenomena of secondary sexual characters,
of which one of the most impressive and most fully investigated is that of the
antlers of stags. The Mendelian merely regards such characters as mutations
which are coupled with primary sex. But primary sex is determined at
fertilisation, and such secondary sex characters have been shown to be dependent
on the presence and function of the gonads. Characters which are determined
in the gametes are not generally affected by computations of gonads at any
part of the body in after life. It has been shown that the effects of castration
on the development of secondary sexual characters are due to the stimulus of
chemical substances produced by the gonads, especially in their functional
activity.

No hypothesis explains these facts except the Lamarckian, namely, that the
stimuli involved in the use of the organ originally produced them by causing
hypertrophy in the part of the soma affected, and that in course of generation
the tendency to this hypertrophy was transmitted to the gametes. The hormone
theory explains how such transmission may be effected. The hypertrophied part
gives off chemical substances or hormones which circulate through the body,
and acting on the gametes stimulate those parts of them which are destined to
develop the same parts in the next generation. The transmitted effect may be
infinitesimal at first, but if continued for many generations would account for
the phenomena we now observe.

This, of course, would account for the transmission of all somatic modifica-
tions due to external stimuli, and a special application of the theory is needed
to explain the peculiarities of functional secondary sexual characters.

In the first place the stimuli in these cases have acted only on individuals of
one sex, on the males in stags, on the females in the case of the mammary
glands. On any other theory a variation occurring in one sex would be inherited
by both sexes unless it was coupled with primary sex, and then it would be
wanting in the other sex. But antlers are not wanting in females nor mammary
glands in males: they are only not developed. On the hormone theory the
somatic modifications were produced at the time when the gonads were giving
off their hormones, and thus the tendency which is inherited is to develop these
modifications in the presence of those hormones and not otherwise. Then we
can understand why the organs develop only at puberty, and often only develop
during the period of sexual activity, being shed or absorbed at the end of that
period and re-developed.

6. Some Facts regarding the Anatomy of the Genus Pegasus.
By Professor Hector F. HE. Junaursen.

The facts, briefly condensed in the following abstract, have—for the greater
part—hitherto been overlooked or unknown.

Cranial Skeleton.—Opisthotics, alisphenoids, orbitosphenoids, and _basi-
sphenoid absent ; no eye-muscle canal. Posttemporal (suprascapular) forms part
of the skull. Three stout infraorbitals, the middle and posterior firmly con-
nected with the preopercle. Opercular apparatus complete. The large flat
preopercle, covering most of the lower face of the head, has generally been
taken as ‘homologous to operculum, prexoperculum, and _ suboperculum’
(Giimther), while the very small opercle and subopercle, hidden in thick skin,
have completely escaped attention. Interoperculum slender, widely separated

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 421

from subopercle, only its anterior end visible from without. The prominent
rostrum (much shortened in females of P. draconis and P. volans) is formed by
the coalesced nasals. Pterygo-palatine bar very shortened, consisting of the
palatine and only one pterygoid (ento- and metapterygoid wanting), completely
separated from hyomandibular suspensorium and connected with anterior end
of vomer; together with premaxilla and maxilla lodged in a precranial cavity
below the base of the rostrum. Between premaxilla and maxilla is interpolated
a large separate bone, corresponding to a small cartilaginous disc or meniscus
found in other fishes. Front part of maxilla forming a large process projecting
over premaxilla into anterior part of the subrostral chamber. Mandibular
suspensorium consisting only of hyomandibular, symplectic and quadrate.—
Branchiostegals 5, well developed (hitherto only one observed and described as
rudimentary). Basibranchials 2; lower and upper pharyngeals with conical
teeth. Hypobranchials I.-l1II. present; epibranchial IV. very long and stout,
widely separated from its ceratobranchial. Pharyngobranchials II. and III.
fused into a well-developed dentiferous plate; pharyngobranchials I. and IV.
absent.

Clavicular arch consisting only of post temporal and clavicle; part of the
latter enters the dermal skeleton of the trunk. Scapular arch and pectoral fin
almost horizontal, their inner faces looking upwards. Foramen scapulare
bounded by both scapula and coracoid; the latter with processes fastened to the
ventral carapace. Articular face for pectoral rays fixed across a slit in the
carapace and made up of part of the scapula and three stout basals.

Pectoral rays unbranched, but fundamentally like soft rays; they are jointed
distally, stiff basally, and composed of two longitudinal parts; but owing to the
horizontal position of the fin the otherwise lateral constituents in Pegasus are
upper and lower, and instead of being equal halves, the upper is much more
slender than the lower. In the so-called pectoral spines of P. draconis and P.
volans the upper constituent is almost thread-like, imbedded in a furrow along
the lower one, which may be extremely stout (cf. especially the 5th pectoral ray
of P. volans) ; the original jointed condition is much obscured but always obser-
vable, and the extreme apex is always soft and distinctly jointed.

Pelvis large (to a certain degree resembling that of Sebastes), by means of
short ligaments fastened to the clavicles. First ray of ventral fin a well-
developed, true spinous ray (hitherto completely overlooked); one or two
elongated, unbranched soft rays and a slender short one (Pegasus draconis, P.
volans, P. natans : +2, P. lancifer 1+3).—Abdominal vertebre 7; the anterior
6 immovably joined, devoid of ribs, provided with large spinous processes
forming together a long partition, the upper margin of which (from vertebra
2 to 6) carries a modified interneural, probably representing an aborted first
dorsal fin. 7th vertebra movable, provided like the 8th (the first caudal) with
strong ribs (probably ‘ epipleurals’ rather than true ribs). Number of caudal
vertebre: P. draconis 12, P. volans 13, P. natans 15.’ .Vertebre 8-12 con-
nected with 5 dorsal and 5 anal interspinous bones, all bisegmented; first
and interspinous bone considerably enlarged. Last caudal vertebra terminat-
ing as a vertical plate (probably the urostyle fused with 2 hypurals), 8 caudal,
5 anal, and 5 dorsal soft, unbranched rays.

The main longitudinal muscles of the trunk have been modified under the
influence of the immovable carapace. The dorsal and ventral portions are
separated on each side by a considerable interspace, the lateral body wall con-
sisting only of the dermal armour and its peritoneal lining; besides the anterior,
part of the dorsal portion is mainly reduced to a flat thin ligament. In the
posterior part of the trunk and in the movable tail the longitudinal muscles are
well developed, with strong tendons inserted to the dermal skeleton as well as
to the vertebre.—Gills four, each a double row of Jeaves. Pseudobranchia large,
with 6-7 leaves.—Glill-rakers small, papilliform; a slit in front of lower
pharyngeal.—Air-bladder absent. The greater part of the contents of the body
cavity lodged in front of pelvis. A large left and a small right lobe of the
liver are connected by a narrow bridge below the alimentary canal; most of the
lobes situated dorsally to the latter. ‘The wide awsophagus passes into the quite
straight and simple stomach, which again without any demarcation continues

' P. lancifer I have uot had the opportunity to dissect,

422 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

in the intestine, the beginning of the latter only indicated by the entrance of the
bile-duct. A gall-bladder on the lower face of the right liver-lobe. Behind the
entrance of the bile-duct the intestine turns to the left side; after two convo-
lutions below the left liver-lobe it runs transversely under the liver-bridge to
the right side, and after two narrow convolutions it reaches the middle line and
as the colon passes over the pelvis to the anus.—The kidneys are remarkably
short, reaching from the skull over only one-third of the body cavity; urinary
ducts long, urinary vesicle large, bilobed. Ovaries closed sacs behind the
kidneys, oviducts short and wide. JZ'estes short and narrow. The caudal vein
divides into two large veins passing along the urinary ducts into the kidneys.
The aorta follows in the trunk the right side of the vertebre, giving off the
arteria cceliaca far in front, just behind the union of the branchial arteriz
revehentes,

The facts mentioned above clearly show the Pegasus (1) to be an
Acanthopterygian, (2) to represent at least a ‘suborder’ of its own, distin-
guished by several structural peculiarities from all fishes hitherto known (see,
for example, the quite unique precranial position of the pterygo-palatine bar
together with the premaxilla and maxilla, the connection of the latter bones by
means of an interpolated bone, &c.). Possibly the Pegaside (Hypostomides)
may be a strongly modified offshoot trom the stem of the Scleroparei; but no
existing mail-cheeked fish shows any closer relationship with the Pegasidw,
certainly not forms like Agonus or Aspidophoroides.

7. Acquired Habils of Muscidae (Sheep-Maggol-Flies).
By Wauter W. Froaeatt, F.L.S.

At the present time the most serious enemies of the land-owners and
squatters in the greater part of pastoral Australia are several species of blow-
flies. Forsaking their natural food, chiefly carrion, they have acquired the
habit of blowing any soiled or damp wool on otherwise healthy sheep.

All the flies in question, though well-known indigenous species common to
the greater part of Australia, only learnt the value of soiled wool as a suitable
place to deposit their eggs, or living maggots, within the last ten or twelve years,

Previously they were known merely as ‘ blow-flies.’ Several kinds came into
the house and dropped their eggs upon meat, or at times infested open wounds;
but otherwise they were simply scavengers. Others were found about decaying
animal matter in the vicinity of killing yards or butchers’ shops, a few feasted
upon rotten fruit and such like fermenting vegetable matter. At the present
time (1914) at least four species have been bred in, and identified from, soiled
wool taken from sheep running in the paddocks under exactly the same con-
ditions that have prevailed in sheep breeding in Australia for the last twenty-
five years.

Though this wool-blowing habit was unknown in this country until about
twelve years ago, it is remarkable that in Great Britain, from a very early date
in the records of sheep husbandry, two species of ‘ blue-bottles’ or ‘ blow-flies ’
have been known to do a certain amount of damage in exactly the same manner
to the shepherd’s flocks. Though cosmopolitan in its range, Lucilia sericata,
the common sheep-fly of Great Britain, has never been recorded as having affected
healthy sheep in any other part of the world, except in one isolated case, when it
was accidentally introduced with sheep into Holland. Prior to 1903 there may
have been occasional cases of blown wool, under exceptional circumstances, as
has been claimed by sheep-owners, when discussing the question of sheep-
maggot-flies, but it was certainly a comparatively rare occurrence to find putrid
blown wool. About the end of 1902 the writer first obtained samples of shorn
wool containing living maggots; and in the following season they were reported
doing considerable damage. Specimens were received for identification from
the owners of flocks in the north, north-west, and from a large area of the
southern plains.

At first the point of infestation was round the tail where the wool had been
soiled with the urine, and the injury was chiefly confined to close-woolled stud
ewes. Within a very short time, however, the flies found that other kinds of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 423

damp wool were suitable, and though the sheep with the thickest fleeces and
wrinkled skins are the most susceptible, no class or breed of sheep is exempt in
a bad fly year. Ewes, too, were the first that suffered, but it was soon evident
that both sexes were liable to infestation if weather conditions were favourable
and flies abundant. Wethers are blown anywhere if dirty or damp, and lambs
after tailing and marking are often so badly blown that a certain percentage die
despite the greatest care; while on the large holdings in Central Queensland,
where the system of marking is more rough and ready, thousands of lambs,
particularly wether lambs, are blown, and in some cases might be said to be
eaten alive. Rams, though they often get ‘ maggoty heads’ from the after-results
of fighting, were the last to be attacked on the body wool. But it is now quite
a common thing to find a number of stud rams badly blown about the crutch,
and the maggots swarming on the wool of the rump.

Where sheep are not examined constantly, and get even slightly blown, the
infested area soon spreads, as other flies, attracted by the scent, keep on blowing
round the evil-smelling heated wool. As these maggots increase in size they work
their way down through the fibre of the wool, and, through their presence, cause
the wool to become a blackened putrid mass of corruption. Finally the maggots
reach the skin, where they set up an inflammation of the cuticle. The broken
skin suppurates and the detached wool is torn off, or falls off. Under such
conditions the sheep often wanders away from the flock into the scrub, and
dies ; the more robust ones recover.

In all the first samples of blown wool, whether received from the sheep-
owners or taken direct from sheep in the paddocks, the writer only bred one
species of blow-fly. This was the common brown and yellow blow-fly (Calliphora
villosa), found both in the town and country, a carrion-feeder ranging all over
Australia. An unusual increase in the numbers of this species was probably
due to several causes; in the first instance to the enormous number of dead
animals, particularly sheep, that had died during the great drought a few years
before, and which, not worth skinning, usually remained covered with decaying
skin and wool. This was also the time when hundreds of thousands of poisoned
rabbits were festering all over the pastoral holdings—ideal carrion for the blow-
flies. The next factor was the production of a new class of merino sheep, to
replace the smaller smooth-bodied animals, quite a different type of larger size,
closer wool, wrinkled skin, and heavy yoke all through the fine wool, much
more easily soiled with urine and excreta.

With the return of the good seasons the supply of carrion vanished, but the
blow-flies remained. Some had blown the dead wool, and recognised the smell
of fouled wool, and thus Calliphora villosa became a sheep-maggot-fly. Within
the year numbers of a second species of blow-fly emerged from samples of
infested wool which had been sent in from the country, and placed in the
breeding jars. Though the maggots were very similar, it was a very distinct
species, Calliphora oceanie, easily distinguished from the first species by its
smaller size, and the colouration of the abdominal segments, which, instead of
being golden, have the sides blotched with yellow, and the rest deep metallic
blue. The range and habits of both species are identical, and as they are
frequently found together it is only reasonable to suppose that Calliphora
oceanice learnt the habit of blowing wool from Calliphora villosa.

For several years only these two species were found in the larval state among
blown wool. Though there were reports from sheep-owners that a third species
was infesting the sheep, and that a dark-coloured ‘hairy’ maggot was busy
among the wool in the western country, it was not until late in 1909 that speci-
mens of the third blow-fly, Calliphora rufifacies, was obtained direct from blown
wool. There was no mistaking this smaller metallic blue and green fly: the
parent of the ‘hairy maggot.’ While both the previous species produce the
typical elongate cylindrical maggot, Calliphora rufifacies is a shorter thickened
larva having each segment ringed with a band of fleshy filaments, which have
given it the popular name in the bush of the ‘hairy maggot’ or ‘ hairy maggot-
fly.’ Though now extending its range, until very lately this fly was not found
in the coastal districts, but was confined to the inland districts of Australia.

Before Calliphora rufifacies learnt the habit of blowing live wool, presumably
through the smell of the wool infected by the other two species, it was a carrion-

424 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

feeder in the larval state. Now its carrion-breeding habits have made it the
most serious pest among all the blow-flies, for at the time when the wool on the
sheep is too hot to breed maggots (in midsummer), and the other species are
seldom seen, Calliphora rufifacies is laying her eggs on dead sheep and any offal
found round the tanks and dams, and is thus always on the increase. At the
present time (1914) this species seems to have taken the place of the two common
house species, and to be responsible for the greater part of the damage, all over
the interior, caused by the sheep-maggot-flies.

The last species to attack our sheep, and that only within the last two years,
is the introduced British sheep-fly (Zucilia sericata), a series that is the
common ‘ green-bottle-fly’ about the coastal country. In this case we have the
descendants of the introduced British sheep-fly after having lost the peculiar
habit of its ancestors, again acquiring the taste from the habit of allied
Australian blow-flies.

8. Australian Trematodes and Cestodes: a Preliminary Study in
Zoogeograhy. By 8. J. Jonnstron, B.A., D.Sc.

Practically all the groups of vertebrate animals found living in the various
zoogeographical regions of the earth harbour numbers of parasitic worms. The
entozoan fauna of one of these classes of vertebrate host in any particular
region is constituted by a number of species which are found to be related to
others which comprise the entozoan fauna of the same class of vertebrate host
living in some other region. For instance, the entozoan fauna of marsupials in
Australia comprises a number of Cestodes (e.g., species of Zinstowia) and a
number of Trematodes (e.g., species of Harmostomunv), and the nearest relatives
of each of these are found in certain species of Linstowia and Harmostomum
that live parasitic in South American marsupials.

The Trematodes and Cestodes of Australian birds find their nearest relatives
in worms living in related birds that inhabit other parts of the world; and the
Trematodes and Cestodes of Australian frogs are most closely related to those of
frogs in other regions.

The entozoan fauna of the host-animals belonging to any particular class of
vertebrate may be separated into two divisions :—(1) Those that have been
parasitic in these hosts for a very long time—practically from the first appear-
ance of the host-animals, and (2) those that represent more recent acquirements.
The members of the former division may be readily recognised by the fact that
they have near relatives parasitic in other branches of the same stock, whilst
members of the latter division generally have not. The members of each genus
(or sometimes of several closely related genera) in the former division, in many
cases scattered all over the world, constitute a natural group, and must be
looked upon as derived from common ancestors.

These ancestors were parasites of the progenitors of the host-animals in the
very early days, when the group was much younger and much more restricted in
its distribution than at the present time. A study of the relationships and
distribution of the parasites affords some circumstantial evidence of the past
movements and paths of dispersal of the host-animals.

9. On the Emergence of the Nymph of Anax papuensis (Burm) from
the Hgg (Class Insecta, Order Odonata). By R. J. Tinuyarp,
M.A., F.E.S.

Previous to hatching, the embryo lies with its head fitting closely under the
pedicel or cap of the egg. The eyes are large and blackish, the antenne lying
between them and directed posteriorly. The clypeus, labrum, mandibles, and
maxilla can be clearly seen. The labium appears as a large paired organ directed
posteriorly, and reaching well down between the legs. The legs lie directed
posteriorly along the outer (ventral) surface of the embryo, except the hind tarsi,
which are directed forwards. The hind end of the abdomen is bent round the
posterior end of the egg, the ninth and tenth segments, with the cerci, being
directed forwards. The mid-gut still encloses a large cylinder of yolk. The
tracheal system can be seen, but is devoid of air,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 425

During the three days previous to hatching, the dorsal vessel increases its
pulse from about thirty to the minute to between eighty and one hundred. Just
before hatching, a cephalic heart appears in the posterior head region. At first
small and only pulsating intermittently, it rapidly increases in size. The
pressure thus caused forces the pedicel to break away from the egg, whereupon
the nymph flows easily and quickly out of the egg-shell. It emerges swathed
in an outer skin or sheath, which has been called by Pierre the ‘amniotic cover-
ing. This is shown to be a non-cellular chitinous cuticle, not related to the
amnion in any way. It represents, in fact, the first moult of the larva. The
swathed stage may be termed the pro-nymph.

The pro-nymph stage lasts only a few seconds. The cephalic heart increases
enormously, and is seen to consist of two large chambers, an auricle and a
ventricle, which pulsate regularly at about thirty beats to the minute, and
appears to be pumping liquid, probably blood, into the head. The latter swells
quickly up to twice its original size, and thus the pro-nymphal sheath soon splits
down the back of the head and thorax, and the young nymph emerges, freeing
itself from the sheath by a few convulsive struggles.

The pro-nymphal sheath is seen to be made of very thin transparent chitin,
and shows the complete larval form, with head, mouth-parts, and legs easily
seen. It ends posteriorly in a sharp spine, which catches in the broken end of
the egg, and so forms an anchor during the emergence of the nymph.

The cephalic heart quickly subsides in the free nymph. Meanwhile, a smaller
pulsating chamber has appeared between the rectal valves. While the cephalic
heart is forcing the blood into the head, this rectal pulsating organ appears to be
pumping water into the rectum. As soon as the nymph is free, its pulsations
increase to about eighty per minute, and water is violently forced into the
rectum, so that the whole beautiful branchial basket is quickly distended and
brought into view. Meanwhile, the tracheal system, which, at the time of
hatching, only contained air anteriorly to the mid-gut, is seen to be steadily filling
with air. The air travels slowly down the dorsal tracheal trunks and gradually
fills the numerous branches, finally entering all the tiny tracheoles of the rectal
gills. Afterwards, rectal breathing proceeds regularly.

The young nymph is transparent except for the eyes and the dark plug of
the mid-gut. It has two sharply pointed cerci, but the superior appendage is
only rudimentary. In a few hours the nymph darkens all over to dull green or
blackish. It is suggested that the rupture and atrophy of the amnion described
by Brandt in the embryology of Odonata is due to the formation of the pro-
nymphal sheath or cuticle, which forms a close-fitting and far more effective
protection for the embryo, besides allowing for the early beginning of the process
of excretion through the formation of a chitinous exoskeleton.

426 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—SiR OCuartEes P. Lucas, K.C.B.,
K.C.M.G.

The President delivered the following Address at Adelaide on Wednesday,
August 12 :—

Man as a Geographical Agency.

In an inaugural address to the Royal Scottish Geographical Society on Geography
and Statecraft Lord Milner said: ‘If I have no right to call myself a
geographer, I am at least a firm believer in the value of geographical studies.’
I wish to echo these words. I have no expert geographical knowledge, and am
wholly unversed in science, but I am emboldened to try and say a few words
because of my profound belief in the value of geographical studies. I believe in
their value partly on general grounds, and largely because a study of the British
Empire leads an Englishman, whether born in England or in Australia, to the
inevitable conclusion that statecraft in the past would have been better, if there
had been more accurate knowledge of geography. This statement might be
illustrated by various anecdotes, some true, not a few apocryphal; but anecdotes
do not lend themselves to the advancement of science. I am encouraged, too,
to speak because the field of geography is more open to the man in the street
than are the sciences more strictly so-called. It is a graphy, not a logy.
Geology is the science of the earth. Geography is a description of the face of
the earth and of what is on or under it, a series of pictures with appropriate
letterpress and with more or less appropriate morals to adorn the tale.

Taking the earth as it is, geographical discovery has well-nigh reached its
limit. The truth, in the words of Addison’s hymn, is now ‘spread from Pole
to Pole,’ and recent exploration at the South Pole, with its tale of heroism, will
have specially appealed to the citizens of this Southern land, reminding us all
that the age of chivalry is not yet past. The city of Adelaide is rich in the
record of explorers, and to the list is now added the name of Sir Douglas
Mawson. It is not for me to attempt to take measure of his great enterprise,
but the scientific results of his work, including the carrying of wireless tele-
graphy into the Antarctic Continent, illustrate my thesis that man is a
geographical agency. Members of the British Association will note with
pleasure that he derived backing and inspiration from the Australasian Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science. Outside the polar regions coasts are in
most cases accurately known. The age of Cook and Flinders is past. Interiors
are more or less known. In Africa there is no more room for Livingstones,
Spekes, Burtons, Stanleys. In Australia Sir John Forrest is an honoured survival
of the exploring age—the age of McDouall Stuart and other heroes of Austra-
lian discovery. The old map-makers, in Swift’s well-known lines, ‘ o’er unhabit-
able downs placed elephants for want of towns.’ Towns have now taken the
place of elephants and of kangaroos. Much, no doubt, still remains to be done.
The known will be made far better known; maps will be rectified; many great
inland tracts in Australia and elsewhere will be, as they are now being,
scientifically surveyed ; corners of the earth only penetrated now will be swept
and garnished. But as we stand to-day, broadly speaking, there are few more
lands and seas to conquer. Discovery pure and simple is passing away.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 427

But meanwhile there is one side of geography which is coming more and
more to the front, bringing it more than ever within the scope of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science. ‘Man is the ultimate term in the
geographical problem,’ said Dr. Scott Keltie some years since at the meeting at
Toronto. ‘ Geography is a description of the earth as it is, in relation to man,’
said Sir Clements Markham, long President of the Royal Geographical Society.
Geography, I venture to think, is becoming more and more a description of the
earth as it is and as it will be under the working hand of man. It is becoming
intensive rather than extensive. Geographers have to record, and will more
and more have to record, how far man has changed and is changing the face of
the earth, to try to predict how far he will change it in the coming centuries.
The face of the earth has been unveiled by man. Will the earth save her face
in the years before us, and, if she saves her face, will it be taken at face value?
How far, for instance, will lines of latitude and longitude continue to have any
practical meaning?

Man includes the ordinary man, the settler, the agriculturist; man includes,
too, the extraordinary—the scientific man, the inventor, the engineer. ‘Man,’
says a writer on the subject, ‘is truly a geographical agency,’ and I ask you to
take account of this agency for a few minutes. I do so more especially because
one of the chief features of the present day is the rise of the South; and the
rise of the South—notably of Australia—is the direct result of human agency,
on the one hand transforming the surface of the land, on the other eliminating
distance. ‘The old name of Australia, as we all know, was New Holland. The
name was well chosen in view of later history, for while no two parts of the
world could be more unlike one another than the little corner of Europe known
as Holland, or the Netherlands, and the great Southern Continent, in the one
and in the other man has been pre-eminently a- geographical agency.

The writer who used this phrase, ‘Man is a geographical agency,’ the
American writer, Mr. G. P. Marsh, published his book, ‘Man and Nature,’ in
1864, and a new edition, entitled ‘ The Earth as Modified by Human Action,’ in
1874. He was mainly concerned with the destructiveness of man in the
geographical and climatic changes which he has effected. ‘Every plant, every
animal,’ he writes, ‘is a geographical agency, man a destructive, vegetables,
and in some cases even wild beasts, restorative powers’; and again: ‘ It is in
general true that the intervention of man has hitherto seemed to ensure the final
exhaustion, ruin, and desolation of every province of Nature which he has
reduced to his dominion.’ The more civilised man has become, he tells us, the
more he has destroyed. ‘Purely untutored humanity interferes comparatively
little with the arrangements of Nature, and the destructive agency of man
becomes more and more energetic and unsparing as he advances in civilisation.’
In short, in his opinion, ‘better fifty years of Cathay than a cycle of Europe.’

He took this gloomy view mainly on account of the mischief done by
cutting down forests. Man has wrought this destruction not only with his own
hand, but through domesticated animals more destructive than wild beasts,
sheep, goats, horned cattle, stunting or killing the young shoots of trees. Writ-
ing of Tunisia, Mr. Perkins, the late able Principal of Roseworthy College, says :
‘In so far as young trees and shrubs are concerned, the passage of a flock of
goats will do quite as much damage as a bush fire.’ Mr. Marsh seems to have
met a fool in the forest, and it was man; and he found him to be more knave
than fool, for man has been, in Mr. Marsh’s view, the revolutionary Radical
confiscating Nature’s vested interests. ‘Man,’ he says, ‘has too long forgotten
that the earth was given to him for usufruct alone, not for consumption, still
less for profligate waste.’ Trees, to his mind, are Conservatives of the best kind.
They stand in the way, it is true, but they stop excesses, they moderate the
climate, they give shelter against the wind, they store the water, prevent inun-
dations, preserve and enrich the soil. ‘The clearing of the woods,’ he says, ‘has
in some cases produced within two or three generations effects as blasting as
those generally ascribed to geological convulsions, and has laid waste the face
of the earth more hopelessly than if it had been buried by a current of lava
or a shower of voleanic sand’; and, once more, where forests have been
destroyed, he says, ‘The face of the earth is no longer a sponge but a dust-
heap.’

The damage done by cutting down trees, and thereby letting loose torrents

428 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

which wash away the soil, is or was very marked in the South of France, in
Dauphiné, Provence, and the French Alps. With the felling of trees and the
pasturing of sheep on the upper edge of the forest—for sheep break the soil and
expose the roots—the higher ground has been laid bare. Rainstorms have in
consequence swept off the soil, and the floods have devastated the valleys.
The mountain-sides have become deserts, and the valleys have been turned into
swamps. ‘When they destroyed the forest,’ wrote the great French geographer,
Reclus, about thirty years ago, ‘they also destroyed the very ground on which
it stood’; and then he continues: ‘ The devastating action of the streams in the
French Alps is a very curious phenomenon in the historical point of view, for it
explains why so many of the districts of Syria, Greece, Asia Minor, Africa, and
Spain have been forsaken by their inhabitants. The men have disappeared
along with the trees; the axe of the woodman, no less than the sword of the
conqueror, have put an end to, or transplanted, entire populations.’ In the
latter part of the South African war Sir William Willcocks, skilled in irrigation
in Egypt, and subsequently reclaiming Mesopotamia, was brought to South Africa
to report upon the possibilities of irrigation there, and in his report dated Novem-
ber 1901 he wrote as follows : ‘ Seeing in Basutoland the effect of about thirty
years of cultivation and more or less intense habitation convinced me of the
fact that another country with steep slopes and thin depth of soil, like Pales-
tine, has been almost completely denuded by hundreds of years of cultivation
and intense habits. The Palestine which Joshua conquered and which the
children of Israel inhabited was in all probability covered over great part of
its area by sufticient earth to provide food for a population a hundred times as
dense as that which can be supported to-day.’ The Scotch geologist, Hugh
Miller, again, attributed the formation of the Scotch mosses to the cutting down
of timber by Roman soldiers. ‘What had been an overturned forest became
in the course of years a deep morass.’

In past times there have been voices raised in favour of the forests, but they
have been voices crying in the desert which man has made. Here is one. The
old chronicler Holinshed, who lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, noted the
amount of timber cut down for house building and in order to increase the area
for pasturage. ‘Every small occasion in my time,’ he writes, ‘is enough to cut
down a great wood’; and in another passage either he himself or one of his
collaborators writes that he would wish to live to see four things reformed in
England : ‘The want of discipline in the Church, the covetous dealing of most
of our merchants in the preferment of commodities of other countries and
hindrance of their own, the holding of fairs and markets upon the Sunday to
be abolished and referred to the Wednesdays, and that every man in whatever
part of the champaine soil enjoyeth forty acres of land and upwards after that
rate, either by free deed, copyhoid or fee farm, might plant one acre of wood or
sow the same with oke mast, hazell, beach, and sufficient provision be made that
it be cherished and kept.’

Mr. Marsh seems to have thought that the Old World, and especially the
countries which formed the old Roman Empire, had been ruined almost past
redemption; and for the beneficent action of man on Nature he looked across the
seas. ‘Australia and New Zealand,’ he writes, ‘are perhaps the countries from
which we have a right to expect the fullest elucidation of these difficult and
disputable problems. Here exist greater facilities and stronger motives for the
careful study of the topics in question than have ever been found combined in
any other theatre of European colonisation.’

His book was first written half a century ago. He was a pessimist evidently,
and pessimists exaggerate even more than optimists, for there is nothing more
exhilarating and consoling to ourselves than to predict the worst possible con-
sequences from our neighbours’ folly. Further, though it may be true that man
became more destructive as he became more civilised, it is also true that the
destruction has been wrought directly rather by the unscientific than by the
scientific man. If we have not grown less destructive since, at any rate we have
shown signs of penitence, and science has come to our aid in the work of
reparation. Governments and associations have turned their attention to protect-
ing woodland and reafforesting tracts which have been laid bare. The Touring
Club of France, for instance, I am told, have taken up the question of the damage
done by destruction of trees by men and sheep in Haute Savoie, and they assist

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 429

reclamation by guidance and by grants. In England, under the auspices of
Birmingham University and under the Presidency of Sir Oliver Lodge, the Mid-
lands Reafforestation Association is planting the pit mounds and ash quarries
of the Black Country with trees which will resist smoke and bad air, alders,
willows, poplars; carrying out their work, a report says, under a combina-
tion of difficulties not to be found in any other country. Artificial lakes and
reservoirs again, such as I shall refer to presently, are being made woodland
centres. In most civilised countries nowadays living creatures are to some
extent protected, tree planting is encouraged by Arbor days, and reserves are
formed for forests, for beasts and birds, the survivors of the wild fauna of the
earth. Some lands, such as Greece, as I gather from Mr. Perkins’ report, are
still being denuded of trees, but as a general rule the human conscience is
becoming more and more alive to the immorality and the impolicy of wasting the
surface of the earth and what lives upon it, and is even beginning to take stock
as to whether the minerals beneath the surface are inexhaustible. Therefore I
ask you now to consider man as the lord of creation in the nobler sense of the
phrase, as transforming geography, but more as a creative than as a destructive
agency.

F How far has the agency of man altered, how far is it likely to alter,
the surface of the earth, the divisions and boundaries assigned by Nature, the
climate, and the production of the different parts of the globe; and, further,
how far, when not actually transforming Nature, is human agency giving Nature
the go-by? It should be borne in mind that science has effected, and is effect-
ing transformation, partly by applying to old processes far more powerful
machinery, partly by introducing new. processes altogether; and that, as each
new force is brought to light, lands and peoples are to a greater or less extent
transformed. The world was laid out afresh by coal and steam. A new
readjustment is taking place with the development of water power and oil
power. Lands with no coal, but with fine water power or access to oil, are
asserting themselves. Oil fuel is prolonging continuous voyages and making
coaling stations superfluous. But of necessity it is the earth herself who gives
the machinery for altering her own surface. The application of the machinery
is contributed by the wit of man.

The surface of the earth consists of land and water. How far has human
agency converted water into land or land into water, and how far, without
actually transforming land into water and water into land, is it for practical
human purposes altering the meaning of land and water as the great
geographical divisions? A writer on the Fens of South Lincolnshire has told
us: ‘The Romans, not content with appropriating land all over the world,
added to their territory at home by draining lakes and reclaiming marshes.”
We can instance another great race which, while appropriating land all over the
world, has added to it by reclaiming land from water, fresh or salt. The
traveller from Great Britain to the most distant of the great British possessions,
New Zealand, will find on landing at Wellington a fine street, Lambton Quay,
the foreshore of the old beach, seaward of which now rise many of the city’s
finest buildings on land reclaimed from the sea; and instances of the kind might
be indefinitely multiplied. Now the amount of land taken from water by man
has been taken more from fresh water than from sea, and, taken in all, the
amount is infinitesimal as compared with the total area of land and water; but
it has been very considerable in certain small areas of the earth’s surface, and
from these small areas have come races of men who have profoundly modified
the geography and history of the world. This may be illustrated from the
Netherlands and from Great Britain.

Motley, at the beginning of ‘The Dutch Republic,’ writes of the Nether-
lands: ‘A region, outcast of ocean and earth, wrested at last from both domains
their richest treasures.” Napoleon was credited with saying that the Nether-
lands were a deposit of the Rhine, and the rightful property of him who con-
trolled the sources; and an old writer pronounced that Holland was the gift of
the ocean and of the rivers Rhine and Meuse, as Egypt is of the river Nile.
The crowning vision of Goethe’s Faust is that of a free people on a free soil,
won from the sea and kept for human habitation by the daily effort of man.
Such has been the story of the Netherlands. The Netherlands, as a home for
civilised men, were, and are, the result of reclamation, of dykes and polders.

43 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

The kingdom has a constantly changing area of between 12,000 and 13,000
-Square miles. Mr. Marsh, in his book, set down the total amount gained to
agriculture at the time he wrote ‘ by dyking out the sea and by draining shallow
bays and lakes’ at some 1,370 square miles, which, he says, was one-tenth of the
kingdom ; at the same time, he estimated that much more had been lost to the sea
—something like 2,600 square miles. He writes that there were no important sea
dykes before the thirteenth century, and that draining inland lakes did not
begin till the fifteenth, when windmills came into use for pumping. In the
nineteenth century steam pumps took the place of windmills, science strengthen-
ing an already existing process. Between 1815 and 1855, 172 square miles were
reclaimed, and this included the Lake of Haarlem, some thirteen miles long
by six in breadth, with an area of about seventy-three square miles. This was
reclaimed between 1840 and 1853. At the present time, we are told, about
forty square miles are being reclaimed annually in Holland; and meanwhile
the Dutch Government have in contemplation or im hand a great scheme for
draining the Zuyder Zee, which amounts to recovering from the ocean land
which was taken by it in historic times at the end of the fourteenth century.
The scheme is to be carried out in thirty-three years and is to cost nearly sixteen
million pounds. The reclamation is to be effected by-an embankment across the
mouth of this inland sea over eighteen miles long. The result will be to add 815
square miles of land to the kingdom of the Netherlands, 750 square miles of
which will be fertile land, and in addition to create a much-needed freshwater
lake with an area of 557 square miles; this lake is to be fed by one of the mouths
of the Rhine.

London is partly built on marsh. The part of London where I live, Pimlico,
was largely built on piles. A little way north, in the centre of fashion, is
Belgrave Square, and here a lady whom I used to know had heard her grand-
father say that he had shot snipe. Take the City of London in the strict
and narrow sense. The names of Moorfields and Fensbury or Finsbury are
familiar to those who know the City. Stow, in his Survey of London, over
three hundred years ago, wrote of ‘The Moorfield which lieth without the
postern called Moorgate. This field of old time was called the Moor. This
fen or moor field, stretching from the wall of the city betwixt Bishopsgate and
the postern called Cripplegate to Fensbury and to Holywell continued a waste
and unprofitable ground a long time.’ By 1527, he tells us, it was drained ‘ into
the course of Walbrook, and so into the Thames, and by these degrees was
this fen or moor at length made main and hard ground which before, being
overgrown with flags, sedges and rushes, served to no use.’ It is said that this
fen or marsh had come into being since Roman times. The reclamation which
has been carried out in the case of London is typical of what has been done in
numerous other cases. As man has become more civilised, he has come down
from his earlier home in the uplands, has drained the valley swamps, and on
the firm land thus created has planted the streets and houses of great cities.

The Romans had a hand in the draining of Romney Marsh in Sussex, and
here Nature co-operated with man, just as she has co-operated in the deltas of
the great rivers, for the present state of the old Cinque Ports, Rye and
Winchelsea, shows how much on this section of the English coast the sea has
receded. But the largest reclamation was in East Anglia, where the names of
the Fens and the Isle of Ely testify to what the surface once was. ‘ For some
of our fens,’ writes Holinshed, ‘are well known to be either of ten, twelve,
sixteen, twenty or thirty miles in length. . . . Wherein also Elie, the famous
isle, standeth, which is seven miles every way, and whereunto there is no access
but by three causies.’ Arthur Young, in 1799, in his ‘General View of the
Agriculture of the County of Lincoln,’ a copy of which he dedicated to that
great friend of Australia, Sir Joseph Banks, who was a Lincolnshire landowner
and a keen supporter of reclamation, wrote of the draining which had been
carried out in Lincolnshire. ‘The quantity of land thus added to the kingdom
has been great; fens of water, mud, wild fowl, frogs and agues have been
converted to rich pasture and arable worth from 20s. to 40s. an acre. .
without going back to very remote periods, there cannot have been less than
150,000 acres drained and improved on an average from 5s. an acre to 258.’
150,000 acres is about 234 square miles, but the amount reclaimed by draining
in Lincolnshire in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries seems

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 431

to have been well over 500 square miles. The Fenlands as a whole extended
into six counties. ‘They were seventy miles in length, from ten to thirty miles
broad, and covered an area of from 800 to 1,000 square miles. One estimate
I have seen is as high as 1,200 square miles. Mr. Prothero, in his book on
‘English Farming, Past and Present,’ tells us that they were ‘in the seventeenth
century a wilderness of bogs, pools and reed shoals—a vast morass from which
here and there emerged a few islands of solid earth.’ In the seventeenth cen-
tury a Dutch engineer, Vermuyden, was called in to advise, and the result of
draining what was called after the peer who contracted for it the Bedford
Level, together with subsequent reclamations, was to convert into ploughland
and pasture large tracts which, in the words of an old writer, Dugdale, had
been ‘a vast and deep fen, affording little benefit to the realm other than fish
or fowl, with overmuch harbour to a rude and almost barbarous sort of lazy
and beggarly people.’ In Lincolnshire there was a district called Holland, and
in Norfolk one called Marshland, said to have been drained by, to quote Dugdale
again, ‘those active and industrious people, the Romans.’

The Dutch and the English, who thus added to their home lands by re-
clamation, went far and wide through the world, changing its face as they
went. The Dutch, where they planted themselves, planted trees also; and when
they came to land like their own Netherlands, again they reclaimed and em-
poldered. The foreshore of British Guiana, with its canals and sea defences,
dating from Dutch times, is now the chief sugar-producing area in the British
West Indies. If again in Australia man has been a geographical agency, he
learnt his trade when he was changing the face of his old home in the British
Isles.

Instances of reclaiming land from water might be indefinitely multiplied.
We might compare the work done by different nations. In Norway, for
instance, Reclus wrote that ‘the agriculturists are now reclaiming every year forty
square miles of the marshes and fiords.’ Miss Semple, who, in the ‘ Influences
of Geographic Environment,’ writes that ‘between the Elbe and Scheldt’ (that
is, including with the Netherlands some of North Germany) ‘ more than 2,000
square miles have been reclaimed from river and sea in the past 300 years,’
tells us also that ‘the most gigantic dyke system in the world is that of the
Hoangho, by which a territory of the size of England is won from the water
for cultivation.’ Or we might take the different objects which have impelled
men here and there to dry up water and bank out sea. Agriculture has not
been the only object, nor yet reclaiming for town sites. Thus, in order to
work the hematite iron mines at Hodbarrow, in Cumberland, an area of 170
acres was, in the years 1900-04, reclaimed from the sea by a barrier over 14 mile
long, designed by the great firm of marine engineers, Coode and Matthews,
who built the Colombo breakwater. The reclaimed land, owing to the subsi-
dence caused by the workings, is now much below the level of the sea. Here is
an instance of reclamation not adding to agricultural or pastoral area, but
giving mineral wealth, thereby attracting population and enriching a district.

How far has land been drowned by the agency of man? Again the total
area is a negligible quantity, but again, relatively to small areas, it has been
appreciable, and the indirect effects have been great. God made the country,
man made the town; and the town is trying to unmake or to remake the
country. The necessities of town life are responsible for new lakes and rivers.
Such are the great reservoirs and aqueducts by which water is being brought
to New York from the Catskill Mountains, one of the reservoirs being twelve
miles long with a water surface of nearly thirteen square miles. The whole
work has been described by a writer in the Zimes as ‘hardly second in
magnitude and importance to the Panama Canal.’ In Great Britain cities
in search of a water supply have ordered houses, churches, fields to be
drowned, and small lakes to come into existence. Liverpool created Lake Vyrnwy
in Montgomeryshire, with a length of nearly five miles and an area of 1,121 acres.
Birmingham is the parent of similar lakes in a wild Radnorshire valley near
my old home. The water is not carried for anything like the distance from
Mundaring to Kalgoorlie, and on a much greater scale than these little lakes
in Wales is the reservoir now being formed in New South Wales by the
Burrinjuck dam, on the Murrumbidgee River, which, as I read, is, or will be,
forty-one miles long, and cover an area of twenty square miles. If I under-

432 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

stand right, in this case, by constructing a giant dam over 200 feet high
across a gorge through which the river Hows, a long narrow lake has
been or is being called into existence. <A _ still larger volume of water is
gathered by the great Assouan dam, which holds up the Nile at the head of
the Tirst Cataract, washing, and at times submerging, the old temples on the
Island of Phila in mid-stream. First completed in 1902, the dam was enlarged
and heightened by 1912; and the result of the dam is at the time of high
Nile to create a lake of some 65 square miles in area, as well as to fill up the
channel of the river for many miles up stream. [Illustrations of artificial lakes
might be multiplied from irrigation works in India. An official report on the
State of Hyderabad, written some years ago, has the following reference to the
tanks in the granitic country of that State : ‘There are no natural lakes, but from
the earliest times advantage has been taken of the undulating character of the
country to dam up some low ground or gorge between two hills, above which the
drainage of a large area is collected. ‘Such artificial reservoirs are peculiar to the
granitic country, and wherever groups of granite hills occur tanks are sure to be
found associated with them.’ Take again the great ship canals. The Suez Canal
runs for 100 miles from sea to sea, though for part of its course it runs through
water, not through sand. It is constantly growing in depth and width. Its
original depth was 26; feet; it is now, for nine-tenths of its length, over
36 feet, and the canal is to be further deepened generally to over 39 feet. Its
original width at the bottom was 72 feet; it is now, for most of its course,
over 147 feet; in other words, the width has been more than doubled. <A
writer in the Zimes on the wonderful Panama Canal said: ‘The locks and
the Gatun dam have entailed a far larger displacement of the earth’s surface
than has ever been attempted by the hand of man in so limited a space.’
Outside the locks the depth is 45 feet, and the minimum bottom width 300 feet.
The official handbook of the Panama Canal says: ‘ It is a lake canal as well as
a lock canal, its dominating feature being Gatun Lake, a great body of water
covering about 164 square miles.’ The canal is only fifty miles long from open sea
to open sea, from shore line to shore line only forty. But, in making it, man, the
geographical agency, has blocked the waters of a river, the Chagres river, by
building up a ridge which connects the two lines of hills between which the
river flows, this ridge being a dam 14 miles long, nearly half a mile wide at
its base, and rising to 105 feet above sea-level, with the result that a lake has
come into existence which is three-quarters of the size of the Lake of Geneva,
and extends beyond the limits of the Canal zone. When all the sluices are
open, a greater volume of water passes through them than comes over the Falls
of Niagara.

Mr. Marsh, in his book, referred to far more colossal schemes for turning
land into water, such as flooding the African Sahara or cutting a canal from
the Mediterranean to the Jordan and thus submerging the basin of the Dead
Sea, which is below the level of the ocean. The effect of the latter scheme, he
estimated, would be to add from 2,000 to 3,000 square miles to the fluid surface
of Syria. All that can be said is that the wild-cat schemes of one century often
become the domesticated possibilities of the next and the accomplished facts of
the third; that the more discovery of new lands passes out of sight the more
men’s energies and imagination will be concentrated upon developing and
altering what is in their keeping; and that, judging from the past, no un-
scientific man can safely set any limit whatever to the future achievements
of science.

Buf now, given that the proportion of land to water and water to land has
not been, and assuming that it will not be, appreciably altered, has water, for
practical purposes, encroached on land, or land on water? Inmany cases water
transport has encroached on land transport. The great isthmus canals are an
obvious instance; so are the great Canadian canals. The tonnage passing
through the locks of the Sault St. Marie is greater than that which is carried
through the Suez Canal. Waterways are made where there was dry land, and
more often existing inland waterways are converted into sea-going ways.
Manchester has become a seaport through its Ship Canal. The Clyde, in Mr.
Vernon Harcourt’s words, written in 1895, has been ‘converted from an insig-
nificant stream into a deep navigable river capable of giving access to ocean-
going vessels of large draught up to Glasgow.’ In 1758 the Clyde at low water

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 433

at Glasgow was only 15 inches deep, and till 1818 no seagoing vessels came
up to Glasgow. In 1895 the depth at low water was from 17 to 20 feet, and
steamers with a maximum draught of 255 feet could go up to Glasgow. This
was the result of dredging, deepening and widening the river, and increasing
the tidal flow. The record of the Tyne has been similar. The effect of
dredging the Tyne was that in 1895—I quote Mr. Harcourt again—‘ Between
Shields and Newcastle, where formerly steamers of only 3 to 4 feet draught
used to ground for hours, there is now a depth of 20 feet throughout at the
lowest tides.’ It is because engineers have artificially improved Nature’s work
on the Clyde and the Tyne that these rivers have become homes of shipbuilding
for the whole world. Building training walls on the Seine placed Rouen,
seventy-eight miles up the river, high among the seaports of France. The Elbe
and the Rhine, the giant rivers Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and many other
rivers, have, as we all know, been wonderfully transformed by the hand of the
engineer.

But land in turn, in this matter of transport, has encroached upon sea. In
old days, when roads were few and bad, when there were no railways, and
when ships were small, it was all-important to bring goods by water at all
parts as far inland as possible. In England there were numerous flourishing
little ports in all the estuaries and up the rivers, which, under modern condi-
tions, have decayed. No one now thinks of Canterbury and Winchester in
connection with seaborne traffic; but Mr. Belloc, in ‘The Old Road,’ a description
of the historical Pilgrims’ Way from Winchester to Canterbury, points out
how these two old-world cathedral cities took their origin and derived their
importance from the fact that each of them, Canterbury in particular, was
within easy reach of the coast, where a crossing from France would be made;
each on a river—in the case of Canterbury on the Stour just above the end
of the tideway. In the days when the Island of Thanet was really an island,
separated from the rest of Kent by an arm of the sea, and when the present
insignificant river Stour was, in the words of the historian J. R. Green, ‘a wide
and navigable estuary,’ Canterbury was a focus to which the merchandise of six
Kentish seaports was brought, to pass on inland; it was in effect practically a
seaport. Now merchandise, except purely local traffic, comes to a few large
ports only, and is carried direct by rail to great distant inland centres. Reclus
wrote that bays are constantly losing in comparative importance as the inland
ways of rapid communication increase; that, in all countries intersected with
railways, indentations in the coast-line have become rather an obstacle than an
advantage; and that maritime commerce tends more and more to take for its
starting-place ports situated at the end of a peninsula. He argues, in short,
that traffic goes on land as far out to sea as possible instead of being brought by
water as far inland as possible. He clearly overstated the case, but my con-
tention is that, for human purposes, the coast-line, though the same on the map,
has practically been altered by human agency. By the aid of science ports have
been brought to men as much as men to ports. We see before our eyes the
process going on of bridging India to Ceylon so as to carry goods and passengers
as far by land as possible, and in Ceylon we see the great natural harbour of
Trincomalee practically deserted and a wonderful artificial harbour created at
the centre of population, Colombo.

But Jet us carry the argument a little further. Great Britain is an island.
Unless there is some great convulsion of Nature, to all time the Straits of Dover
will separate it from the continent of Europe. Yet we have at this moment
a renewal of the scheme for a Channel tunnel, and at this moment men are
flying from England to France and France to England. Suppose the Channel
tunnel to be made; suppose flying to be improved—and it is improving every
day—what will become of the island? What will become of the sea? They
will be there and will be shown on the map, but to all human intents and
purposes the geography will be changed. The sea will no longer be a barrier,
it will no longer be the only high-road from England to France. There will be
going to and fro on or in dry land, and going to and fro neither on land nor on
sea. Suppose this science of aviation to make great strides, and heavy loads
to be carried in the air, what will become of the ports, and what will become
of sea-going peoples? The ports will be there, appearing as now on the map,
but Birmingham goods will be shipped at Birmingham for foreign parts, and

1914. FF

434 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EF.

Lithgow will export mineral direct, saying good-bye to the Blue Mountains and
even to Sydney Harbour.

Now, in saying this I may well be told by my scientific colleagues that it
is all very well as a pretty piece of fooling, but that it is not business. I say
it as an unscientific man with a profound belief in the unbounded possibilities of
science. How long is it since it was an axiom that, as a lump of iron sinks in
water, a ship made of iron could not possibly float? Is it fatuous to contem-
plate that the conquest of the air, which is now beginning, will make it a highway
for commercial purposes? We have aeroplanes already which settle on the
water and rise again; we are following on the track of the gulls which we
wonder at in the limitless waste of ocean. A century and a half ago the
great Edmund Burke ridiculed the idea of representatives of the old North
American colonies sitting in the Imperial Parliament; he spoke of any such
scheme as fighting with Nature and conquering the order of Providence; he
took the distance, the time which would be involved—six weeks from the
present United States to London. If anyone had told him that what is happen-
ing now through the applied forces of science might happen, he would have
called his informant a madman. Men think in years, or at most in lifetimes;
they ought sometimes to think in centuries. I believe in Reclus’s words, ‘ All
man has hitherto done is a trifle in comparison with what he will be able
to effect in future.’ Science is like a woman. She says No again and again,
but she means Yes in the end.

In dealing with Jand and water I have touched upon natural divisions and
natural boundaries, which are one of the provinces of geography. Flying gives
the go-by to all natural divisions and boundaries, even the sea; but let us come
down to the earth. Isthmuses are natural divisions between seas; the ship
canals cut them and link the seas—the canal through the Isthmus of Corinth,
the canal which cuts the Isthmus of Perekop between the Crimea and the
mainland of Russia, the Baltic Canal, the Suez Canal, the Panama Canal. The
Suez Canal, it will be noted, though not such a wonderful feat as the Panama
Canal, is more important from a geographical point of view, in that an open
cut has been made from sea to sea without necessity for locks, which surmount
the land barrier but more or less leave it standing. Inland, what are natural
divisions? Mountains, forests, deserts, and, to some extent, rivers. Take
mountains. ‘ High, massive mountain systems,’ writes Miss Semple, ‘ present
the most effective barriers which man meets on the land surface of the earth.’
But are the Rocky Mountains, for instance, boundaries, dividing-lines, to
anything like the extent that they were now that railways go through and over
them, carrying hundreds of human beings back and fore day by day? On
what terms did British Columbia join the Dominion of Canada? That the
natural barrier between them should be pierced by the railway. Take the
Alps. The canton Ticino, running down to Lake Maggiore, is politically in
Switzerland ; it is wholly on the southern side of the Alps. Is not the position
entirely changed by the St. Gothard tunnel, running from Swiss territory into
Swiss territory on either side of the mountains?

If, in the Bible language, it requires faith to remove mountains, it is not
wholly so with other natural boundaries. Forests were, in old days, very real
natural dividing-lines. They were so in England, as in our own day they have
been in Central Africa. Between forty and fifty years ago, in his ‘ Historical
Maps of England,’ Professor C. H. Pearson, whose name is well known and
honoured in Australia, laid down that England was settled from east and west,
because over against Gaul were heavy woods, greater barriers than the sea.
Kent was cut off from Central England by the Andred Weald, said to have
been, in King Alfred’s time, 120 miles long and 30 broad. Here are Professor
Pearson’s words: ‘The axe of the woodman clearing away the forests, the
labour of nameless generations reclaiming the fringes of the fens or making
their islands habitable, have gradually transformed England into one country,
inhabited by one people. But the early influences of the woods and fens are
to isolate and divide.” Thus the cutting down of trees is sometimes a good,
not an evil, and there are some natural boundaries which man can wholly
obliterate.

Can the same be said of deserts? They can certainly be pierced, like
isthmuses and like mountains. The Australian desert is a natural division

; PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 435

between Western and South Australia. The desert will be there for many a
long day after the transcontinental railway has been finished, but will it be,
in anything like the same sense as before, a barrier placed by Nature and
respected by man? Nor do railways end with simply giving continuous communi-
cation, except when they are in tunnels. As we all know, if population is avail-
able, they bring in their train development of the land through which they pass,
Are these deserts of the earth always going to remain, in Shakespeare’s words,
‘deserts idle’ ? Is man going to obliterate them? In the days to come, will the
desert rejoice and blossom as the rose? What will dry farming and what will
afforestation have to say? In the evidence taken in Australia by the Dominions
Royal Commission, the Commissioner for Irrigation in New South Wales tells us
that ‘the dry farming areas are carried out westward into what are regarded as
arid lands every year,’ and that, in his opinion, ‘ we are merely on the fringe of
dry farming’ in Australia. A book has lately been published entitled ‘The Con-
quest of the Desert.’ The writer, Dr. Macdonald, deals with the Kalahari Desert
in South Africa, which he knows well, and for the conquest of the desert he lays
down that three things are essential—population, conservation, and afforesta-
tion. He points out in words which might have been embodied in Mr. Marsh’s
book, how the desert zone has advanced through the reckless cutting of trees,
and how it can be flung back again by tree barriers to the sand dunes. By
conservation he means the system of dry farming so successful in the United
States of America, which preserves the moisture in the soil and makes the
desert produce fine crops of durum wheat without a drop of rain falling upon
it from seedtime to harvest, and he addresses his book ‘to the million settlers
of to-morrow upon the dry and desert lands of South Africa.’ If the settlers
come, he holds that the agency of man, tree-planting, ploughing and harrowing
the soil, will drive back and kill out the desert. The effect of tree-planting
in arresting the sand dunes and reclaiming desert has been very marked in the
Landes of Gascony. Here, I gather from Mr. Perkins’ report, are some 3600
square miles of sandy waste, more than half of which had, as far back as 1882,
been converted into forest land, planted mainly with maritime pines.

What, again, will irrigation have to say to the deserts? Irrigation, whether
from underground or from overground waters, has already changed the face of
the earth, and as the years go on, as knowledge grows and wisdom, must
inevitably change it more and more. I read of underground waters in the
Kalahari. I read of them too in the Libyan Desert. In the ‘ Geographical
Journal’ for 1902 it is stated that at that date nearly 22,000 square miles in the
Algerian Sahara had been reclaimed with water from artesian wells. What
artesian and sub-artesian water has done for Australia you all know. Tf it is
not so much available for agricultural purposes, it has enabled flocks and herds
to live and thrive in what would be otherwise arid areas. Professor Gregory,
Mr. Gibbons Cox, and others have written on this subject with expert know-
ledge; evidence has been collected and published by the Dominions Royal Com-
mission, but I must leave to more learned and more controversial men than I am
to discuss whether the supplies are plutonic or meteoric, and how far in this
matter you are living on your capital.

If we turn to irrigation from overground waters, I hesitate to take illustra-
tions from Australia, because my theme is the blotting out of the desert; and
most of the Australian lands which are being irrigated from rivers, and made
scenes of closer settlement, would be libelled if classed as desert. Mr. Elwood
Mead told the Royal Commission that the State irrigation works in Victoria,
already completed or in process of construction, can irrigate over 600 square
miles, and that, if the whole water supply of the State were utilised, more like
6000 square miles might be irrigated. The Burrinjuck scheme in New South
Wales will irrigate in the first instance not far short of 500 square miles, but
may eventually be made available for six times that area. If we turn to
irrigation works in India, it appears from the second edition of Mr. Buckley’s
work on the subject, published in 1905, that one cana] system alone, that of
the Chenab in the Punjab, had, to quote his words, turned ‘some two million
acres of wilderness (over 3000 square miles) into sheets of luxuriant crops.’
‘Before the construction of the canal,’ he writes, ‘it was almost entirely waste,
with an extremely small population, which was mostly nomad. Some portion of
the country was wooded with jingle trees, some was covered with small scrub

FEF 2

436 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION R.

camel thorn, and large tracts were absolutely bare, producing only on occasions
a brilliant mirage of unbounded sheets of fictitious water.’ The Chenab irriga-
tion works have provided for more than a million of human beings; and, taking
the whole of India, the Irrigation Commission of 1901-3 estimated that the
amount of irrigated land at that date was 68,750 square miles; in other words,
a considerably larger area than England and Wales. Sir William Willcocks has
been reclaiming the delta of the Euphrates and Tigris. The area is given as
nearly 19,000 square miles, and it is described as about two-thirds desert and
one-third freshwater swamp. Over 4000 square miles of the Gezireh Plain,
between the Blue and the White Nile, are about to be reclaimed, mainly for
cotton cultivation, by constructing a dam on the Blue Nile at Sennaar and
cutting a canal 100 miles Jong which, if I understand right, will join the White
Nile, thirty miles south of Khartoum.

With the advance of science, with the growing pressure of population on
the surface of the earth, forcing on reclamation as a necessity for life, is it too
much to contemplate that human agency in the coming time will largely oblite-
rate the deserts which now appear on our maps? It is for the young peoples of
the British Empire to take a lead in—to quote a phrase from Lord Durham’s
great report—‘the war with the wilderness,’ and the great feat of carrying
water for 350 miles to Kalgoorlie, in the very heart of the wilderness, shows
that Australians are second to none in the ranks of this war.

It is a commonplace that rivers do not make good boundaries because they
are easy to cross by boat or bridge. Pascal says of them that they are
‘ des chemins qui marchent’ (roads that move), and we have seen how these roads
have been and are being improved by man. ‘Rivers unite,’ says Miss Semple;
and again, ‘ Rivers may serve as political lines of demarcation, and therefore fix
political frontiers, but they can never take the place of natural boundaries.’
All the same, in old times at any rate, rivers were very appreciable dividing-
lines, and when you get back to something like barbarism, that is to say in time
of war, it is realised how powerful a barrier is a river. Taking, then, rivers
as in some sort natural boundaries, or treating them only as political boundaries,
the point which I wish to emphasise is that they are becoming boundaries which,
with modern scientific appliances, may be shifted at the will of man. In the
days to come the diversion of rivers may become the diversion of a new race of
despotic rulers with infinitely greater power to carry out their will or their
whim than the Pharaohs possessed when they built the Pyramids. You in
Australia know how thorny a question is that of the control of the Murray and
its tributaries. There are Waterways Conventions between Canada and the
United States. Security for the head-waters of the Nile was, and is, a prime
necessity for the Sudan and Egypt. The Euphrates is being turned from one
channel into another. What infinite possibilities of political and geographical
complications does man’s growing control over the flow of rivers present !

Thus I have given you four kinds of barriers or divisions set by Nature
upon the face of the earth—mountains, forests, deserts, rivers. The first, the
mountains, man cannot remove, but he can and he does go through them to save
the trouble and difficulty of going over them. The second, the forests, he has
largely cleared away altogether. The third, the deserts, he is beginning to
treat like the forests. The fourth, the rivers, he is beginning to shift when
it suits his purpose and to regulate their flow at will.

I turn to climates. Climates are hot or cold, wet or dry, healthy or un-
healthy. Here our old friends the trees have much to say. Climates beyond
dispute become at once hotter and colder when trees have been cut down and
the face of the earth has been laid bare; they become drier or moister according
as trees are destroyed or trees are planted and hold the moisture; the cutting
and planting of timber affects either one way or the other the health of a
district. The tilling of the soil modifies the climate. This has been the case,
according to general opinion, in the North-West of Canada, though I have not
been able to secure any official statistics on the subject. In winter time broken
or ploughed land does not hold the snow and ice to the same extent as the
unbroken surface of the prairie; on the other hand, it is more retentive at once
of moisture and of the rays of the sun. The result is that the wheat zone has
moved further north, and that the intervention of man has, at any rate for
agricultural purposes, made the climate of the great Canadian North-West

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 437

perceptibly more favourable than it was. In Lord Strathcona’s view, there was
some change even before the settlers came in, as soon as the rails and telegraph
lines of the Canadian Pacific Railway were laid. He told me that in carrying
the line across a desert belt it was found that, within measurable distance of
the rail and the telegraph line, there was a distinct increase of dew and
moisture. I must leave it to men of science to say whether this was the result
of some electrical or other force, or whether what was observed was due simply
to a wet cycle coinciding with the laying of the rails and the erection of the
wires. I am told that it is probably a coincidence of this kind which accounts
for the fact that in the neighbourhood of the Assouan dam there is at present
a small annual rainfall, whereas in past years the locality was rainless. Re-
ference has already been made to the effect of cultivation in the Kalahari Desert
in increasing the storage of moisture in the soil. But itis when we come to the
division between healthy and unhealthy climates that the effect of science upon
climate is most clearly seen. The great researches of Ross, Manson, Bruce, and
many other men of science, British and foreign alike, who have traced malaria
and yellow fever back to the mosquito, and assured the prevention and gradual
extirpation of tropical diseases, bid fair to revolutionise climatic control. Note,
however, that in our penitent desire to preserve the wild fauna of the earth we
are also establishing preserves for mosquitos, trypanosomes and the tsetse fly.

Nowhere have the triumphs of medical science been more conspicuous than
where engineers have performed their greatest feats. De Lesseps decided that
Ismailia should be the headquarters of the Suez Canal, but the prevalence of
malaria made it necessary to transfer the headquarters to Port Said. In 1886
there were 2300 cases of malaria at Ismailia; in 1900 almost exactly the same
number. In 1901 Sir Ronald Ross was called in to advise; in 1906 there were no
fresh cases, and malaria has been stamped out. Lesseps’ attempt to construct
the Panama Canal was defeated largely, if not mainly, by the frightful death-
rate among the labourers; 50,000 lives are said to have been lost, the result of
malaria and yellow fever. When the Americans took up the enterprise they
started with sending in doctors and sanitary experts, and the result of splendid
medical skill and sanitary administration was that malaria and yellow fever were
practically killed out. The Panama Canal is a glorious creation of medical as well
as of engineering science, and this change of climate has been mainly due to
reclamation of pools and swamps, and to cutting down bush, for even the
virtuous trees, under some conditions, conduce to malaria. Man is a geographical
agency, and in no respect more than in the effect of his handiwork on climate,
for climate determines products, human and others. Science is deciding that
animal pests shall be extirpated in the tropics, and that there shall be no
climates which shall be barred to white men on the ground of danger of infec-
tion from tropical diseases.

If we turn to products, it is almost superfluous to give illustrations of the
changes wrought by man. As the incoming white man has in many places sup-
planted the coloured aboriginal, so the plants and the living creatures brought
in by the white man have in many cases, as you know well, ousted the flora
and fauna of the soil. Here is one well-known illustration of the immigration
of plants. Charles Darwin, on the voyage of the Beagle, visited the island of
St. Helena in the year 1836. He wrote ‘that the number of plants now
found on the island is 746, and that out of these fifty-two alone are indigenous
species.’ The immigrants, he said, had been imported mainly from England,
but some from Australia, and, he continued, ‘the many imported species must
have destroyed some of the native kinds, and it is only on the highest and
steepest ridges that the indigenous flora is now predominant.’

Set yourselves to write a geography of Australia as Australia was when first
made known to Europe, and compare it with a geography now. Suppose
Australia to have been fully discovered when Europeans first reached it, but
consider the surface then and the surface now, and the living things upon the
surface then and now. Will not man be found to have been a geographical
agency? How much waste land, how many fringes of desert have been
reclaimed? The wilderness has become pasture land, the pasture land is
being converted into arable. The Blue Mountains, which barred the way to the
interior, are now a health resort. Let us see what Sir Joseph Banks wrote
after his visit to Australia on Captain Cook’s first voyage in 1770. He has a

438 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

chapter headed ‘Some Account of that part of New Holland now called New
South Wales.’ New Holland he thought ‘in every respect the most barren
country I have seen’; ‘the fertile soil bears no kind of proportion to that which
seems by nature doomed to everlasting barrenness.’ ‘In the whole length of
coast which we sailed along there was a very unusual sameness to be observed
in the face of the country. Barren it may justly be called, and in a very high
degree, so far, at least, as we saw.’ It is true that he only saw the land by the
sea, but it was the richer eastern side of Australia, the outer edge of New
South Wales and Queensland. What animals did he find in Australia? He
‘saw an animal as large as a greyhound, of a mouse colour, and very swift.’
‘He was not only like a greyhound in size and running, but had a tail as long
as any greyhound’s. What to liken him to I could not tell.’ Banks had a grey-
hound with him, which chased this animal. ‘We observed, much to our surprise,
that, instead of going upon all fours, this animal went only on two legs, making
vast bounds.’ He found out that the natives called it kangooroo, and it was ‘as
large as a middling lamb.’ He found ‘this immense tract of land,’ which he
said was considerably larger than all Europe, ‘thinly inhabited, even to admira-
tion, ab least that part of it that we saw.’ He noted the Indians, as he called
them, whom he thought ‘a very pusillanimous people.’ They ‘seemed to have
no idea of traffic’; they had ‘a wooden weapon made like a short scimitar.’
Suppose a new Sir Joseph Banks came down from the planet Mars to visit
Australia at this moment, what account would he give of it in a geographical
handbook for the children of Mars? He would modify the views about barren-
ness, if he saw the cornfields and flocks and herds; if he visited Adelaide, he
would change his opinion as to scanty population, though not so, perhaps, if he
went to the back blocks. He would record that the population was almost
entirely white, apparently akin to a certain race in the North Sea, from which,
by tradition, they had come; that their worst enemies could not call them
pusillanimous; that they had some ideas of traffic, and used other weapons than
a wooden scimitar; and he would probably give the first place in animal life not
to the animal like a greyhound on two legs, but to the middling lamb, or
perhaps to the ubiquitous rabbit. Australia is the same island continent that
it always was; there are the same indentations of coast, the same mountains
and rivers, but the face of the land is different. In past years there was no
town, and the country was wilderness; on the surface of the wilderness many of
the living things were different; and from under the earth has come water and
mineral, the existence of which was not suspected. A century hence it will be
different again, and I want to see sets of maps illustrating more clearly than is
now the case the changes which successive generations of men have made and
are making in the face of Australia and of the whole earth.

More than half a century ago Buckle, in his ‘ History of Civilisation,’ wrote :
‘ Formerly the richest countries were those in which Nature was most bountiful ;
now the richest countries are those in which man is most active. For in our age
of the world, if Nature is parsimonious we know how to compensate her
deficiencies. If a river is difficult to navigate, or a country difficult to traverse,
an engineer can correct the error and remedy the evil. If we have no rivers
we make canals; if we have no natural harbours we make artificial ones.’
These words have a double force at the present day and in the present sur-
roundings, for nowhere has man been more active as a geographical agency than
in Australia; and not inside Australia only, but also in regard to the relations
of Australia to the outside world.

An island continent Australia is still, and always will be, on the maps. It
always will be the same number of miles distant from other lands; but will
these maps represent practical everyday facts? What do miles mean when
it takes a perpetually diminishing time to cover them? Is it not truer to
facts to measure distances, as do Swiss guides, in Stunden (hours)? What,
once more, will an island continent mean if the sea is to be overlooked and
overflown? The tendency is for the world to become one; and we know
perfectly well that, as far as distance is concerned, for practical purposes
the geographical position of Australia has changed through the agency of
scientific man. If you come to think of it, what geography has been more
concerned with than anything else, directly or indirectly, is distance. It is

RESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 439

the knowledge of other places not at our actual door that we teach in geography,
how to get there, what to find when we get there, and so forth. The greatest
revolution that is being worked in human life is the elimination of distance,
and this elimination is going on apace. It is entering into every phase of public
and private life, and is changing it more and more. The most difficult and
dangerous of all Imperial problems at this moment is the colour problem, and
this has been entirely created by human agency, scientific agency, bringing the
lands of the coloured and the white men closer together. Year after year,
because distance is being diminished, coming and going of men and of products
is multiplying; steadily and surely the world is becoming one continent. This
is what I want geographers to note and the peoples to learn. Geographers have
recorded what the world is according to Nature. I want them to note and
teach others to note how under an all-wise Providence it is being subdued,
replenished, recast, and contracted by man.

MELBOURNE.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 14.

The following Papers were read :—
1. Australian Rainfall. By H. A. Hunr, Commonwealth Meteorologist.

The main factors to be considered in relation to the controlling causes of
rainfall in Australia are the south-east and westerly trade winds, the
monsoonal and southern depressions, cyclones from the north-east and north-
west tropics, locally formed cyclones, and the anticyclones, in conjunction with
the modifying effects on these various atmospheric movements of the physical
features of the different parts of the country.

Around the central dry area of Australia the isohyets describe somewhat
concentric curves, the modifications being mostly due to variations in elevation.
Thus, the Darling Ranges to a great degree account for the rainfall of the
south-west corner of the continent. The Flinders Range (South Australia)
and Australian Alps in the south-east have a heavier rainfall than the surround-
ing tracts owing to their cooling effect on the air-currents. Along the eastern
elevated margin of the Commonwealth the ridges between large river-valleys
also account for an enhanced precipitation. Examples of the latter type are the
Peak Range and Darling Downs in Queensland, where the eastern ranges of the
northern parts of that State obstruct the south-east trade winds and cause
our heaviest rainfall. In Western Tasmania there is an excessive rainfall for
similar reasons, though there the westerly trades are the moisture-laden winds.

During the hotter months, November to April inclusive, the northern parts
of Australia are wet and the southern dry, and in the colder months, May to
October inclusive, the southern parts are wet and the northern dry, while over
the eastern areas of the continent the rainfall is distributed fairly generally
throughout the year.

The southern portions of the continent, where the precipitations are con-
trolled by the ‘ stormy westerlies,’ southern cyclones and V-shaped depressions,
enjoy very consistent annual totals, but north of the tropics, and in fact in all
parts of the continent subject to monsoon rains, the departures from the
normal are occasionally very great.

When the monsoonal disturbances are in evidence, the effect of the rainfall
on the country generally and the economic results for the succeeding season
are very pronounced. The interior of the continent becomes transformed.
The plains, which ordinarily have an intensifying effect on the heat winds
of the summer, are deluged with rain, and respond immediately with a luxurious
growth of grass and herbage. The air is then both tempered in heat and loses
its dryness for considerable periods.

The monsoon region comprises the whole of Australia north of the Tropic
of Capricorn, together with Southern Queensland and the north of New South
Wales. The heaviest rains are in January and February. They are directly

440 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

due to the indraught caused by the heating of the centre of the continent. This
leads to the formation of a low pressure in Northern Australia, and the ascend-
ing winds are cooled and deposit their water-vapour in heavy rainstorms and
thunder showers.

Tropical depressions when well developed are productive of good inland
rains, and are evidently caused by southward flows of the atmosphere of wide
extent and considerable depth. The ‘ Antarctic’ disturbances are, however, the
more frequent in winter. The heaviest totals from this last-named source are
precipitated on the west coast of Tasmania. Thus at Mount Lyell the total
for one year exceeded 140 inches, and even the average is 116°05 inches. When
an ‘ Antarctic’ is supplemented by a ‘ trough’ extending well into the northern
interior, it brings much rain to the inland areas of South Australia, Victoria,
New South Wales, and even Queensland.

Anticyclonic rains occur at all times of the year, but more markedly from
March to September. They benefit particularly the southern area of the
continent, and are responsible for many of the heaviest rainfalls and floods on
the coastal districts of New South Wales. ‘

Flood rains occur at infrequent intervals over various portions of the
Commonwealth, principally in Queensland, the south-eastern parts of the
continent, and the northern regions of West Australia.

Typical instances of floods in South-eastern Australia are (1) the flood which
occurred in January 1910 in the Upper Darling tributaries, consequent on
abnormally heavy rains on the north-western plains and slopes of New South
Wales, as well as on the Darling Downs of Queensland.

These exceptionally heavy, continuous rains were caused by the joint action
of an anticyclonic area over the southern regions and a monsoonal depression
operating in the northern half of the continent. A monsoonal tongue developed
and extended southwards over Queensland and New Scuth Wales, while at the
same time the energy of the high pressure in the south increased. In five days
large areas in the two States had from 5 inches to 19 inches of rain.
The enormous amount of water which fell over approximately 86,000 square miles
of country may be roughly estimated at thirty-one billion, six hundred and
eighty-seven million (31,687,000,000) tons, or seven thousand one hundred
billion (7,100,000,000,000) gallons.

(2) A similar development occurred in March of the present year, when a
monsoonal tongue extending southwards across the continent against an
intensified anticyclone in the south was accompanied by severe thunderstorms
and torrential rains. Some of the heaviest individual falls were in New South
Wales; e.g., Taralga on the Central Tablelands 10-74 inches, Sydney 8-49 inches,
Parramatta 16°91 inches, and Beecraft 18°84 inches in the metropolitan area, and
Wollongong 25:34 inches, on the south coast. The barometer readings at Sydney
ranged from 30°13 inches to 29:97 inches during the five days the storms were
in progress, while the anticyclone to the south gradually gave way simul-
taneously, the centre (30-4 inches) moving slowly over the southern parts of
Victoria and Tasmania eastwards to the South Pacific Ocean.

The wettest known place in Australia is Innisfail, on the north-east coast of
Queensland, where the average rainfall for twenty-one years is no less than
145 inches, the maximum yearly total being 211:24 inches, and the minimum
69°87 inches.

The driest region so far furnished with rain gauges lies east and north-east
from Lake Eyre, where less than 5 inches is the average annual rainfall, and
where a total of 10 inches is rarely recorded during the twelve months. This
minimum rainfall is coincident with the lowest elevation, Lake Eyre being
actually below sea-level 39 feet.

The inland districts of Western Australia have until recent years been
regarded as the driest part of the Commonwealth, but authentic observations
taken during the past decade at settled districts in the east of that State show
that the annual average is from 10 to 12 inches.

In comparing the rainfall of the chief cities of the rest of the world! with

1 Amsterdam, Athens, Berlin, Berne, Bombay, Brussels, Budapest, Buenos
Ayres, Calcutta, Cape Town, Chicago, Christiania, Colombo, Constantinople,
Copenhagen, Dublin, Edinburgh, Genoa, Hong Kong, Johannesburg, Lisbon,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION £. 441

those of Australia, it is found that Bombay, Calcutta, Colombo, Singapore, and
Hong Kong are the only cities whose rainfall exceeds that of Sydney and
Brisbane. Perth has a greater annual rainfall than New York, and more than
that of twenty-eight of the forty-two cities used in the comparison. Hobart
nearly equals London, which Melbourne exceeds by an inch, while eleven of
the forty-two places considered have less rain than Hobart.

The distribution of average annual rainfall over the Commonwealth and
the United Kingdom in thousands of square miles is as follows :—

Australia British Isles

Under 10 in. . : 3 5 ; . 1,045 nil
10in. tol5in. . : : ‘ On nil
15in. to20in. . : : ANG nil
20 in. to 30in. . , A ; S503 24
30 in. to40in. . : r F ‘ 199 42
Over 40 in. . . A d 3 ; 160 55

The average area under wheat in the United Kingdom during the years
1910, 1911, and 1912 was 1,926,040 acres, and the average yield 59,436,392
bushels; while in the Commonwealth for the same period the area under wheat
was 7,379,980 acres, and the average yield 86,243,133 bushels, a difference in
the total yield in favour of Australia of 26,806,741 bushels. In Australia wheat-
growing under ordinary conditions is generally considered a safe and payable
proposition when 10 inches of rain and over falls from the month of April to
that of October inclusive. There are in all 484,330 square miles of country with
10 inches of rainfall and over during the wheat-growing period. The output
of wheat has been steadily increasing from year to year, and there are vast
possibilities of future development in this direction.

The climatic history and prosperity of the last ten years or so contradict
emphatically the preconceived notion that Australia is the particular drought-
stricken and precarious area of the earth’s surface. These misconceptions of
the true character of the country have been held in the developmental stages,
to a greater or less extent, in the early histories in the majority of all lands
and in the colonisation of newly discovered territories; e.g., see history of
colonisation of U.S. America and early Egyptian history. The truth of the
matter about Australia’s rainfall is that (1) it is generally ample for
pastoral and agricultural industries over two-thirds of its area; (2) that different
regions have distinct seasonal dry and wet periods. These must be more fully
recognised and industrial operations adapted accordingly ; (3) it is subject in
part, but never in the whole, to prolonged periods when the rainfall is short
of the seasonal average. Australia is not peculiar in this respect. It follows,
therefore, that as the so far undeveloped country becomes populated and put
to profitable use, the general wealth of the community as a whole will steadily
increase.

A model representing the relative rainfall over Australia has been constructed
at the Commonwealth Weather Bureau on a horizontal scale of 133 miles to
1 inch and a vertical scale of 10 inches to 1 centimetre.

It shows at a glance how the annual rainfall is distributed, from the small
precipitation over the far interior to the fringe of high rainfall around the
greater portion of the coast-line, culminating on the eastern side in a great
peak indicating the annual precipitation over the Harvey Creek and Innisfail
district, resulting from the prevailing south-east trade winds carrying the
moisture against the mountain ranges just inside the coast.

The fringe of relatively high rainfall along the eastern and south-eastern
coasts of the continent as the result of the elevated contours near the coast in
those regions is also striking.

The effect of the monsoonal rains over Northern Australia is very apparent
from the model, which shows the gradual increase of rainfall from under 10
inches in the interior to over 60 inches on the north coast.

The manner in which the prevailing westerly trade winds carry moisture

London, Madras, Madrid, Marseilles, Moscow, Naples, New York, Ottawa,
Paris, Pekin, Quebec, Rome, San Francisco, Shanghai, Singapore, Stockholm,
Petrograd, Tokyo, Vienna, Vladivostock, and Washington.

442 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

along the southern portion of the Commonwealth is clearly marked by the
elevations indicating the good rains received over the south-west corner of
Australia, and, further eastward, how the ranges east of Adelaide cause good
rainfall there and prevent the rain from that direction reaching the inland
parts of Victoria.

In Tasmania also is seen the effect of the frequency of the moist westerly
winds, causing high rainfall along the mountain ranges of the west coast, with
resulting comparative dryness in the eastern parts of that State.

It may be of interest to note in closing that there exists apparently an
oscillatory movement of the seasonal rains throughout Australia about a centre
in the vicinity of Forbes, in New South Wales. It is perhaps a natural
coincidence that this apparent centre of oscillation is approximately the centre
of gravity of the Commonwealth’s population, and is not far from the Federal
capital site.

This peculiar oscillatory character of the monthly march of rainfall suggested
the construction of a ‘ Rain Clock.’ In the centre of a piece of cardboard a map
of Australia is cut out with a die. At the back of this another piece of card-
board, indicating the rain area, is manipulated on a swivel. By moving the
second piece of cardboard backwards and forwards with an amplitude of oscilla-
tion of one-fifth of a circle, the land area of the continent affected by dry or
wet conditions at any time of the year is approximately indicated.

The immediate lessons to be learned from a study of the ‘ Clock’ are that the
seasonal rains are more regular than was generally believed, and that the
alternating dry and wet seasons are definitely defined. That being so, when in
obedience to physical law there is an absence of rain during the normally dry
period in any part of Australia, such dryness should not be regarded as
drought, and an evil, but rather as Nature’s wise provision for resting the soil.

2. The ‘ Mallee’ Country of North-Western Victoria.
By A. 8. Kenyon, C.E.

The term ‘ Mallee,’ applied to the scrubby forms of Eucalypt characteristic
of the area to be described, is of aboriginal origin.

The Mallee country embraces over 11,000,000 acres and includes the greater
part of the north-western portion of the State, over one-fifth of its total area.
lt is sharply differentiated from other districts by its soils, plants, and general
surface configuration.

Surface Formation.—The prevailing feature is the regular occurrence of sand-
vidges—of no great height, generally less than 30 feet. They are more or less
parallel, running from W.S.W. to E.N.E. With an increase in their height, the
scil becomes noticeably poorer; at times they are over 100 feet above the sur-
rounding surface, when the parallelism is almost completely masked and they
form a jumble of sand-hills, locally known as ‘ desert.’ More or less extensive
expanses of level land with low irregular undulating rises are termed ‘ broken ’
country.

Soil. —The soil varies from rich red clayey loams in the ‘ broken’ country
to pure white sand in the ‘sandhills,’ and, except in the latter class, is all
suitable for agriculture. Limestone nodules occur almost everywhere, in places
becoming almost massive; outcrops of tertiary agglomerated ferruginous sand-

. stone are plentiful. Salt lakes, generally in the vicinity of the more extensive
limestone beds, accompanied with ‘copi’ or gypsum earth deposits, are
numerous. These have rarely any inflow of water, and their saltness in every
case may be put down to upward filtration. Swamps and terminal lakes without
any outflow are, however, generally fresh. The ‘ broken’ country occupies
about 20 per cent., the sand-ridges cover 50 per cent., while the sand-hills
account for less than 30 per cent.

Plants.—The sand-ridge country is densely covered with H. Dumosa and
its varieties. Broom-bush (Beckea) marks the transition stage into sand-hills
with their desert types of Casuarina, Callitris, Grevillia, Hakea, Melaleuca, and
Epacris. The ‘broken’ country has large mallee, big pines (Callitris robusta),
buloke, and belar (Casuarina luehmanni and lepidophloia), sandalwood (M/yo-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 443

porum platycarpum and Hremophila longifolia) and a great variety of shrubs
(Heterodendron, Fusanus, Pittosporum, acacias, &c.), forming probably the most
park-like country in Australia. The so-called spinifex, Z'riodia irritans, the
porcupine-grass of the settlers, prevails throughout. Salt-bush plains comprising
a large number of the Chenopodiacew vary from a few to many thousand acres.
Grasses are of the tufty, tussocky order, and rarely form a sod or sole of grass
sufficient to prevent sand-drift. .

Climate.—The Mallee is arid. Its rainfall varies from 19 to a little under
11 inches per annum, averaging 14 inches. In summer the days are intensely
hot and the air excessively dry ; consequently there is frequently a considerable
drop in temperature at night-time, the range being over 70° F. In winter, the
days are bright and sunny with much frost at night, temperatures going com-
monly below 20° F. Cyclones of destructive force are rare.

Geology.—The surface soils are almost wholly xolian or wind-redistributed ;
this formation extends to 30 feet and over in depth. They have been formed
from lacustrine clays and drifts, which are some 200 feet in thickness. Below
these beds, enclosed above and below by estuarial blue clays containing broken
shells, foraminifera, glauconite, &c., are extensive marine formations, poly-
zoal and shell rocks of about the same thickness as the overlying lacustrine
beds. Below these are terrestrial fluviatile deposits containing much lignite and
pyrites. The thickness of these, which rest upon paleozoic, silurian, or granite
beds, is variable, reaching 700 feet. ‘The sequence of beds shows in the Tertiary
period a considerable subsidence followed by elevation. While the elevation
was in progress and the sea had retreated, the streams at present joining the
Murray River flowed in and formed the lacustrine deposits until, uniting forces,
they cut a canyon through them to the sea. The Murray River canyon has a
depth of 60 to 200 feet, and a width of 14 to 4 miles. A distinct folding in the
whole series of Tertiary beds has been shown by the borings. At the surface
these folds are many miles in width and are over 200 feet in height and have
a direction a little west of north—at right angles to the sand-ridges—with a
marked easterly dip. It is not unlikely that the salt and gypsum areas above
referred to mark the synclines, where fracturing allows escape of the artesian
waters of the coral marine beds.

Settlement.—There are at present five and a half million acres under settle-
ment, of which about one and a half million acres are under cultivation annually,
supporting a population of over 40,000.

3. The Experimental Demonstration of the Curvature of the Marth’s
Surface. By H. Yuue Oupuam, M.A.

4. The Central Highlands and ‘ Main Divide’ of Victoria.
Bytes “Haar MAL BOL. FIGS:

A belt of highlands extends through almost the whole length of Victoria.
These consist of a peneplain carved out of Palwozoic rocks, and subsequently
elevated in blocks to varying heights and dissected. Remnants of older hills
above the peneplain are of minor importance.

On these Paleozoic rocks rest fluviatile and lacustrine deposits of Tertiary
age. The fossils and relation to marine Tertiaries further south indicate a
position low in the Tertiaries for the oldest of these. The formation of the
peneplain may be regarded as early Tertiary. In Southern Victoria worn down
Jurassic rocks form part of the peneplain. On the Central Highlands and south-
of them there are also two series of volcanic rocks, known respectively as the
older volcanic (early Tertiary) and newer volcanic (late Tertiary).

The central belt of highlands is outside the limits of the Jurassic coal-
bearing sediments and of the marine Tertiaries. This area has been relatively
high from Jurassic time onward, and has been much more elevated in Tertiary
times than the marine Tertiary area.

The general effect produced by the elevation has been a broad belt of high-
lands falling away to north and south and higher at the eastern end. In detail

444 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

this area consists of numerous fault-blocks, more or less tilted, and unequally
elevated, producing original crests and valleys. As the crests of the blocks are
often transverse to the east and west trends of the whole highlands, the two
ends of a relatively low strip may be occupied by streams flowing to north and
south respectively. The main water-parting or Main Divide between the north
and south streams varies in its relation to the fault-blocks, being determined in
part by crests of tilted blocks, or by relatively high blocks, in part by the
position of the Divide at the head of streams flowing in opposite directions
in the same low area, and in part by volcanic accumulations.

It is not necessary to suppose a single original Main Divide from which
streams flowed directly to the lowlands north and south. On the contrary, there
is distinct evidence of a more complex arrangement of the original crests so
that some areas had less direct outlets—for example, a well-marked east and
west crest south of Ballarat is connected by a meridional ridge east of that
town to the Main Divide producing two basins, that of Ballarat, and that of
the original Parwan; the present southerly valleys of the Moorabool, Yarrowee,
and Smythe’s Creek are cut later through this southern crest. The presence
of original difficulty-drained areas has probably made alterations in the
drainage system easier, both by capture and by diversions after volcanic in-
filling. Alterations are also facilitated by differential movements after the
present drainage system was initiated on the rising peneplain.

The Upper Goulburn has probably been formed by linking by capture of
originally distinct basins. The same has very likely occurred in the case of
the Yarra. The alterations near Ballarat are largely due to volcanic accumu-
lations.

The Main Divide is sometimes volcanic, as in parts near Ballarat, where it is
formed by materials accumulated round several vents.

The actual intrusion of the granitic rocks has taken no part in forming the
present Divide. These rocks have moved with the others in block movements.
They are evidently more likely to be exposed on the peneplain at places of
much elevation prior to its completion. Some of these situations would no
doubt continue to be much elevated later.

Some of the boundaries of the granitic areas are fault-lines from which
the granitic country rises rapidly (Mount Cole, Mount Martha, Arthur’s Seat).
Some of the Paleozoic dacites also make Very prominent hills (Mount Macedon,
The Dandenongs). In these cases the hard rocks on the uplifted side still
present some considerable steepness due to the original fault-scarp.

5. A Map of the Environs of Rome of 1547. By Dr. Tuomas Asupy.

The Vatican Library has, by a recent gift of His Holiness the Pope, come
into possession of an important collection of maps and plans. This includes an
engraved map of the environs of Rome for a distance of about twenty miles in
each direction, on the scale of about two inches to the mile. It bears the date
1547, and is unsigned; but Mr. Horatio F. Browne has discovered the Venetian
privilege for it, from which it appears that its author was a Florentine,
Eufrosino della Volpaia. It is rather a bird’s-eye view than a map, the pro-
jection not being accurate, but the details (roads, farms, streams, woods, culti-
vation, &c.) are very well shown; and it is the largest map of this district known
until comparatively modern times. Though it is engraved on six copper
plates, and served as the original of Ortelius’ map, it has remained unknown
until now, and the Vatican copy is unique. Dr. Ashby has written the text to
the publication in facsimile made by the Vatican Library in a series which it is
now issuing (‘Le Piante Maggiori di Roma dei secoli 16°e 17°’).

6. Three Harly Australian Geographers, their Work, and how it is
Remembered. By Cuartus R. Lona, M.A., Inspector of Schools,
and Editor of the Education Department's Publications, Victoria.

In Australia, the scope of the geography syllabus, especially that of the
State elementary school, is comprehensive, and the time apportioned to the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 445

subject is liberal. Of late years, a feature of the teaching has been the con-
necting of the physical features of the continent with those who discovered,
explored, and named them, and of the towns with their founders and early
residents. The map has thus become invested with a human interest that
serves to give an attraction to the acquirement of topographical details which
it did not formerly possess. This mode of connecting history with geography
has also been to the benefit of the former. The strongly established subject,
geography, has helped to place the weak subject, Australian history, on its
feet. Another effect of adding humanity to geographical nomenclature has
been to direct the minds of Australian children, and through them of their
parents, to the early Australian geographers. The value to the nation of these
intrepid men is rapidly obtaining recognition; and when you add to that
recognition the result of the giving over of a day annually on which the
exploits of the explorers and pioneers are made the sole topic of instruction in
the schools (as is the case in Victoria), you will see that the time is ripe for
the erection of historical monuments and for the proper appreciation of those
already erected.

Of the many men deserving of recognition at the hands of Australians
three stand out prominently, the navigators, James Cook and Matthew Flinders,
and the surveyor, Thomas Mitchell. The geographical work of these men was
of immense importance to Australia.

There is no record of any visit to the eastern shore of the continent before
that of Cook, who charted the coast-line for some 2000 miles with an approach
to accuracy that astonishes the hydrographers of the present day when they
consider the disadvantages under which he carried it out.

Among Australian explorers he is easily first in public estimation, some-
times, indeed, being credited by those whose enthusiasm is greater than their
historical knowledge with being the discoverer of the island-continent. Public
admiration has been shown in the memorials erected to him. At Botany Bay,
where he first landed on the Australian soil, there is a tablet affixed to a rock,
and also an obelisk. Sydney possesses a fine statue. At Cooktown, Queens-
land, where the ‘ Endeavour’ was careened at the mouth of a river that bears its
name, is another obelisk, and a tree is still reverently preserved as that to
which the ship was tied. An admirer at Bendigo, the ‘Quartzopolis’ of
Victoria, has placed a statue of the great navigator in immediate proximity to
the principal Anglican church. And, soon, the St. Kilda Esplanade, Victoria,
will be graced by a replica of the fine statue at Whitby, Yorkshire.

Next to Cook comes Captain Matthew Flinders, who did a greater amount
of surveying along the coast of Australia than any other man. In 1792 he
began it with Bligh in Torres Strait, to which he returned ten years after-
wards. In 1795 he ventured forth with his intrepid companion, Surgeon Bass,
in a boat south from Sydney, with the result that he was able to show to the
Governor, Captain Hunter, a chart that won his admiration. Then, with
joyful enthusiasm, he went round Van Diemen’s Land (now Tasmania) in the
sloop ‘ Norfolk,’ and, after that, from Sydney to Moreton Bay. Lastly, in the
‘Investigator,’ fully accredited by the Admiralty, he began to chart the coast
of the continent. Starting at Cape Leeuwin, he worked his way patiently along
the coast to Sydney, and thence to the north-east of Arnhem Land, at which
point the rotten state of his ship made it imperative for him to bring his survey
to a close. His charts are so good that subsequent surveyors have had little to
do in the way of amending them.

The first of Australia’s memorials to Flinders was erected in 1841 by the
Governor of Van Diemen’s Land, Sir John Franklin, who had been a midship-
man on board the ‘Investigator.’ It stands overlooking the fine harbour of
Port Lincoln, South Australia. The people of that State have not forgotten the
good example then set them. They have erected a monument on Kangaroo
Island to commemorate its discovery by Flinders, a column on Mount Lofty for
a similar purpose, and to the Bluff, in the Encounter Bay district, have affixed
a plate to recall to mind the meeting of Flinders and the French explorer,
Baudin. Victorians have recently awakened to a recognition of the debt they owe
to the man who spent a week in Port Phillip Bay in 1802, and whose excellent
chart was used by the early explorers of their State. On Discovery Day, 1912,

446 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

Sir John Fuller, the State Governor, unveiled a tablet affixed to the granite tor
at the summit of Station Peak, near Geelong, on which Flinders stood to survey
the bay on May 1, 1802. At Western Port there is a cairn and tablet which
were unveiled by his Excellency the following Discovery Day. It commemorates
the discovery of that inlet by Bass in 1798, and the first passage of the Strait
by him and Flinders later in the year. Lastly, led by the members of the
Victoria Branch of the Royal Geographical Society, an effort that will soon be
- consummated was sect on foot some time ago to erect a worthy statue of Flinders
in Melbourne.

Thomas Mitchell, who was appointed Surveyor-General of New South Wales
in 1827, had seen service with Wellington throughout the Peninsular War, and
had been ailowed by him to employ his talent for military sketching and plan-
making. To this fine training was added a love for his work as a surveyor and
explorer, together with much energy. He well deserved the knighthood that
was bestowed upon him. Before his death at Sydney, in 1855, he had recorded
a vast amount of detail in connection with the physical features of Eastern
Australia.

Of his four great expeditions—the first to the north of New South Wales,
the second to the Darling near Bourke and then down that river, the third
through Western and Central Victoria (his Australia Felix), and the fourth into
Central Queensland—the third proved of inestimable service to the young
colony by attracting settlers to it. This fact is now being recognised by
Victorians. With the Discovery Day celebrations has been associated the
unveiling of a tablet to his memory at Pyramid Hill, where he stood on
June 30, 1836, and surveyed the charming prospect around him: of a second on
Mount Arapiles, which he ascended on July 23; and a third at Expedition
Pass, through which he journeyed on September 29. Owing to the enthusiasm
teachers are showing in the matter, it is certain that, in the near future, his
line of march in Victoria will be well indicated by tablets.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 18.

Joint Discussion with Section C on the Physiography of Arid Lands.
See p. 363.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Australian Exploration. By the Right Hon. Sir Jonn Forrest,
G.C.M.G.

2. Forest Climate and Rainfall. By Ti. A. Mackay.

8. Recent advances in the Map of the World on the Scale of
1:1,000,000. By Professor A. PENcK.

The proposal for an international map of the world on a uniform scale has
been considerably advanced in the last few years. A conference of delegates
of several States held in London in 1910 approved the general scheme adopted
by various Geographical Congresses since 1892—namely, the scale of the map
to be 1: 1,000,000, each sheet to be plotted on its own surface and to be limited
by parallels at a distance of 4 degrees in latitude and by meridians at a distance
of 6 degrees in longitude, the meridians to be reckoned from Greenwich, the
map to be a hypsometrical map, the contour lines of which should be given in
hundreds of metres. The resolutions of the London conference were carried

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 447

out by several States, and maps after the scheme proposed were prepared by
Great Britain, France, Italy, Spain, the United States of America, Argentina,
Chile, Japan, and in Portugal and Hungary. Much work has been done for the
map also in Sweden. At the International Geographical Congress of Rome, 1913,
it was seen that these maps showed many differences in their methods and execu-
tion, and the Congress recommended a second international conference of dele-
gates of States. This conference was held in Paris in December 1913; the
number of States represented at it—34—showed how general the interest in the
map had become. The resolutions adopted did not alter the general scheme of
the map, but settled many of its minor features.

In Australia the scheme was discussed in 1912 by a conference between the
surveyors-general of the different States, and its execution was recommended
to the Commonwealth. A map on a uniform but not too small a scale would
indeed be of the greatest value to Australia, for there is none at present. The
different States have hitherto only maps of their own territory, and these maps
are unequal as to scale and contents. One feature is common to all—they do not
lay stress upon the representation of morphological features, and our knowledge
of the extent and height of the physical regions of Australia is limited. In order
to extend the international map of the world to Australia extensive surveys are
still necessary. It would be an important result of the scheme for a uniform
map of the world if it should excite interest in the hypsometrical surveys of
Australia.

SYDNEY.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Development of the Natural. Order Lequminose—A Study in
Paleogeography. By E. C. Annrews, B.A., F.G.S., Geological
Surveyor, New South Wales.

A study of Leguminos indicates that the final separation of Australia from
Tropical Asia took place before that of Tropical America from Tropical Africa.

This problem admits of comprehension only by a knowledge of the succession
of geographies in post-Jurassic time, the character and home of the primitive
types of the Order, the soils and climate which various legumes favour, the
principles of plant dispersion by sea and land, as well as the arrest of develop-
ment in certain types, and the wonderful vitality in others, such as Acacia and
Astragalus; these principles are all elaborated in the main discussion.

Geography.—Extensive and low-lying plains of erosion, large epicontinental
seas, and genial climate, were features of the Cretaceous geography, while large
continents, great deserts, small epicontinental seas, high mountains, glaciated
poles, and a general differentiation of climate into zones are characteristic of
modern geography.

Primitive Types.—Home, the fertile tropics. Trees or shrubs, of luxuriant
habit. Leaves simple, sometimes digitate or simply pinnate. Corolla regular,
petals five. Stamens definite, five or ten, free, sometimes indefinite. Style
simple, peculiar. Fruit a pod or drupe.

The narrow belt of tropical land extending south of the Equator from
Tropical America to Australia, by way of Tropical Africa, Madagascar, and
Malaysia, was broken up at its eastern end in Upper Cretaceous time, and,
still later, it was broken in its central and western portions. Many remark-
able groups of genera were developed from the fertile tropical types as the
result of the severe climatic conditions and poor soils of Australia, South
Africa, and Eurasia. Most remarkable of these are, in the first place, the
Podalyrie of Australia and South Africa, which were derived from the tropical
Sophorex; secondly, the Genistew of Australia, South Africa, and Eurasia ;
thirdly, the Galegee of Eurasia; and fourthly, the Acacias of Australia, Africa,
and America.

Comparisons of these xerophytic forms indicate that, region for region, they
are only indirectly related to each other by intermediate forms to be found in

448 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

the tropics. For example, the Podalyriee of Australia, South Africa, and the
Northern Hemisphere are related to each other through Sophorer. The
Eurasian types have been dispersed, during late geological time, to North
America by way of North-eastern Asia, and thence along the high western
plateaus to South America.

Antiquity of Isolation of Australia—Great genera, such as Mimosa and
Calliandra, are absent from Australia but are present in America, Africa, and
Asia. The peculiar group of the Australian Podalyriez, comprising nineteen
endemic genera and about four hundred species, also speaks eloquently of the
long separation of Australia from Asia. The history of Acacia also may be
summarised in this connection. The genus is divided into Gummitferm
Vulgares, Filicine, Pulchelle, Botryocephale, and Phyllodinez. Species 700.
The Gummiferez are the primitive type, and are well developed in America
Africa, and Asia, only poorly represented in Australia and quite absent from
Europe and New Zealand. They represent the xerophytic modification of a
luxuriant Cretaceous plant, with bipinnate leaves, even at a time when the
great continents were connected by way of the tropics. The Vulgares are the
most important types, numerically, in extra-Australian areas, being abundant
in America, Africa, and Asia. They are absent from Australia. The Filicinz
belong to Tropical America. The Pulchelle and the Botryocephale are
endemic in West and South-East Australia respectively. The Phyllodinex, with
about 420 species, are Australian. Of these the Uninerves represent the earlier
type, and are characteristic of poor, sandy soils. The home was Northern
Australia. In the early stages the phyllode was narrow with the midrib form-
ing the greater portion. The Pleurinerves appear to be modified Uninerves.
Both types gradually pushed their way into the deserts, into West and South-
east Australia, and into Tasmania. The Uninerves established themselves
strongly in the cooler regions of the south, while the Pleurinerves, with the
Juliflore, lagged behind and entrenched themselves securely in the tropics.
Both during, and subsequently to, the formation of the great plateaus of Eastern
Australia many peculiar phyllodineous types were developed, such as the
Racemose and the Tetramere, and these, in part, during the later glacial period,
moved northwards along the plateaus as far as South-eastern Queensland ; others

again adapted themselves to subarid inland conditions. The endemic
Botryocephale, also, are in the main a response to plateau development in
South-east Australia. during later and post-Tertiary time. The western

alluvial plains of Eastern Australia, formed during late and post-Tertiary time,
gave rise to groups of the Pleurinerves, such as the Microneure.

In conclusion, Australia has been isolated from Asia for a great period,
and the Leguminose of the fertile tropics of the island continent are not com-
paratively recent and derivative, as has been stated, but are examples of types
once cosmopolitan, whose development has long been arrested while the great
majority of the endemic types are younger and vigorous xerophytes induced by
the altered geographical conditions.

2. Eastern Australian Topography and its Effect on the Native Flora.
By R. H. Campace, F.L.S., &c., Chief Mining Surveyor, New
South Wales.

The chain of mountains known as the Great Dividing Range extends through-
out the length of Eastern Australia at distances varying from about twenty
to nearly three hundred miles from the coast-line. It consists of an uplifted
dissected plateau ranging from about 1,500 to 7,300 feet above sea level, the
generally lower portions being in Queensland, and the higher in southern New
South Wales and Victoria. In general the eastern face is fairly steep and
high, and exercises more influence in differentiating the humid climate of the
east from the drier climate of the west, than does the actual water-parting itself,
which is often only a slight ridge in various positions on the plateau. The effect
of the mountains in the south is to create three climates, a humid and dry one
on the east and west sides respectively, and a cold one on the summit which
acts as a barrier between two floras which would otherwise commingle to some
extent at lower levels,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 449

In Queensland a generally lower summit of the plateau, and an increase in
temperature owing to the more northerly position of the range, permit the
western or dry influence to cross the mountains in various places, and allow many
interior types of plants to thrive on the eastern watershed, while the moist-
loving or coastal brush plants are excluded from these invaded areas. This
invasion occurs in the Goulburn River valley near Cassilis in New South Wales,
and at such places in Queensland as between Toowoomba and Brisbane, between
Jericho and Rockhampton, and at other points. Where such a mountain passage
occurs the moist-loving eastern flora in no case passes through to the west,
but in certain instances arrives there by other agencies, and finds congenial
surroundings on secluded portions of elevations protected from the west.

The absence of a high range extending along behind the coastal belt in
Northern Australia is considered to largely account for the absence of rainfall
in that locality during the winter months, and for the sparseness of the brush
or jungle vegetation.

The observations in regard to the effects of topography on the native flora
indicate that the rainfall and climate in Eastern Australia are very largely
regulated by the physiographic features, and the vegetation, after allowing
for differences of soils, is chiefly the result of rainfall and climate. It would
therefore appear that the removal of the forests would not result in a greatly
reduced rainfall, but would probably decrease the number of damp days.

3. A Recently Discovered MS. by James Coox. By H. Yuin
OupuaM, M.A.

4. The Coast of New Caledonia. By Professor W. M. Davis.

5. Southern Alaska and the Klondyke. By Professor Enwoop 5.
Moore.

6. Australia: ils Discovery as evidenced by Ancient Charts.
By Guo, Coutainaripce, Corresponding Member of R.G.S.A., &c.

1. Early voyages by the Portuguese and Spaniards in Australasian waters,
made between the years 1511-36, but not recorded.
Reasons for not recording said voyages.
. Australia named Java Mayor.
Discovery, by author, of Portuguese legend on Dauphin Chart.
Reasons for distorting charts.
Western Coasts of Australia discovered by the Portuguese.
Eastern Coasts of Australia discovered by the Spaniards,
. Main features of discovery.

oN aoe ok

TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.

Joint Discussion with Sections C, D, and K on Past and Present Rela-
lions of Antarctica in their Biological, Geographical, and Geological
Aspects.—See p. 409. ;

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Geodetic Surveying in New South Wales and some Results.
By T. F. Furser, F.R.A.S., &c., Director of Trigonometrical Surveys,
New South Wales.

The above Paper describes in general terms the limits reached up to the
present by the Trigonometrical Survey of the State named, the methods fol-

1914. GG

450 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

lowed and the order of precision attained, more detailed treatment being confined
to three matters which are engaging attention at the present moment, viz., the
general question of periodic errors of instrument graduation; the relation
between the height of an observed ray above ground surface and the coefficient
of refraction; the third matter being a preliminary comparison of the geodetic
with the astronomical latitudes, longitudes, and azimuth, for the purpose of
estimating the relative forms of the surface covered by the survey and that of
the assumed spheroid of revolution.

The survey extends between latitudes 30° and 37° south and longitudes
145° and 153° east, roughly including an area of 100,000 square miles. The
fundamental object of the survey as a whole is to provide the positions of
a series of points of sufficient accuracy to control the detail surveys made for
the purposes of land alienation and administrative surveys generally and at the
same time to facilitate map construction. Throughout the work, however, the
necessity has been kept in view of observing certain chains of the triangulation
with the greatest precision attainable not only so as to strengthen the remainder
but to afford data for incorporation with other similar surveys in determining
earth dimensions. It is this primary triangulation which the paper deals with.

Base lines have been measured at Lake George and at Richmond, and the
Paper refers to the need for further bases of verification owing to the exten-
sion of the survey. In preparation for measurement of these, invar tapes have
been lately obtained and standardised and the site of one further base (nineteen
miles in length) determined on. The angle work has till recently been observed
with theodolites (Troughton & Simms) of eighteen inches diameter read by
four micrometers, but a 270-millimetre Repsold of the type used in the Geodetic
Survey of South Africa has now been installed. For minor details of the
methods of observing and reduction the Paper refers to one read by the writer
in 1898 to the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, the
methods there described having been continued. It will suffice here to state
that the mean closing errors of the 171 primary triangles is + 0//-70 and that
applying Ferrero’s criterion [m= (=5)'] the value of m is ascertained
to be --0/-54, which indicates that the work is of a high order of precision.

The purchase of the Repsold theodolite necessitated an examination of its
circle errors which has resulted in a general discussion of such errors. This it
is thought may be of interest and has already caused consideration to be given
to the possible need for a change of observing routine. As already mentioned
instruments read by four microscopes have hitherto been used. The Repsold is
read by two microscopes. The mean reading of two opposite microscopes is
affected by periodic errors, p, sin (2@+e€,) . . . .p,sin (27@+er), @ being the circle
reading. If after an arc ‘ Circle Left’ the telescope is turned over and swung
through 180 degrees horizontally to prepare ‘Circle Right’ the mean bearing
of a signal derived from the combined observations will remain affected with
these periodic errors. It is the practice on the survey to use five settings of the
horizontal circle, each differmg from the preceding by 36°. The new
instrument has furnished results showing the large range of 4/ amongst
its bearings derived from the different settings. Although the means of bear-
ings derived from the five settings are free from periodic error (other than those
involving 100, 200, ... ., it has nevertheless been desired to determine
accurate expressions for these errors for various reasons, and particularly with
a view to estimating the accuracy of the graduation of the horizontal circle.
An analysis shows how expressions for these errors may be determined from
the observations of horizontal angles. From observations made at trigono-
metrical station Rocks to 23 beacons the value —2/-19xsin (20-55°) has been
derived for the first term, while from others at station Ovens to 17 beacons
the value found is—2/”-11 sin(2@—53°). The terms containing 4@ and 6@ seem
to have an amplitude of 0/-3 or 0/-2. Combining all the results yet available
the correction to a microscope reading of the horizontal circle is, as far as
has been determined, — 17-4 sin (8@+101°)—2’’-2 sin (28—54°)—1”-0 sin (38+228°).
... There is no suggestion in this series that the amplitude of the term
containing 10@ is of any importance, and it is highly probable that the five

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION RF, 451

settings of the circle are quite sufficient to eliminate in their mean all appre-
ciable periodic errors.

In the paper already mentioned as having been read to the Australasian
Association in 1898 the writer referred to an apparent connection between the
heights of the lines above the intervening surface and the values for the coefti-
cient of refraction derived from the reciprocally observed zenith distances.
The extension of the survey since 1898 has given further data which generally
bear out the conclusions then derived. These data and the results are dealt
with in the present paper. In the absence of a topographical survey from
which to ascertain the height of each line above the intervening surface the
observations have been grouped in the order of length of line, the assumption
being that generally the longer lines are the higher. Another grouping has been
made in which account has been taken of the height above sea-level on the
assumption that the higher regions are the more hilly and that there the height
of the ray above surface is the greater. Both groupings would seem to indicate
that where information as to the highest above surface is lacking varying
coefficients of refraction may be assumed according to the lengths of the lines
observed. Diagrams are given showing the variations.

The survey has been computed from the Sydney Observatory (Lat.
33° 51/ 41/-1 §.; Long. 151° 12’ 23/-1 EK.) as origin. A map accompanying
the Paper shows the extension of the survey therefrom southerly about 240 miles
to the Victorian border, where it connects with the triangulation of Victoria,
westerly about 360 miles to the limits of the almost flat country of the interior,
and north-westerly towards the Queensland border a distance of 240 miles.
The map shows also the differences between the geodetic latitudes, longitudes,
and azimuths as derived from the assumed earth dimensions (a modification of
the Clarke 1880 spheroid) and the corresponding latitudes &c. obtained by
astronomical observation. These show the effects of local deflection of the
vertical caused by irregular distribution of surface-masses. Broadly, New South
Wales may for our present purposes be said to be divisible into three zones, the
littoral of from 20 to 60 miles in width rising from sea-level to 2,000 feet in
height ; at the rear of that plateau 100 miles in width varying from 2,000 to 3,000
feet in height, with mountain masses up to as much as (in the southern extremity)
7,000 feet, and westward of that a more or less gentle western slope to interior
plain country. As the result of the attraction of the central elevated mass and
of the defect of gravity of the adjacent ocean it would appear that along the
coast there is a general eastward deflection of the zenith of about 10/ with a
corresponding westward deflection on the western slopes ranging up to as much
as 17’, but gradually diminishing as the flat country is reached. In 1898 a
general reduction of the data then available was made for the purpose of obtain-
ing an idea how far there was conformity between the actual surface and the
assumed spheroid, but the survey was then too much limited to the eastern
slopes to afford satisfactory evidence. With the subsequent extensions of the
survey, however, a much more useful discussion of the subject is within reach,
and it was hoped that by now bases of’ verification on the outskirts of the work
would have been measured, when it would have been possible to reduce the
whole work with the object of enabling such a discussion to be made.

2. The Sand-Drift Problem on the Eastern Coast of Australia. By
G. H. Hauniaan, F.G.S., Inspecting Engineer and Hydrographer,
N.S.W.

The scientific, as well as the commercial, importance of a full knowledge
of the direction, volume, and velocity of the movement of sand on the eastern
coast of this continent is sufficient warrant for the labour and cost expended
upon it by the author during the last thirty years.

There is undoubted evidence of the sinking of the eastern coast of Australia
during recent geological time to the extent of 200 to 300 feet, and the natural
result was to leave a very uneven shore-line, with many outlying islands, deep
bays, and rocky capes. Had there been no ocean current, running parallel
to the general trend of the shore, the sand and shingle, resulting from the

GG2

452 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E,

disintegration of the land by chemical, meteorological, and mechanical means
would, of course, have been distributed by tides and waves, and would have
formed sandy beaches in the immediate vicinity of their origin. The form of
the beaches in the neighbourhood of granite, basalt, shale, or sandstone would
have been readily recognisable; but such conditions do not exist, and the
author endeavours to show that the resultant outlines could not assume the
contour of the present shore-line, but are the natural consequence of a con-
tinuous travel of beach material in one direction.

The Eastern Australian current, which first strikes the Australian coast
between Hervey Bay and Moreton Bay, has a velocity of from one to two
knots, with very little seasonal variation. Some of the salient points on the
coast tend to produce eddies, which have the effect of changing the outline of
the sandy foreshore and diverting the course of the rivers, but, in the main, the
direction of sand-movement below high water must, in consequence of this
current, be from north to south.

The effect of the travelling sand impinging upon the islands and reefs, and
its accumulation in the form of banner-reefs, hooks, and tongues, &c., are
described, and the result shown on the accompanying map. The map shows
the boundary of the old rocky coast at the time the last subsidence of from
200 to 300 feet took place, and its relation to the existing foreshore. The
intervening space is partly or entirely filled with sand of marine origin,
although covered in places with several feet of humus, which forms some of
the richest land of our coastal area.

On certain parts of the coast the sandy beaches take the form of the Greek
letter ‘Zeta,’ the resemblance becoming less as the speed of the current
decreases.

The significance of this ‘Zeta’ curve, in its relation to harbour engineering,
has been referred to by the author in another paper, as also the necessity for
differentiation between ocean and tidal currents as they affect sand-movement at
river and harbour entrances. ;

The volume of sand travelling down the coast has been computed from
measurements made at the Clarence River entrance and at Port Kembla, and
the effect of varying weather conditions upon the movement is referred to.

Some measurements of the sizes of the sand-grains and their geological
origin are given, for the purpose of supplying data for comparison with similar
areas in other parts of the world.

3. Central Australia and its Possibilities. By W. 1. Trerkens.

That part of Australia to which reference was made lies for the most part
between the parallels of 24 deg. 20 min, and 30 deg. 35 min. South Latitude, and
between 123 deg. and 133 deg. East Longitude, embracing an area of about
378,000 square miles, considerably greater than the area of New South Wales.
This immense area may be described as a sandy depression, in places perhaps
not much above sea-level, where the sand-hills or sand-dunes in some instances
may be 100 feet high, and it has been called the ‘Dead Heart of Australia.’

So much has been done in reclaiming these so-called desert tracts in other
countries that it would be well to turn our attention to the enormous area at
our door. These sand-hills occur in confused groupings, also in nearly parallel
ridges, but these will not be found to prevail west of 127 deg. East Longitude.
West of that meridian, with few exceptions, the country is more level—soil firm
and hard loam, nodules of iron-stained gravel, robust vegetation, spinifex,
mulga, desert oak, and other Casuarina. The object is to point. out from
personal knowledge where such schemes of irrigation can be best effected, and
which, if carried out, will in time develop and make profitable that which has
hitherto been regarded as a desert waste.

Possibilities are suggested from the fact that native wells are sometimes the
remains of mound springs. These springs, we learn, are the natural outlet of
artesian waters, and from that it would seem that the artesian basin may here
be nearer the surface than has hitherto been observed in Australia.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 458

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

PRESIDENT OF THE SecTion.—Professor EK. C. K. Gonner, M.A.

MELBOURNE.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 14.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Tux subject which I wish to discuss to-day has been determined for me by the
circumstances of the present meeting of the British Association and by the trend
of modern economic study and research. We are meeting for the first time here
gathered together from distant and diverse parts of the world, and in this
Section at any rate we shall be discussing problems similar in certain respects in
our various countries but unlike in other respects owing to the differences between
those countries. It is a fortunate circumstance, because it is largely by means of
an interchange of views and experience acquired in such different environments
that true knowledge can be surely attained. On the other hand, it can be said, I
think, without any exaggeration that of the economic studies of the last twenty
years none have been more fruitful in result than those which have dealt with
economic development as it has taken place in the past and as it is taking place
in the present. Economic laws, which, after all, are but generalisations of the
relations between different factors or of the relations which exist between
certain causes and certain consequences, are studied increasingly in connection
with particular periods, movements, and countries. New forces and new
features present themselves, and with their introduction we perceive a change in
results. This at once teaches the relativity of many economic maxims and
statements and disproves the assumption, which at times some have been prone
to make, that all nations and all countries undergo a-uniform process of develop-
ment and respond in a uniform way to any given action or policy. It throws
some light, too, upon the nature of these laws. Economic !aws are not invali-
dated because conclusions alter as premises alter. But, on the other hand, such
changes necessarily bring with them alterations in the rules laid down for
practical guidance.

We come then to consider the particular economic features which characterise
countries passing through the early stages of economic evolution during modern
or recent times. Such countries, it need hardly be said, stand in a marked con-
trast to the older countries which surround and confront them and which have
all already passed into further and more advanced stages. They differ also in
their economic circumstances—and this is what needs special emphasis—from
those same countries when in the primary stage of growth in the past.

But to bring the matter within the limits of an address it is necessary at the
very outset to define a little carefully the scope of the investigation. New
countries differ greatly among themselves. Speaking broadly, they fall into three
chief groups. There are tropical countries unfitted for white settlement and
marked out by their characteristics for a very specialised development. Again,
there are countries like some of the States of South America where, owing to
particular features attending settlement, or to climatic and other causes, a
growth at all comparable to that which has taken place in Western Kurope is

454: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

retarded if ever practicable. Lastly, we come to lands like Canada and Australia,
and with these may be included the United States, where considerable similarity
to the older countries exists alike in antecedents, circumstances, and prospects,
though in each case there are undoubted and specific economic differences. 1
purpose, therefore, while not wholly excluding from our survey countries of the
two former types, to direct your attention in the main to the last-mentioned type,
in the hope that by an examination so defined, and a contrast of countries of
this order with the old European nations, some light may be thrown on the
causes underlying the more striking dissimilarities in development.

Before, however, the economic features and differences distinctive of new
countries are dealt with, it may be well to say a word or two as to the general
course of early economic growth in England and other European countries.
Three features call for particular mention. In their early stages these latter
countries were free from any continuous external contact and interference; their
relations with each other and the outer world were slight, or at any rate not
such as to fundamentally determine the direction and nature of their develop-
ment; they had to meet their own wants and to do this by means of their own
resources. Secondly, during this period the nation itself was composed of small
and almost self-subsistent and self-contained groups. Lastly, economic methods,
social ties, and intellectual attainments were on the same plane, being simple
and, as we now should say, backward or primitive.

When we turn, however, to the position of new or young countries either at
the present day or during recent years, we are met at once by features which
stand out in significant contrast to those sketched above. Not only are such
countries in the early period of evolution, but they are in continuous contact with
other countries, and, moreover, with other countries which are in a very different
stage of development. Again, they are young countries, in some instances
inhabited largely or wholly by people, in other cases guided and controlled by
leaders, modern in every respect and sharing to the full in the science, know-
ledge, and ideas dominating the older countries. Furthermore, both their social
and their political features are modern; on the one hand, these are not of the
type which in the past were associated with the early stage of growth; on the
other hand, the countries themselves are much less affected than are older
countries at the present day by traditions and customs which, despite their origin
in the circumstances of bygone days, still continue to influence the life of the
present. In other words, they are less helped or less hindered by habits of long
formation. But these somewhat general considerations are but preliminary to a
closer and more careful analysis of the particular economic conditions which beset
countries now in the early years of growth.

Firstly, such countries, even in the earliest stage, are unavoidably in close
relations with countries which have attained a more elaborate growth and
organisation : communication renders isolation impracticable, and every year the
means of communication increase. It is a question, not of intentional interfer-
ence, but of that inevitable influence which nations in close relations bring to bear
upon each other. Nor is it a question of one-sided influence. Older nations
have been and are affected in their economic policy and organisation by the
discovery and opening up of new lands and by the events taking place in them.
Still, it is probable that the influence of the older-established world is more
powerful, so far at any rate as the direction of economic progress is concerned.
Be this, however, as it may, it is this aspect which occupies our attention at the
present moment. The effect is particularly apparent in trade and industry.
Needs, in other words, are not dependent for their specific satisfaction on the
internal resources and productive activities of the particular land, and this,
while important in all instances, is of great moment in the case of a country
which, as yet without opportunity to develop its powers, is seeking, as it were
tentatively, the best lines of advance. It is peculiarly open to influences of this
kind, because its organisation is not firmly established. When the social struc-
ture is less complete and the direction of development uncertain, the risk of
future and permanent advantages being outweighed by present gain is enhanced.

Secondly, in the opening up of resources, the former dependence on the
internal powers of the country has been essentially modified. Both capital and
labour can be obtained from outside. This, of course, quickens development ;

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 455

but at the same time it may affect its direction. Certainly it introduces many
fresh problems; and sometimes these are very difficult problems. Taken as a
whole, it leads to a very rapid or sudden development, an aspect of peculiar
importance where what we call native races are concerned. Quite apart from
certain evils often associated with such alien intrusion or dominance, and apart
too from the shock occasioned by the introduction of foreign standards and
customs alongside of or in substitution for old usages, such people often have
manifested an inability to stand the mere pace of modern progress. Even when
we come to white races, the results of the rapid progress which occurs when
natural resources are rich are open to adverse criticism. Again, it may lead to
too great a concentration on particular methods of production and particular
occupations, to the exclusion it may be of other methods and occupations which
ultimately may be more advantageous. Again, stable customs and social ties
are more difficult to form when industrial development is hurried. In addition
to these, other special difficulties manifest themselves in the respective cases
of alien capital and alien labour in new countries. So far as capital is concerned,
the case varies according as the introduction of foreign capital is or is not accom-
panied by the introduction of those who control the employment of the capital,
and so the industries in which such capital is used. Even when alone an interest
on the part of outside nations is often awakened which is not wholly healthy,
extending sometimes to attempted political influence, though this, it should
he said, is not of frequent occurrence except in the case of countries largely
native or semi-native or occupying a very backward position in the scale of
civilisation. Sometimes, too, it may occasion the premature exhaustion of
particular sources of wealth, or at any rate rather in the interests of foreign
capitalists than of the inhabitants themselves. But in the case of the more
backward countries, and especially of countries where climatic conditions preclude
a white population occupied in manual work, it has usually meant the intro-
duction of a class, controlling capital and organising industry, and yet entirely
alien to the main body of inhabitants. Such a situation undoubtedly imposes
a great responsibility on those in whose hands lies the social and political govern-
ment of ie country, a responsibility still greater when the organising class
does not settle down, but comes and goes in a_ bewildering proces-
sion. British India and the Dutch Indies furnish illustrations; and, to some
extent, the effect of such a tendency is to be perceived in certain parts of South
America. Nor is the immigration of labour from other countries Jess complex
or less potent in its results. Such labour comes from many sources and varies
ereatly in kind. A clear distinction, however, must be drawn between white
labour not essentially different from the existing white population and
more or less skilled or otherwise adapted to good manual work, and, on the other
hand, labour of a lower type, often racially distinct and in some cases brought in
owing to its climatic suitability. So far as the former is concerned, immigration
as a rule is attended with few difficulties other than those of a simple economic
character and more or less temporary in their nature. A ready means of stimu-
lating industrial development is provided, and the country is supplied with
skilled adults without the cost of education and upbringing. But the results of
immigration of the second type of labour are less simple. The general question
of immigration, indeed, may be looked at from three points of view. From
the aspect of economic employment, immigration often involves immediate com-
petition with the labour already in the country or coming forward with the
normal increase in the population. But in a new and progressive country with
many openings for new developments such competition is seldom harmful. In
the long run the labour creates its own field of employment and contributes
towards the general progress. At times, it is true, the supply may be in excess of
the demand, and any particular kind of labour may continue to stream in long
after the need for it has ceased. But this can be remedied best by the wider
diffusion of accurate knowledge as to the conditions and necessities of the place
in question. Positive restriction, if attempted, may do harm by obstructing
supplies of labour when needed in the future. When, however, economic
standards of living are considered, the kind or type of labour in question is all-
important. Ordinary white labour entering a country already peopled with white
men offers little difficulty. But nearly all nations have encountered difficulties -

456 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION PF,

when any considerable immigration of labour occurs from countries where the
standard of living is essentially and, as it were, permanently lower, and these are
rendered graver when accentuated by difference of race. In old and new
countries alike the entry of a low type of foreign white labour may bring about a
lowering of the general standard in certain industries or certain places, with
harm, not necessarily limited to the district or employment in which it settles.
Still, apart from the more general considerations of policy, interference would
probably involve restriction of the more desirable type of labour already dealt
with and thus be economically disadvantageous. The case of coloured labour
is admittedly different even in this respect. Standards vary and the racial
barrier seems to prevent their speedy adjustment. But the difficulties of the
whole matter are shown more clearly if we turn to consider immigration in its
relation to general social progress and political government. Here the main
point is the possibility of assimilation. How far or how easily, it is asked, can
such new elements be absorbed into the general life and made an integral part of
a homogeneous population? Now, it is not my business to discuss the question
in detail, still less to examine any particular policy which may be advocated or
which may have been adopted. All that is necessary is to note this difficulty and
to emphasise its existence in the case of new countries and especially of those
countries or places where labour of this type is required or attracted by reason of
climate or other like causes. Two considerations may come into sharp conflict :
on the one hand, the rapid production of wealth may be assisted; on the other
hand, serious effects in respect of economic progress, nationality, and orderly
growth may be experienced.

In no country, it should be added, has the question of the supply of labour
from outside played a more important part in economic history than in
Australia. During the early period not only was it one of the influences which
tended to the continuance of the transportation system, but it was, if not the
chief, one of the two chief factors in the policy of colonisation and settlement
devised and advocated by that very distinguished man, Edward Gibbon
Wakefield. In more recent years it has been associated with state assistance,
and also with forms of indentured labour. And it remains one of the problems
before the country.

Thirdly, modern methods and modern science are applied to production even
in its early phases, to agriculture and the extractive industries as well as in
trade and manufacture. The consequences are both many and great. Rapid
and sudden growth is rendered possible, but this, as already indicated, results
in consequences not always or wholly advantageous. Such effects are the more
evident when the natural resources of the country are rich. Furthermore, when
such occurs there is an invariable tendency to substitute large-scale systems of
production for the small-scale systems characteristic of production in the past
when in an early stage, and this is not without significance both economic and
political. No doubt this is of greater moment when a development of this
order takes place in a land peopled by native races, who are forced, as it were,
into a system wholly alien to their social surroundings, and one which they fail
to understand. There is a disastrous incongruity between their method of
employment and their social environment. ‘Though of less it is still of some
importance when the population itself is modern in civilisation and outlook.
To some extent, but only partially, they inherit from their ancestors in other
lands the lessons slowly acquired in the time of small industry and occupation,
On the other hand, there can be no doubt that the more rapid progress due to
the reasons given, accompanied as it is by greater vicissitudes, offers a more
general opportunity of success to those willing to work hard than is possible in
other countries. Rapid progress always tends towards this end, and it does so
the more especially when the organisation is more flexible and less marked by
custom. Not only is the field itself wider, but the changes in the field are more
frequent. : : : :

The difference in economic development, thus briefly depicted, implies, it
must be remembered, a somewhat parallel difference in administrative and
political life. If we take such a country as England, small-scale production
was part and parcel of a system in which small local communities grew up

. practically self-contained and self-governed. Thus the strength of the Govern-
ment rested largely on local administration which made its influence felt in the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 457

general and central administration. But in a young country developing under
modern conditions the system of local administration is consciously devised.
It rather derives its existence from the central Government than furnishes the
material out of which this latter is gradually evolved.

Fourthly, a modern new country has before it the example of older countries
which, after passing through the phase in which it is, have developed the more
complex economic system towards which it is tending. Their conditions and
institutions record the results of forces which, though nascent in it, are
yet in operation. It may have something to imitate, it certainly will see much
to avoid. This is true from many points of view. It is true in a technical
sense. Everyone knows the importance of ruthlessly scrapping plant; but there
are parts of the national plant, as it were, whicli cannot be scrapped. Though
neither the English railways nor the English canals if laid out’ anew would be
constructed on their present lines, they are too elaborate and costly to be
destroyed and reconstructed. It is equally, if not more, true when we consider
the industrial system in its more general aspects. In this instance we know that
Germany, to take an instance, enjoyed one advantage because her development
followed, and was not contemporary with, industrial development in England.
Perhaps it is truest*of all in respect of the social consequences of industrial
development. Take, for example, the large cities and manufacturing districts
in the old countries with all their social problems; housing, sanitary, and
social. A country in the early stages is in this truly-advantageous position
that action in its case means prevision and not reform. Hence the crucial
importance at the present time, in such a country as this, of the Town Planning
movement. Again, there has occurred, in those lands in which manufacture
has made its greatest strides, a gradual exodug from the rural districts, partly
no doubt because of the larger wages to be obtained in the towns and industrial
districts, but partly owing to a past, if not present, disregard of agricultural
interests, and to the comparative lack of attraction in the country. It may be
looking ahead to suggest that such may affect a country like Australia; but
time brings many changes. In any case the time to provide against a movement
such as this is not when it has acquired force, but when agriculture is pros-
perous and before town life has begun to exert its curious lure on the
population.

Fifthly, older nations became critical and self-conscious at a comparatively
late stage in their history; that is, after customs had been formed and structure
had lost its former flexibility. In such cases remedial movements and changes,
however wisely initiated, encounter a natural and quite comprehensible conser-
vative opposition. Whatever their possible gain, in the progress towards this
destruction is involved. Nor is it incorrect to conclude that in many instances
the immediate and certain losses rightly outweigh the problematic if ultimate
advantages. Far otherwise is the case in a new country where the period of self-
consciousness begins with the early days of growth, and conscious action towards
a given goal has an easier path and suffers less from the knowledge that it
must destroy in order to achieve. Even if social experiments fail, in such
countries they cost less than they would in countries more stable and more
firmly based in habit and tradition. Of course, there is loss as well as gain in
this. In the one type of country there is greater stability, in the other greater
confidence or courage in novel directions.

Lastly, and following to some measure on what has just been said, we have
to take into account the smaller part played by social conventions in the
economic life of new countries. In older countries, primary development took
place under conditions as to social life and order not. due wholly to economic
causes, but often arising from reasons which existed outside that domain. Social
position, accepted without question, and forces like caste, rather indicated what
various classes were to do than grew out of the necessities or nature of their
respective occupations. _ No doubt some correspondence was required, since
regulations unsuited to progress led to the supersession of the races less apt to
meet the needs of the time, and so the usages which survived bore the stamp
of economic fitness. Still, in the main, economic activities rather followed than
created class divisions. But the economic situation changed, and thus in later
years we have the curious spectacle of distinctions which have survived from
the past and with time lost much of their meaning, lingering on side by side

458 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.,

with class distinctions resting wholly on economic success. In a new country
not only are traditions weaker, but from the beginning economic success plays
a larger part. Thus, social prejudices as to the standing or respectability of
varying occupations are less strong. Again, owing in part to circumstances of
this order, work of some kind is to a larger extent the normal lot of all, a
feature which cannot but play a great part in the development of the country.
The existence of even a small idle class is anomalous. On the other hand, there
is the inevitable drawback that material success, or, to put the matter bluntly,
wealth, has less to counterbalance it than in lands where traditional position
still holds a place. It is quite true that in England the same or a like tendency
has been marked in recent years. No doubt, too, this danger, and it is a very
real danger, is best met by the erection of finer ideals and loftier standards of
conduct and attainment than are furnished by considerations of birth and
traditional position ; but meantime, and pending their growth, the latter, at any
rate in old countries, does something to lessen the importance and influence
attached to wealth as a thing in itself. Even in new lands, such as the United
States, and no doubt to some extent in Australia, they are not without a certain
influence, but they are in an alien atmosphere. Hence the particular importance
of the creation of a real standard of culture and personal excellence.

Hitherto it has been my task to state and describe the chief economic
particulars with regard to which countries of various types differ. It is now
necessary to examine these in other ways and especially as to the influence
which taken together they exert upon the economic progress of what we have
called new countries. To do this at all fruitfully necessitates their consideration
with regard to three matters—namely, the direction of economic development,
the industrial organisation, and, lastly, the national life and character.

The first question to put, then, is the special effect of these factors upon the
economic occupations and interests of such countries. The natural answer which
will occur to any economist is that countries in close contact and engaged in
trade tend to develop those industries and occupations in which,as compared with
others, they enjoy special advantages or stand at the least disadvantage. Such a
distinction or division of industries, of course, exists between foreign nations
and is the basis of the theory of international trade. But in the case of young
countries its features and consequences are accentuated and bear a particular
significance: with them it means that almost inevitably and before manu-
factures have been initiated, let alone developed, they will enter upon a course
complementary, as it were, to the occupations embraced in older countries and
corresponding to the needs of such countries, the direction of their growth
being determined by the interaction of external needs and their own natural
wealth. This is in the main the so-called ‘ infant industries’ argument; but it
is important to observe in detail the many causes which make up the strength
of this when applied to the case of young industries in a new country. The
circumstances of such countries usually offer peculiar advantages in some one or
other branch of agriculture, sometimes, too, in mining. If the case of agri-
culture be taken, such countries possess, as compared with older countries,
abundance of land in proportion to population, while in addition the soil is
new and often rich. The truth of this may be seen by a reference to Australia,
Canada, the United States, Chile, and the Argentine. In all these, the agri-
cultural advantages, and in some those connected with mining, are great.
Consequently foreign capital is attracted into these directions and suitable
foreign labour is needed and obtained. Sometimes in the case of settlers the two
come together. The great strength of agriculture in these instances lies in the
application of modern scientific methods of farming and the use of machinery
where land is plentiful. On the other hand, new countries are unfavourably
situated for the prosecution of manufacture. Not only would they encounter
the competition of manufactures already long established, highly organised,
and victorious over the initial difficulties involved in such a development, but
they are lacking in two great requisites. They lack a population trained to
manufacture and with some degree of that acquired skill which is
attained from an industrial environment. Further, manufactures depend to a
great extent on the degree of general organisation in the country as a whole,
which includes, not merely skill, but the development of those conditions and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 459

means which are necessary to highly skilled industries, providing it with ready
carriage, organised markets, and credit. Such a system is only evolved slowly,
and in its absence, or while it is weak, the struggle for success is necessarily
severe. Under such circumstances the line of least resistance is obvious and
the forces of individual action and of competition drive a new country
into this direction. At this date it is fortunately necessary to deal only with
the normal forces which bring about what has been called a complementary
development in new countries. Still, it must be remembered that from time
to time suggestions have been made which are, to say the least, reminiscent of
the ideas underlying the old ‘colonial system,’ which sought by political
measures to compel colonies to develop along these lines, that is, so far as the
circumstances of the time in respect of locomotion and carriage allowed.

The errors of the old ‘ colonial’ policy may seem evident to us, but if so, it
is because they were emphasised in its disastrous consequences.

When scientific colonisation came into debate, with the nineteenth century,
there was no thought of attempting any revival of the system just alluded to.
On the contrary, one of the first subjects to attract attention was the possible
undesirability of too one-sided a development. This was looking at the matter
from the point of view of the new country itself. To some writers greater
variety of occupation appeared advantageous, and with this end in view schemes
were propounded for the establishment of town-settlements and other forms of
industrial development.

Both old and new countries may be said to suffer under disadvantages in this
respect, but the disadvantages point in different directions. The maintenance
and extension of rural life is demanded in England. for instance, whereas in new
lands the demand has been expressed for the encouragement of manufacture.
Alike from the economic as from the more general point of view, the development
side by side of activities so different in their direction, and so admirably fitted to
supplement each other in their influence on national life, may seem desirable.
In a community, as in an individual, many elements are required, and these,
it may be contended, can be permanently secured only by a variety of occupations
and interests. Though this is a matter for argument, here it is sufficient to
observe that the question exists and that with it is raised the advisability or
inadvisability of state action to prevent too great a concentration in one direc-
tion and to foster other occupations which, however great their success may
be when well established, have little or no chance of surmounting the difficulties
attending them in the earlier stages.

When we turn to industrial organisation and especially to the question of
the relations of labour and capital, certain matters may be briefly mentioned
and then dismissed. In some new countries foreign capitalistic interests pre-
dominate and introduce difficulties partly economic and partly political in
character. Again, the entry of low-grade labour and particularly of coloured
labour creates the peculiar dangers which attend a rigid and especially a racial
separation between different economic classes. Here again the problems are
partly economic and partly political. But these, though undoubtedly grave
matters, are somewhat special and by no means universal in new countries.
It is more important, then, to consider how far the general problem of the
relations between capital and labour is likely to be affected by the particular
characteristics which have passed under review.

A greater emphasis on the rights and claims of labour is only to be expected,
and is due to various causes. Certain of these are particularly important.
There is a smaller body of labour in a position of personal dependence, a factor
greatly accentuated by the opportunities of change which present themselves.
So there is a greater independence of attitude. Again, work and economic
occupation play a very large part in the general life of the country. When
such is the case, public attention, and so general interest, are attracted to the
conditions and the remuneration of labour. This attitude should be carefully
distinguished from that due to the human sympathies awakened by the spectacle
of distress and misery. It shows itself less in attempts to alleviate personal
suffering and more in the determination to secure for labour what is considered
to be its rightful position. Justice rather than mercy is its characteristic.
On the other side, there is no great mass of inherited traditions. It was

460 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

explained before that social or class traditions are derived, at any rate in
part, from a time when position was due less to economic reasons than to
causes inherent in the structure of society. These remain on in a changed
economic environment, with the result that certain grades in the economic
hierarchy tend to become the partial monopoly of particular classes. Hence
a separation and a tacit opposition between certain classes with their economic
development and other classes. Countries which have escaped the earlier stage
are less affected by considerations of this kind. Furthermore, the present
industrial condition of older nations is not without effect as an example. The
public evils of low-paid labour brought up in bad surroundings are an illustra-
tion of what is to be avoided. It is correctly seen that it is easier to anticipate
such consequences by avoiding the conditions which lead to them’ than to
remedy them when produced.

There is another circumstance which, though by no means universal in new
countries, tends in the same direction. The effect of different systems of land-
ownership and occupation upon the position of labour calls for attention in
countries of all descriptions. Speaking generally, it may be said that free
access to the land and the existence of small ownership, or to a less degree
of other means of small cultivation, add to the freedom and increase the
independence of those employed, not only on the land but in all occupations.
In this respect there is no doubt much difference between countries of the kind
under discussion. Stiil, on the whole, the greater abundance of land as com-
pared with population and the recentness of land legislation offer in such
countries a wider and a better alternative to industrial and other wage-paid
employments than exists in several of the older and more settled nations, and
hence increases the independence of the ciasses concerned,

On the other hand, certain of the circumstances which give strength to this
movement on the part of labour affect in a marked way its nature and its
course. Better opportunity and less rigid separation between industrial classes
will bring with them in the long run a sound appreciation of the many and
various factors which combine in economic development. The tardy rise into
prominence and power of the labour movement at a late date in the develop-
ment of old nations involves one very real danger which new countries have,
at any rate, the opportunity of escaping. With the existence of a marked
separation between the various industrial classes, attended as that is by features
of distress and less relieved than in new countries by equality of opportunity,
it is difficult to secure an equable and unembittered consideration of the economic
importance either of capital or of the skill which directs, controls, ventures,
and organises. The hardships and inequalities obvious in the system, when
coupled with the long existence and apparent permanence of the industries, lead
not unnaturally to an under-estimate of these as factors and to a keen feeling
that the one thing necessary is a new distribution of the national wealth.
In these respects new countries have initial advantages. Their greater vigour
begets a pride in the progress of the community and in the industries and occu-
pations which embody and signalise that progress ; while more widespread oppor-
tunity, and the sense of being at the beginning of things, should make them
conscious that it is their task to devise a system both equable and commercially
progressive. Still it is one thing to have an opportunity and another to utilise
it well.

There are, it is true, certain circumstances which for a time may obscure
or even hold in abeyance this very necessary endeavour. When rich resources
are being rapidly opened up and when prosperous undertakings press one upon
another, people are too busy and too well-off to pay attention to economic
problems, despite the future importance of their solution. The return to the
various factors, both capital and labour, is nigh, and there is little complaint
as to lack of opportunity. It is largely due to this that, even amongst new
countries, the part played by the forces of labour, and the claims made on its
behalf, vary so much. Again, no doubt, the political machinery has a great
influence. A country where the professional politician rules, or where the
oa exerts its sway, is little likely to develop a sane and well-timed industrial
policy.

The effect of economic conditions on national life and standards is a subject

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 461

which merits much attention, but here 1 must confine myself to distinguishing
certain results or particular economic features which characterise one type of
country. Some of these, indeed, despite their importance, must be treated
very briefly. Thus, for instance, the effect of a rather one-sided economic
development, already treated of in another connection, has a bearing on the
present matter. Again, the difficulties which some new countries have experi-
enced, in respect of the immigration of a particular type of labour, are
undoubtedly attended by social and political risks. No nation can view with
equanimity the steady increase of an element in the population which stands
out apart and distinct from the nation and can neither assimilate national
characteristics nor be absorbed into the national life. Remedy may be difficult,
but such a situation is undoubtedly disquieting. But if we leave these, as
matters already dealt with, there are four matters which call for attention. In
the first place, the circumstances of a new country, if that country be at all
prosperous, naturally engender self-reliance and vigour. The openness of out-
look, and the obviousness of the progress achieved, make for assurance and
hopetulness. -Even if vicissitudes be frequent, and men lose as well as gain
and fall as well as rise, we only come to Adam Smith’s position when he attri-
buted the stimulating effect of great prizes in any occupation or calling to the
innate sanguineness of human nature, which leads each man to believe in his
own prospects of success, whatever may be the fate of average mankind. And
where the examples of success are many, this individual hopefulness is much
strengthened. So, too, the greater diffusion of opportunity plays a part.
What is characteristic of the individual is characteristic of the race. Of course,
there are some new countries where a lack of rich resources precludes any such
feeling, and in any country there must occur from time to time periods of
depression, perhaps the more acute because of their vivid contrast with the
sanguine past. But, taken as a whole, undoubtedly in new countries, where
development is in active progress, there is greater vigour, greater assurance,
perhaps greater self-assertion, than in other lands where development has gone
further and where the prospect lying before the race as well as the individual
is bounded by what seems to be a nearer and a more defined horizon. In the
second place, as work is the common lot, there is less division between calling
and calling and more tendency to judge a man by what he has done in his
occupation, whatever that may be. A factor like this is far-reaching in its
influence aud reveals itself in many directions. It makes for solidarity, as well
by creating a community of interest as by destroying prejudices. It furnishes
a common test whereby pretensions and claims for consideration can be tried ;
and, though the measure may be imperfect, the test of actuality, after all, has
the merit of being definite. In the third place, in such communities material
things and material interests necessarily loom large. This points to a weak
feature in this phase of development which is emphasised by the
circumstances of a country striving to make good its place amongst older
nations. The very pressure of their demands and their competition add to its
prominence. Success means material prosperity. There can be little doubt
that this is one of the dangers against which a community of this type has to
strive. Such a country is, by the very nature of things, face to face with
material difficulties and its victory rests on material achievements. Even
the democratic test, alluded to above, of actual work and achievement
operates in the same direction. In the last place, the very freedom from
class prejudice is in part due to a general absence of custom and tradi-
tion which has an unfavourable as well as a favourable side. From a social
point of view, custom is an invaluable tie, welding into union a large
body of individuals with every variety of aim and very different views and
opinions. It gives a permanence and stability to social life. No doubt, each
country has to form its own habits, but till these are formed the social
structure is weak. As an illustration, a comparison may be made between
legislation in a new and in an old country. In the latter, legislation is largely
a gradual development of custom, and as a consequence the course of legisla-
tion is slow, often injuriously slow; the delay in some cases being due to an
unfair regard for vested rights; but the main reason is the latent dislike to
any violent breach with the past and to departures from custom. On the other

462 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

hand, legislation in a new country is much more conscious. Not only are
there fewer customary bonds, but there is less regard for those which there
are. I do not wish to pronounce any opinion as to the net advantages of one
method or the other. The point to be emphasised is the existence of a
difference in this as in many other respects.

To what, it may be asked, does the examination summarised under the fore-
going headings point? In the first place, it gives some grounds for and explains
the nature of public action as it has manifested itself in these countries. Now,
an active state policy in social and economic matters may be due to many
reasons. It may arise from an imperfect individual development, or, again,
from what seems at first sight nearly the same thing but is really quite different
—the existence of a highly organised and peculiarly efficient bureaucracy. But
neither of these is true of the principal countries under consideration; in the
United States, Canada, and Australasia, individuality is a very vital force, and
the tendency of government cannot be termed unduly bureaucratic. The latter
point may be illustrated by a comparison with modern Germany, which has been
influenced so greatly by the system of bureaucratic administration built up by
Stein and his successors. Of course, good officials can always achieve a great
deal, but it is one thing to use officials and the official system as instruments
to give effect to a policy, and another to take a policy from them. It must not
be supposed, however, that democratic countries are altogether free from this
latter danger. They are liable to it, unless means be adopted to keep the people
as a whole in immediate contact with problems of government and to give them
opportunities of co-operating in some way or other in public administration.
But to return to the main point. State activity in these countries seems to me
due to quite other causes; on the one hand, the occasions for it are more
numerous and the opportunities for it great; on the other hand, not only is there
a natural predisposition in its favour, but many of the objections present in
older countries are absent. But both these matters require explanation. With
regard to the occasions for state action, economists, differ though they may on
the question of its abstract desirability, will agree, I imagine, that in propor-
tion as these are multiplied the tendency towards such action will increase. If
we turn to what has already been said, it is clear beyond doubt that an unusual
opening for such action is afforded in the circumstances enumerated. Thus the
case of young industries in a new country has been admitted fairly generally to
afford an argument for protection specifically different from those adduced in
other instances. It is not merely the case of young industries, but, to repeat my
words, of young industries in a new country. Again, the regulation of immi-
gration is presented in a very particular form. Whatever may be thought of
any particular policy of restriction—and everyone is aware that there are many
and varying considerations to take into account—a country deriving a large
part of its labour-supply from outside will naturally claim to exercise a super-
vision over the nature of that supply not less than it exerts by education and
other means over the labour supplied and trained within its confines. Again,
in a country developing its resources and its latent natural wealth, and under
considerable and inevitable pressure to move rapidly, a large field for State
action opens out. But in addition State action in the circumstances of a new
country is advantageously placed, inasmuch as it takes place early, when there
is little to upset, and when action of any kind and by any body is most likely
to achieve really tangible results. In other words, not only are the occasions
many, but the opportunity for effective action is favourable. Furthermore, the
exploitation of resources, hitherto untouched, by modern and scientific methods
puts a powerful instrument at the disposal of the Government which was wholly
wanting in former days, while, on the other hand, the knowledge of the results
which have ensued in other lands from uncontrolled individual competition indi-
cates the direction which action should take. To this are due the attempts
made in some, at least, of these countries to regulate the relations of capital
and labour. Certainly, in matters of this kind, those communities have initial
advantages, when measures are undertaken in a comparatively early stage of
growth—hbefore, that is, industries have assumed the intricate form usual in
old lands. Nor does this exhaust the situation. A new country is inclined to
novel methods of action, as is shown by the general favour with which fresh
expedients are received. While a tendency like this is due in part to the innate

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 463

vigour of the people themselves, there are other causes which lend it strength :
in the present instance, there is, on the one hand, the feeling that they can
afford the experiment; on the other, the resolve to avoid, though the cost may
be considerable and the risk great, the difficulties and dangers with which older
nations are confronted. Even if the whole course is not clear, they would fain
steer clear of the rocks and shoals which are charted.

Influences like these imply experimental legislation. Now, in a sense, most
economic legislation is experimental; unforeseen results occur, and alteration,
amendment, or repeal is required; but the extent to which it is experimental is
certainly greater when we turn from the record of the past to the recent efforts
of new communities. Reasons for this have been adduced, which may be briefly
summarised, though in a somewhat different form. As compared with con-
temporary nations of a more complex type, new nations are more prone to
engage in experimental legislation for three reasons: firstly, because things are
simpler, and in a less highly organised society there is less prospect of inter-
- fering with a system which after all works, even if not to complete satisfaction ;
secondly, the consciousness of latent resources creates a greater readiness to take
risks, owing to the general feeling that they can be afforded; and lastly, it is
recognised that industrial civilisation carries in its train certain dangers which
can be more easily anticipated than remedied. The case is a little different when
the comparison is instituted with countries in the primary phase of economic life
in the more remote past. Here the predominant reasons are also three. There
is greater self-consciousness accompanied by a knowledge of possibilities and
risks. Again, in the modern country, law is to a greater extent a conscious
act and to a less extent a crystallisation of custom. Lastly, the movement of
economic life and the greater rapidity of progress make other and further
changes sometimes actually necessary and always less an occasion for hesitation
or anxiety.

Still, a people encountering changes so rapid and sudden, and engaged in
legislation experimental to such an extent, should look carefully to their armoury.
Action or legislation in the economic and industrial domain, to be sound and
effective, must observe certain conditions. The action of the State varies
in its consequences with the relations between the people and the Government.
A State which imposes law or exercises control as it were from the outside,
acting autocratically or without any real identification of the private with the
public will, encounters certain dangers. The essence of law lies in its ready
acceptance, and this is peculiarly true of laws in the economic sphere which
touch the social and home life and activities of the people. Now, any real
feeling of community of interest between the people and the executive implies
much more than mere popular election on however democratic a basis. It means
a sense of participation in the acts of the executive, and involves a recognition
of obligations as well as rights. To some extent, no doubt, this is furnished
by high ideals in public life, but probably its surest basis lies in the partici-
pation by individuals in some form of public administrative action. The saying
that the strength of England lay in its local institutions means even more than
was intended at the time. Voluntary service in local government is to be
valued not only for what it achieves, but because it quickens the interest in
the State, and, if widely shared in, begets in the community an enlightened
knowledge of the problems and methods of government. Again, State action,
to reap a fruitful harvest, must be based on knowledge; and here I touch on
a topic which deserves more time than is at my disposal—namely, the importance
in such countries of economic study and the methods whick this snould
follow. It is precisely amidst surroundings where the mass of new data is
great that the need is greatest for scientific method in the examination of such
data and in their comparison with the phenomena existing in other countries.
Economie theory and systematic economics form part, but only part, of the
necessary equipment of the modern economist, and their function is not infre-
quently misunderstood, and stands in need of clear definition. They indicate the
relations which, so far as our present knowledge goes, exist between different
classes of phenomena, and especially between these in respect of cause and
effect. They place at the disposal of the student a keen instrument and a means
of fine analysis which enable him to classify and co-ordinate new data, to com-
pare these with other data, and to avoid the fallacies and misconceptions which

464 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

beset the path and invalidate the conclusions of the untrained observer. But
much more is needed than these. To a knowledge of abstract things must be
added acquaintance not only with economic history but also with economic
phenomena as they exist and arise in the present. These furnish what may be
called the content of the study of economics, and it is these which the economist
has to examine and analyse. To some extent the new knowledge thus registered
may modify previous generalisations. The practical bearing of such study on
the problems of government and State action is obvious. But, quite apart
from this immediate importance, it is a matter for regret that in a country like
Australia, where there is so much economic material, comparatively little as
yet has been done to treat it scientifically, and so to add to the body of
organised economic knowledge.

I will take one instance. It is common knowledge that the labour legislation
of Australia and New Zealand differs greatly from that attempted not only in
old-established countries but in any of the other so-called new countries. We
want a really scientific examination of the causes which are responsible for this .
difference. It is easy to make certain suggestions. Something may be due to
the fact that the economic growth in Australasia is even more recent than that
of Canada and the United States. Again, the manufacturing development is
less advanced, and so the capitalistic element which finds its surest footing in
the industrial domain is less powerful. Again, the contact with the organised
industrial system of the older world is different in character from that which
occurs in the case of the other countries mentioned above. Moreover the early
history of Australia encouraged reliance upon the State. But suggestions like
these, and others might be added to them, need careful investigation and
detailed inquiry before they can be accepted as an adequate explanation of this
problem; and such an investigation should be undertaken in Australia.

Hitherto I have dealt chiefly with the explanation which the previous
examination of the special features apparent in new countries affords of the
nature of State action in such lands.

I would turn now to an equally important question—what guidance, if any,
is afforded as to particular defects which require attention or particular impulses
and forces which stand in need of special encouragement? Incidentally some-
thing has been said about certain of them. The comparative weakness of
custom and traditions, in one way an advantage, is from another point of view
a disadvantage. The dominance of customs is harmful, not because they are
customs, but because old customs are often wrong or at least inapplicable to new
conditions. But custom lies at the basis of the social fabric and enables a
common consciousness as to right and wrong and a community of feeling and
thought which are all important in organised social life. It is possible that
State action, if widely participated in and sympathised with by the people at
large, may strengthen the social tie. Again, the importance of local public work
by all members of the community has been emphasised: it cannot be too
strongly emphasised. ‘The besetting temptation of prosperity, and particularly
of prosperity as it appears in a new country, displays itself in too great a
concentration on material wealth and too exclusive a reference of everything
to a material standard. It may be said that the same tendency manifests itself
in the older world. That is true. On the other hand, not only are the economic
circumstances fostering it much less dominant and pervading, but the social
order and traditions which survive from the past provide at any rate partial
corrective. As has been said before, while there is much to criticise in the
notion of an aristocracy by birth or of traditional and professional standing, such
distinctions counteract the influence of mere material achievement as the test
of success, and indicate a vague belief, however misplaced, in some immaterial
standard which at least has the merit of implying obligations as well as rights.
But on what can a new country rely? On the one hand, on the recognition of
the sheer excellence of manhood and character quite apart from material
results; on the other hand, on a belief in education and knowledge in the wider
and higher sense. This lends a peculiar importance to the encouragement of
science and the development of educational ideals in a new country.

In the survey just attempted certain causes have stood out so prominently
and as so influential in their results as to demand a few words of comment.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 465

Foremost among these is contact between nations in differing stages of develop-
ment. So much has been said of the economic aspects of this as it occurs
between two particular types of countries that any summary would entail repeti-
tion, and repetition would be tiresome. But the subject might well be treated
in much greater detail and with reference to nations and people of more kinds
than these, and to the more general social and political features and results.
No modern country, and in particular no new country, can escape the influence
of external factors controlling or deflecting or retarding the course of its
orderly evolution. These forces operate under different conditions, and the
consequences which ensue vary greatly. Sometimes nations standing at almost
opposite extremes are brought into close relations. The matter is further
complicated when political relations exist between the countries in question.
To deal much further with this matter is hardly possible at the present time.
Still, two things should be added. On the one hand, nations exercising
political control over other countries and races, and particularly over countries
and races less advanced in general civilisation and often marked off from them
by racial characteristics, bear a heavy burden of responsibility. The very rela-
tionship stimulates growth in the subject people, and yet it may well be that
such growth may be so premature and so out of congruity with essential con-
ditions as to call for measures which may retard rather than encourage it. On
the other hand, it is the duty of the historian, and particularly of the historian
who is an economist also, to disentangle the various influences interacting, co-
operating, or conflicting in the evolution of the social and economic life of a
country, and to make due allowance for forces which work obscurely and in a
very subtle way. Secondly, the effects of sheer rapidity in growth must not be
overlooked. The application of modern and more scientific methods to rich
latent resources is sure to operate in this direction, and it may be assisted
by other causes. Certain consequences are almost inevitable. Not only is the
national spirit and type affected, particularly in the economic aspect, but with
the denial of the time requisite for the orderly and stable evolution of custom
a great call is made’on the innate qualities of the race concerned if true progress
is to be achieved and its fruits secured. Lastly, to a nation in the early stages
of development, the spectacle and record of the experiences of other nations
which have trodden the like paths, though under other conditions, mean a great
deal. There is much to imitate as well as much to avoid, and, what is still]
more important, there is much to learn.

But whilst I say this, I would not have you think that an old country has
little to learn from those which are younger. It is true that it cannot retrace
its steps, and that the opportunity furnished is different in character. Still, as
an economist from the older country, I would say that we expect to gain much
for our guidance from the bold attempts made on this side to grapple with
problems many of which, though differing in their setting, are the same in
essence as those which meet us at home. Neither on one side nor the other is it
a question of mere imitation. Hach country has its own destiny to fulfil and
must traverse its own course. The experience of others exhibits the connection
between cause and effect, and those profit the most from example who dis-
criminate wisely and best adapt its teaching to their particular conditions,

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Town Planning in relation to the Community.
By Wiuu1am R. Davince.

Modern Legislation.—The English ‘ Town Planning’ Act of 1909 has focussed
public attention on the subject, but this Act was long preceded by the Italian,
Swedish, and Prussian Town Planning Acts, all of which provide not only for
town extensions and new streets being laid out on the lines prescribed by the
municipal authority, but also give the authorities much greater powers of
purchase or expropriation.

Buildings.—In most cases different parts of a town require special treatment,
and in German town planning practice it is customary to divide the town area

1914, HH

466 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

into zones, each with special building regulations and restrictions as to height,
number of stories, and open space.

Factory Zones.—Even under the English Act factory zones or districts may
be prescribed, to which may be banished all businesses likely to cause objection
by reason of smoke or noise. Such districts must necessarily be in close touch
with railway or water transit, and if possible on the leeward side of the town;
with the growing use of electric power, factories are becoming less objectionable,
but it is still desirable to segregate them.

Land Values.—In practically all countries the constant increase in value of
urban land has resulted in a corresponding increase in the height of buildings,
which in turn has resulted in still further increase of value, the one reacting
constantly on the other.

Limitation of Houses per Acre.—In England much is hoped from the
limitation of houses per acre. The effect of such a limitation must be at least
twofold: it tends first to spread the town and consequently the values over a
larger area; and by restricting the use to which land is put, may to that
extent decrease the value per acre of land which is already ripe for building.
At the same time it will tend to give a corresponding increase of value to land
farther from the town. Its effect on the already overbuilt city areas cannot
fail to be beneficial, for by fixing a standard for suburban development, a
high standard of amenity and a low standard of price, it will be financially
impracticable to force up values in the built-up areas above a reasonable limit,
and economically impossible to unduly increase the congestion of building. A
reasonable return may be obtained from the land, but nothing whatever will be
gained by overcrowding.

Town Hxtension.—The municipal authorities may by careful planning of new
main thoroughfares and prescribing adequate width between buildings, not only
provide new traffic arteries at a minimum of cost to themselves and the present
ratepayers, but save untold expenditure in future widenings and piecemeal
improvements. To secure satisfactory results, however, in this, as in other
urban problems, it is essential that some one authority shall have control of the
general lines of the plan.

In European countries there is everywhere evident a constant tendency to
extend the boundaries of the municipalities, and such a tendency is but a natural
outcome of the desire to avoid the repeated waste and overlapping of divergent
controlling authorities.

Municipal Services.—With the growth of municipal services such as tram-
ways, Sewerage, water supply, gas, and electricity, the tendency towards centrali-
sation of control becomes more marked, and there is a greater effort towards the
realisation of the possibilities and ideals of the town as a whole.

Railways and T'raffic Facilities.—In a plan for town extension nothing can
safely be left out. Railways are as much a vital part of the plan as roads,
and the position of railway stations and goods yards as important or more
important than the location of shops and traffic centres. In many a town the
whole development is throttled and contorted by one or more huge railway
embankments laid down without regard to the growth of the town. In
Germany, although railways are as autocratic as elsewhere, the need is frequently
felt for revising the position of the railway stations and even the line of the
railway itself, and instances of this description of complete removal of the
railway have been carried out in numerous cases in connection with schemes
of town extension (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden, Dusseldorf, Liibeck).

Functions of Various Classes of Traffic.—All classes of traffic—railways,
electric railways, light railways, tramways, motor and heavy goods traffic—all
have their proper functions, and all must have their place in the town plan. The
combination of light railway and tramway (Stddtebahn) so much used of recent
years in Germany is full of possibilities, and the flexibility of the modern motor
omnibus traffic must also be carefully considered.

New Streets.—In laying down the lines of new streets some form of classifi-
cation of roads is desirable. In London a standard minimum of forty feet wide
is adopted. In Australasia the minimum is sixty-six feet, but any such arbitrary
standard must of necessity have serious limitations, and in many cases involve

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 467

heavy and unnecessary expenditure, both in construction and maintenance,
to say nothing of dust and other inconveniences.

Disadvantages of Unnecessarily Wide Roads.—The classification of roads
into arterial roads, secondary roads, and residential roads is commonly prac-
tised in Germany and other European countries, and nowhere better than in
Germany can be seen the disadvantages of excessive road widths, with the
almost natural consequence of high rents and tall tenements.

Garden Suburbs, &e.—Garden City and Garden Suburb schemes have every-
where seized upon this possibility of economising, and in such places as Hamp-
stead and Letchworth the residential roadways are not metalled to a greater
width than sixteen feet, though the distance between the houses is maintained
at sixty feet or more, this leaving room for forecourt gardens or grass margins.

Access to Land.—In all problems of town development and the settlement of
new towns the availability of land is of supreme importance. The questions of
land values, land ownership, and land transfer are fundamentally bound up with
town planning, housing, and improvement schemes.

‘ Betterment.—No municipal authority can be expected to carry out any
great scheme of improvement if there is no possibility of recoupment from the
owners whose property has been improved. So long ago as 1666, in the
rebuilding of London after the Great Fire, provision was made for ‘ betterment ’
charges on the owners of the property improved; and, in default of municipal
ownership, some such system of recoupment is unavoidable.

“Special Assessments.’.—In many American towns such as Kansas City,
‘special assessments ’ for the acquisition of parks and similar purposes are in
force and appear to be favourably received.

Speculation and Land Transfer.—Speculation in land is much encouraged by
the facility with which land transfers can be effected, and the effect of over-
speculation from this cause is apparent both in Germany and in Australasia.
The effect produced is a forced and unnatural increase of prices of land until
we see the curious fact that land in Berlin is valued at three or four times the
value of similar land in London, and, partly in consequence, nearly one-half of
the population of Berlin live in one-roomed dwellings in tall tenements crowded
round one or more internal courts.

Methods of Taxation.—Methods of taxation, too, must be considered in this
regard. An annual site tax on capital value leads undoubtedly to the use of
land, at any rate to the extent necessary to defray the amount of the tax. In
urban areas this means that fewer private open spaces will remain; in suburban
areas the tendency is to put up any sort of structure that will act as
a ‘taxpayer.’ The results in either case must be unsatisfactory, in the absence
of any proper town planning scheme, defining the use to which any particular
land is to be put in the general interests of the community.

Leasehold and Frechold Tenures.—The relative uses of leasehold and freehold
systems of ownership have been much discussed. Leaseholds enable land to be
acquired cheaply with the minimum of capital, and also have the advantage on
the leases falling in of a considerable amount of property being under one
control, thus enabling comprehensive improvements to be carried out, as in the
case of the South London property owned by H.M. the King, the leases of
which have recently fallen in, and the property has been largely reconstructed.

Municipal Ownership.-In German towns the municipality generally owns
from one-third to one-half of the whole available building land, thus to some
extent controlling speculation, and at the same time enabling the municipality
to take the benefit of any improvement created by them. The great value of this
method, however, lies in the control which it is possible for the municipality
to obtain over the extension of their town. Individual freeholds, without some
power of purchase or compulsory re-distribution as in the ‘Lex Adickes,’ will
continually conflict with the interests of the community. In large estates in one
ownership as at Letchworth and Hampstead, excellent results are obtained
by central control, which gives benefit to the community and security’to the
individual.

General Conclusions.—Town planning powers would be of immense advantage
to Australasia, but the special conditions call for special treatment and the

HH 2

468 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

provisions of any town planning legislation must be adapted and not merely
copied from European precedents.

The town planning authority should in any case possess free access to all
land within their area, powers to preserve amenities, powers to reduce con-
structional expenses by classification of roads according to their uses, powers
to vary constructional by-laws, and powers to regulate the character and
description of buildings and the broad lines of architectural design.

2. The Effect of Town Planning and Good Housing Conditions on Social
and Economic Well-being. By James Jounston, J.P., C.E.

Town planning is necessary for the purposes of making a reasonable measure
of health and happiness—of physical, mental, and moral health, and strength—
possible in all parts of towns, of giving ready access from one district to another,
under the supervision of the Local Authority, and for compelling the owners of
lands to lay out and develop a district on uniform lines as distinct from each
owner developing his own unit of land without regard to neighbouring estates :
and not only must cities of the future be well laid out, but in the older and
congested parts of our towns the slums must be cleared away and amenities
provided. The Town Planning Act of 1909 gives Local Authorities power to
provide open spaces and to limit the number of houses per acre, one of the
best provisions in a somewhat cumbrous Act.

We have examples of the evil effect of overcrowding in many of the best
planned towns, especially in Germany, where the people are crowded into tene-
ment dwellings, entailing loss of physical and moral health, and economic loss.

The clearing away of slum property in the central area of our large towns is
one of the most difficult problems to be faced, but it must be dealt with dras-
tically, as it is of equal or even greater importance than the laying out of new
areas.

The cost is the great difficulty, and under the existing law it can only be dealt
with by clearing away slum dwellings in districts declared to be unhealthy areas
under the Public Health Acts, and building houses on the cleared sites for the
people who have been dispossessed, or by declaring the houses, separately, unfit
for habitation, and compelling the owners to close, put into habitable condition,
or rebuild such worn-out houses.

The dominant difficulty in housing reform is the financial one, in providing
the necessary minimum of quantity and quality for the accommodation of a
worker’s family, on account of the limited income of the badly paid workers, and
their consequent inability to pay an economic rent. The real remedy would be
to give adequate remuneration to the workers, as it is now generally accepted as
ethically sound that the first charge on any industry should be an adequate wage
for the worker, and the adoption of this principle would render unnecessary the
payment of subsidies out of the public purse for housing purposes.

The method of building houses for the workers in the future is resolving itself
into a Collectivist system, as the private builder has failed to meet the demand
effectively. Houses built for the sake of profit-making entirely are generally
inadequate, overcrowded, mean-looking in monotonous rows, and of inferior
material and workmanship. This work will have to be undertaken mainly by
local authorities and public utility societies.

With facilities for obtaining money at cheap rates, a thorough organisation
of the work, the more extended use of machinery, and the adoption of concrete
as the principal building material, it will be possible to produce houses good in
design, hygienic, and permanent in their construction, to let at an economic rent.

3. The Economics of Town Planning. By J. 8. NevruEeroxp, J.P.

Strong economic incentive is more effective for reform than official regu-
lations. To ensure good housing, it must be profitable to the owner, and bad
housing unprofitable. The same holds good with cities and their development.

The main objective of town-planners must be to provide healthy living and
working conditions for all classes, especially the poor. The first necessity is

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F,. 469

adequate supply of light and air. ‘his means larger building sites at the old
prices. ‘here is a constant definite proportion between ground-rent and total
rent. On small house property ground-rent equals one-sixth of whole. Cost
of site is composed of (1) interest on capital; (2) price of land; (3) cost of
development.

(1) Znterest on Capital.—This is of prime importance. Every 1 per cent.

on capital represents about 1s. per week on each small house : hence the necessity
for cheap capital, which is unobtainable unless the town-planning scheme is
commercially sound.
. (2) Price of Land.—The supply of land available for building is severely
limited by the fact that communication is not provided by public bodies except
to developed areas, and builders are only willing to build near to such communi-
cations. In the vicinity of all centres there is land of low value due to lack of
communication.

Town-planners must increase supply of building land by opening up cheap
land and at the same time restricting building density, thereby preventing
undue rises in Jand values. The value of land is governed by its use. Land-
owners should be met by allowing economical estate development and encourag-
ing quick development, and should be given economic incentive to develop by
rating land on selling price, not merely on present income. Overcrowding
should be avoided by restricting building density, and, in justice to landowners
assessors must recognise that restriction of building density reduces land values.
Main arteries should be cut, opening up new districts through back land, avoid-
ing purchase of costly frontages. Sufficient width should be allowed hebween
forecourts, but only a small width of macadam should be laid, completing with
tree-planted grass margins and inexpensive pathways. Under common-sense
town-planning building density is calculated per gross acre, and therefore it
will not cost landowners anything to give the land for these roads; it will pay
them to contribute handsomely towards the cost of construction.

(3) Cost of Development.—Cheap land is no good without rational develop-
ment. Necessities must be provided before luxuries are considered. Light and
air are more important to health, and much cheaper than magnificent architecture
and extravagant engineering in the way of unnecessary sewers, kerbs, and
gutters. The main objective of those primarily responsible for the 1909 Act was
to reduce cost of town and estate development. Most town-planning schemes
since published increase this charge instead of diminishing it. Unless care is
taken, town-planning will result in worse living conditions instead of better—
vide Paris and Berlin. Extravagant development raises rents, and makes decent
living conditions economically impossible except for the favoured few, Harmony
can be achieved without reckless expenditure. The City Beautiful is of no
practical use unless it be also. a City of Common-sense, providing healthy homes
for all classes.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 1s.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Australian Democracy and its Economic Problems.
By F. W. Eaaieston.

The reputation of Australia as a scientific laboratory of social and economic
experiments is to a large extent undeserved. The many departures made in
Australia from the traditions of economic thought were not undertaken as part
of a deliberate scientific enterprise. Nor have the results been subjected to
that criticism which would satisfy an economist. In watching the development
of the Australian democracy one has to realise that the process has been
dominated by political considerations almost entirely. In order to better social
conditions, legislators have disregarded the accepted rules of economics, and have
invoked the power of the State. The basis of their policy has been the belief
that the political power could provide some substitute for the forces which under
ordinary circumstances go to make social conditions.

470 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

Australian democracy is thus an instinctive unrational human movement,
a definite challenge to the canons of economic theory. An experience gained
under such circumstances should be of considerable value, because it exhibits
phenomena which might otherwise remain hidden. It shows us_ social
institutions in a condition of disturbance, and enables us to see their working
more clearly.

The characteristic note of Australian democratic development, therefore, is
the attempt to secure social ends by State activity. The more typical forms of
such activity are :—(1) Nationalisation. (2) Regulation of various social con-
ditions. (3) Regulation of wages. :

(1) Nationalisation.—Australian experience cannot be said to directly nega-
tive the warnings against State socialism. Yet the issues would not be stated
in the old way. Many exceedingly valuable results attainable only by the
exercise of State authority have been obtained. Much efficient work has been
done by State departments, while, on the other hand, many gross failures can
be recorded. A dogmatic condemnation of, or a bias against, State activity
could not be maintained. Each phase must depend upon its own conditions.
The tendency to monopoly in industry brings the issue of nationalisation more
definitely before the public.

(2) Regulation of Social Conditions—To avoid the evils of centralisation
and the danger of elaborate State-directed schemes, the State will frequently,
instead of assuming the management of an industry or activity, regulate certain
phases of social life so as to secure ends considered desirable. In other cases
it may perform an important service upon which a great many other social
activities depend, or it may control a tendency which, if unchecked, would
thwart the beneficial operation of the normal social forces. Thus the State
insists upon conditions necessary to secure health and leisure for workers.
It controls building, and formulates food standards. It investigates and
guarantees the title to land. On the whole, experience in Australia is favourable
to such activity. After intervention of the State, the normal social activities
have readjusted themselves, and while the desired ends have been attained
the vigour and well-being of the community has not been impaired.

(3) Legulation of Wages.—The main object of this legislation has been to
secure industrial peace by fixing a mean wage between the demands of the
worker and the offer of the employer. It has to a large extent failed in this
object because it has been used as a means of securing higher wages. The
question is whether the machinery set up has been successful in increasing
real wages. The conclusion of the writer is that though the machinery is
defective in many ways the real wages of the workers have been increased by it.
A close examination of the economic conditions in Australia would be required
to substantiate this conclusion. The enormous resources of Australia available
to a small population and the relatively constant demand of labour, place
Australia in a unique position. The effect of alien exclusion laws and _pro-
tection, as barriers to the supply of substitutes for highly paid labour, would
have to be considered. On the other hand, evidence as to the effect of high
wages and liberal conditions on the efficiency of the worker and of industrial
organisation are important. The progressive effect of a transference of
resources from the wealthier to the poorer classes on the general efficiency and
stability of the economic system is another factor in the assessment of the value
of such a system. Factors on the negative side would also have to be taken into
account. At the present time a notable feature of the position is that wage
regulation has intensified the capitalistic organisation and assisted the tendency
to monopoly and agreements fixing prices. The political effect of the rise in
the cost of living is likely to be very great. The masses now believe that the
capitalistic classes have turned the tables on them. Some further step by
representatives of the workers to relieve the pressure of the rise in prices seems
certain. Such action will be either an attempt to fix prices in monopolistic
industries, or wholesale extension of the principles of Nationalisation. In
unofticial sections of the masses some steps in the direction of Guild Socialism
or Syndicalism is strongly advocated. From the scientific point of view, a
gradual perfection of the agencies we have already installed would seem
desirable. But the exigencies of politics render more drastic action certain.
In such action the fundamental issues of social organisation are likely to be

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ff, 471

raised. This movement is likely to be bitterly opposed. The more liberal
elements of the middle class which have hitherto favoured the forward move-
ment have heen estranged, and a class conflict seems inevitable. There is no
need, however, to anticipate serious danger from such a conflict. The social
equilibrium is not likely to be disturbed more than it has been in the past. All
parties are clean and honest, and much good may result from a bold facing of
ultimate social issues.

2. On the Materials for, and the Construction of, Tables of Natality,
Issue, and Orphanhood. By Cuas. H. Wickens, A.I.A.

This paper comprised a brief review of the statistical data available for the
construction of tables of natality, issue, and orphanhood treated as functions
of the age of the father or of the mother. It also outlined the methods adopted
and the results obtained in using for this purpose the Census results and the
Vital Statistics for the Commonwealth of Australia.

The subject is one which possesses considerable interest from the standpoint
of demographic statistics, and this interest is heightened by the fact that the
results so derived are essential for the solution of some of the complex problems
involved in the various schemes of social insurance which have been introduced
or proposed in various parts of the world. Statistics of average surviving
issue of dependent age are also of importance in questions relating to such
economic matters as the fixing of a minimum wage.

In a report, furnished in 1911, on the actuarial basis of a scheme of National
Insurance for the United Kingdom, two eminent British actuaries, Sir G. F.
Hardy and Mr. F. B. Wyatt, estimated rates of natality as a function of the
age of the father from statistics of orphanhood for the Dominion of New
Zealand. These data were employed, owing to the absence at the time of any
suitable statistics, for the United Kingdom.

The method employed in this case was the indirect one of estimating, from
the number of children living at the deaths of fathers of various ages, the
number of children who had been born of fathers of various ages.

A more suitable method is the computation of the rates from statistics
showing the ages of fathers at the birth of their children. Such statistics are not
available in the United Kingdom, but in Australia the requisite particulars have
been recorded and tabulated for many years past, and it is a matter for some
surprise that this source of information has not previously been tapped for the
purpose in question.

Certain other experiences have been employed in this connection, the most
recent being the 1911 Census data for Camberwell, England, employed by the
National Insurance Actuarial Advisory Committee. In this case again the data
for determining natality rates were not the ages of the fathers and mothers at
the date of birth, but were the numbers of fathers and mothers of various
ages who had living with them at the date of the Census children under the
age of twelve months. From these latter data the rates of natality were deter-
mined by an indirect process.

Other experiences, referred to in the course of the paper, were that of the
Hearts of Oak Benefit Society in respect of lying-in claims, the experience of the
Commonwealth Public Service in respect of surviving children, a similar ex-
perience for the Public Service of New South Wales, and others.

The special tables contained in the paper have been compiled from :—

(i.) the Australian statistics of nuptial births according to the ages of the
fathers for the four years 1909 to 1912; t

(ii.) the age results for the Australian Census of April 3, 1911;

(iii.) the mean population of Australia for the four years 1909 to 1912; and

(iv.) the rates of mortality for successive ages derived from the Australian
experience for the ten years 1901 to 1910.

On the basis of these data, tables have been constructed, graduated and
graphically represented showing :—

(i.) the rates of nuptial natality for successive ages of males (natality table) ;

79)
472 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

(ii.) the number of nuptial children at each age surviving to males of succes-
sive ages (issue table) ; and

(iii.) the number of nuptial children at each age rendered orphans by the
deaths of fathers of successive ages (orphanhood tables).

In the case of (i.) the working process consisted of :—

(a) the tabulation and graphic graduation of the data relative to births and
male population ;

(6) the computation of the rates for each age; and

In the case of (ii.) and (iii.) the process followed was that of the synthetic
construction of issue and orphanhood tables. Given the number of births
arising annually per 1,000 adult males of each age, and given in addition the rate
of mortality operating amongst adult males of each age and amongst children
of each age, the computation of the numbers of children surviving are readily
obtained, and from these the numbers of children rendered orphans by the
deaths of males of successive ages.

In the computation of the issue and orphanhood rates allowance had to be
made for multiple births, statistics concerning which are also available for
Australia in connection with the ages of the parents. These statistics indicate
that the average number of children per birth increases with the age of the
father, the rate of increase diminishing with age.

Reference was made in the paper to :—

(i.) the sources of material for the purpose of similar calculations in respect:
of females ;

(ii) to the allowances to be made in certain cases in respect of exnuptial
children ;

(iii.) to allowances necessary in some cases in respect of still births,

It may be noted that in the publications dealing with vital statistics which
are issued by the Commonwealth Statistician, the terms ‘nuptial’ and
‘exnuptial’ are used in relation to birth as more correctly representing the
fact than the more usual terms ‘ legitimate’ and ‘illegitimate.’ This course has
been followed in the present paper.

3. The Present Position of the Doctrine of Interest.
By Professor H. O. Mrrepirn,

The phenomenon of interest raises two distinct questions : first, why does
interest exist at all? secondly, what determines its magnitude and variations?
Broadly speaking, writers on the subject may be classed according as they are
chiefly preoccupied with one or the other of these questions. To this is partly
attributable that tendency to argument at cross-purposes which characterises
much of the literature of the subject.

In regard to the first question there is, however, a fundamental cleavage of
opinion, though what precisely is at issue between the disputants has never
been clearly stated. This paper aimed at a clear statement of the issue; it
offered a brief survey and criticism of the chief doctrines of interest—viz., the
Productivity, Cost, Exploitation, Agio, and Dynamic theories. In conclusion
the writer’s own solution was presented in outline.

4. Kconomics at Oxford. By Sipnny Ban, M.A.

TIntroduction.—Interest and bearing of the subject.

I. Comparative neglect of economics at Oxford—signs and illustrations, and
some reasons.

II. Actual but inadequate recognition of subject in examinations.

1. For a degree—(a) The Greats’ School. () The History School. (c) The
Pass School.

2. For the Diploma in Economics and Political Science—its scope and
working.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 473

TIl. Some signs of the times :—

(a) The course of training for Social work. (b) The institution of Barnett
House. (c) The demand for a Diploma in Commerce.

IV. New influences from outside or below :—

(a) Ruskin College. (b) University tutorial classes. (c) Undergraduate
the University Fabian Society and the University Co-operative
Store.

V. The situation and prospect.

The proper place of economics in the Oxford curriculum as an organic part
of a school of political, social, and economic studies.—The strategic opportunity.
Hopes and fears. The reform of economics at Oxford part of the wider
problem of University reform.

5. The Statistical and Judicial Determination of the Minimum Wage in
Australia. By Grratp Licutroot, M.A., F.S.S.

The object of this paper was to examine the principles which have been
evolved in the course of Australian experience in the determination of the
minimum wage under the Wages Board and Arbitration Court systems, and to
outline the methods adopted for investigating statistically variations in the cost
and standards of living in the Commonwealth. The Wages Board system was
first adopted in Victoria in 1896, and was introduced later in South Australia
(1900), Queensland (1908), and Tasmania (1910). In New South Wales and
Western Australia, as well as in the Commonwealth (so far as concerns ‘ disputes
extending beyond the limits of any one State’), minimum wages are fixed under
judicial systems by Industrial Arbitration Courts.

In most of the Acts under which the various systems have been established
there is an absence of definition of the fundamental conception of the living
wage, with the result that the basis on which the minimum should be fixed has
been evolved by the tribunals themselves. In recent South Australian and
Western Australian Acts, however, the minimum rate is defined and must be
sufficient to secure a ‘ living wage’ to the worker.

The work of the Wages Boards is conducted in an informal manner, and is
of the nature of a round-table conference. The boards do not follow any
common process in arriving at their determinations, and hence no definite prin-
ciples can be found on which the minimum wage is fixed. Under the judicial
method of compulsory arbitration, however, certain broad principles have been
developed. In the early years of the work of the Courts the Judges apparently
refrained from making any clear or definite statement as to the principles which
they intended to follow, and it was not until 1905 that the duty of the Court
to provide a living wage was first recognised in positive terms by Mr. Justice
Heydon, President of the New South Wales State Arbitration Court.

The next important pronouncement on the subject was made in 1907 by Mr.
Justice Higgins, President of the Federal Arbitration Court, who, in ‘the
harvester case,’ first enunciated the principles which have been consistently
followed by that Court. The judgment in that case has also been frequently -
cited and followed by State industrial tribunals.

In the course of the paper the development of the principles on which the
living wages for unskilled labour is based was traced, with special reference to
other controlling factors, such as the ability of an industry to bear the increased
cost due to a rise in wages, inter-State competition, the deduction of an amount
equivalent to the value of board and lodging, allowance for ‘tips’ and
gratuities, the question of ‘equal pay for equal work’ as between the sexes,
and differential rates of wages due to local differences in cost of living, climatic
conditions, &c. In fixing the minimum wage for skilled workers the practice
of first ascertaining the basic wage for unskilled labour and then applying the
existing differences between unskilled labour and the various grades of skilled
labour has been generally adopted.

During the last few years the subject of cost of living has become acute in
connection with the question of the minimum wage, but owing to the absence
of ‘ precise, cogent, detailed evidence’ the President of the Federal Court for
some years declined to give quantitative expression to the increased cost of

474. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

living. The basic wage in Melbourne of 7s. per diem prescribed in 1907 remained
unaltered until judgment was given in 1913 in the Gas Kmployees’ case, when
evidence as to the investigations made by the Commonwealth Statistician as to
cost of living was first brought before the Court, and when the basic wage was
increased to 8s. In Sydney, Mr. Justice Heydon conducted an exhaustive
judicial inquiry towards the end of the year 1913 with a view to furnishing
an authoritative declaration as to the basic wage, and also as to ascertaining
some method of raising or lowering it with the rise or fall in the cost of living.
His Honour concluded that the living wage for two parents and two dependent
children (under fourteen years of age) was 48s. per week.

The results of the statistician’s investigations have now been adopted by
industrial tribunals throughout the Commonwealth. The data are obtained
mainly from two sources, viz., (a) householders’ budgets, and (6) returns of
retail prices and house-rents from dealers and agents in selected towns. The
object of the former class of inquiries is to establish from time to time the
actual expenditure on living and variations in standards, and of the latter, to
furnish periodically index numbers indicating variations in the cost of living
(i.e., in the purchasing power of money), both in regard to point of time and
as between different localities. A novel and rigorous, though simple, method
of technique has been adopted and was explained in the paper.

6. Land Taxation in Australia. By G. A. McKay.

The history of land taxation in Australia was briefly narrated, and the
existing systems of land taxation, Commonwealth, State, and Municipal, shortly
described. :

The writer pointed out that though the primary object of land taxation
has been to secure revenue for the purposes of Government, there was also in
some cases a secondary object, viz., to further some economic or social end of
Jocal or national advantage. The primary object, as a rule, dictated the weight
of the impost; the secondary, the character of the tax, and its scope.

The main justification for taxing land, as part of a general scheme of taxa-
tion, lies in the financial needs of Commonwealth, States, and Local Governing
bodies.

The Commonwealth has few sources of revenue, but great financial needs,
corresponding to national burdens. It has assumed responsibility for the
defence of Australia by land and sea. This has involved the provision of the
beginnings of a navy, and the establishment of a scheme of universal military
training.

It has accepted the obligation to provide old-age and invalidity pensions,
and a maternity bonus.

All these responsibilities involve large recurring expenditure, and though
some payments have been made out of loan money, the fact that interest has
to be paid on a growing public debt cannot be ignored.

The several State Governments are responsible for the management of all
-public affairs, excepting those devolving on the Commonwealth under its
Constitution. The State obligations include public instruction, the mainten-
ance of public order through the judiciary and the police, and the construction,
control and management of railways, tramways, and other public works, which
are outside the scope of municipal powers. Much of this expenditure is not
fully reproductive, and deficiencies in revenue must be met by taxation.

Municipalities and other local authorities with similar powers undertake the
construction, maintenance, and control of public works, the benefit of which
is purely local.

All these authorities, Commonwealth, State, and Municipal, have inde-
pendent powers of taxation, and all have recourse to land as one of the main
sources of revenue.

The economic and social reasons for land taxation are included in two main
branches—one the desire to make a breach in land monopoly, the other to ensure
that land, the foundation of most national assets, is put to its best use from
a national point of view. we

The history of land monopoly was traced to early legislative and administra-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F 475

tive errors or omissions, and to the absence of a proper classification of land,
with separation of pastoral and agricultural interests.

The perpetuation of the large estate once accumulated is assisted by family
sentiment and the innate conservatism of the average landowner.

The national desire that land should be used for its best purpose is kept
alive by the agitation of men who desire to obtain land for agricultural purposes,
but are prevented by the existing pastoral occupation. There is also a con-
stantly increasing antagonism in the popular mind against those who misuse
or neglect the opportunities afforded by the ownership of land.

The experiments on hybridisation of wheat which resulted in the inventior
of varieties capable of withstanding some degree of drought have brought
immense additional rust-proof areas of land into the agricultural domain, and
incidentally brought the owners of these lands within the scope of the attack
directed against land monopolists and those who do not use their lands to the
best advantage.

The general policy of taxing land was analysed with special reference to the
paramount need of encouraging land settlement, and the possible contingency
that cumulative imposts of this nature may tend to create the impression that
such enterprises are unremunerative.

The independent action of Commonwealth, State, and Municipal agencies in
this connection accentuates the danger, as each pursues its taxing scheme with
a view to its own financial needs, and possibly without paying any regard to
the gravity of the tax imposed by other agencies. The possibility of substituting
one taxing and valuing agency for the existing agencies is discussed, and a
scheme suggested which should minimise cost and secure greater consistency and
efficiency.

The Federal scheme of taxation was described with special reference to the
policy of exemption from tax in certain cases; the graduation of tax; the
taxation of secondary interests, such as land represented by company shares ;
and the taxation of absentees on the higher scale.

The relation of the taxing scheme to certain forms of land tenure was con-
sidered. The differentiation in treatment in favour of landholders in different
States holding under almost similar titles was shortly described.

The general effects of the several land tax systems in the direction of
stimulating settlement and bringing about a more effective treatment and
greater productiveness of land was illustrated by reference to available statistics.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Cerlain Characteristics of Manufacturing Industry in Australia.
By G. H. Knisss, C.M.G., F.S.S.

In this paper characteristics of manufacturing industry in Australia are
quantitatively analysed from the data covering all such industries in that
country. The basic principle of the analysis was to form such groups as would
disclose the relationship of the elements compared, the groups being large
enough to minimise merely accidental influences. In doing this the arbitrary
magnitudes of individual businesses and the absolute cost of the material used
were eliminated from the problem by restricting the analysis to capital invested
per employé, the added value per employé, horse power per employé, and so on.

It is shown a priori that certain characteristics of the relations, for example,
of ‘added value’ and wages, both per employé, to capital invested per employé
are likely to obtain. These may be expressed by an equation of the form
y= Ae-™ 2.

The personal and local factors mark this in small groupings, and even in
groupings for individual industries. Certain large groupings seem to show
that these a priori deductions do characterise industry in the aggregate. In the
endeavour to secure from industry the highest wages possible ‘added value’

476 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

measures the importance of industry to the employé, but not to the proprietor
or proprietors. The proper reduction of this covers interest charges and general
risks of industry, and is often misunderstood. This is scarcely less important
in co-operative industries in a country in touch with the world. This fact is
probably not adequately appreciated.

The value of wages, paid in money, depends upon the purchasing power of
wages, 7.e., upon ‘effective’ wages; i.e., their value reduced to some common
datum, which is best measured by the cost of a ‘composite unit.’ In Australia
wages in some industries have been determined on the principle that they
should be equated to the changing prices of commodities, or ‘cost of living.’
In principle, to be equitable, this must be general. But the direct effect will
be to increase the price of commodities, and thus to force them continually
upwards, and thus to defeat itself. The tendency may be exhibited by com-
puting the consequence on the assumption of an automatic and instantaneous
adjustment. The effect is startling, and though perhaps of less consequence in
a self-contained country, is of a far-reaching significance to a country in
competition with the rest of the world. The complete solution of the problem
is very difficult even for a self-contained country.

Economic investigations to be of high value must be quantitative, and only
in this way can either their scientific dr sociological value be advanced.

2. Hstimate of the Privale Wealth of a Community and the Measure of
its Uncertainty. By G. H. Kniss, C.M.G., F.S.S.

It is very doubtful whether the private wealth of a community can be
ascertained with any degree of accuracy even by means of an elaborate census
of wealth, and even then comparisons at different dates would require to be
used with caution. A rough estimate, made from a limited parcel, by means
of which the average per individual is ascertained, to be applied to the entire
population, would be subject to still larger uncertainty.

Probably, for large averages, and in any one community, income and accumu-
lated wealth are fairly closely related, and deductions may also be made on
that basis. Such methods are subject, however, to obvious and grave limitations.

Since death incidentally involves estimates of value of a deceased’s estate for
the purposes of probate duty, such estimates, which also are subject to grave
defects, have been applied to determine the private wealth of the living, on the
assumption that, with suitable precautions, the deceased group may be taken to
represent the entire community. This is essentially a ‘parcel’ method.

The reliability of an estimate necessarily depends on the factor applied to the
value of the estates of deceased persons to get the value of all estates. This,
however, is subject to large accidental variations, and, moreover, is not constant,
since it depends on the death-rate, itself a changing quantity.

The solution reaches its highest value when age-groups are independently
treated and its inherent limitations are also best disclosed thereby. There are
characteristic differences between the wealth of the sexes and its variation with
age, and these affect all deductions.

Deductions from income returns may be related by a suitable investigation
with those from probate returns. In this connection it is important not to rely
on Pareto’s so-called law. The apparent rough validity of this law merely
depends on the fact that a considerable stretch of either branch of any unimodal
frequency-curve can be represented by a general parabola or hyperbola
y=Aatn where n may have other than integral values. Jt also masks its defects
by dealing with aggregates, since the integral of the above expression is also a
general parabola whose index is n+1, and as a matter of fact is disposed of by
a study of Prussian income returns.

Probate returns can hardly be regarded as normal estimates of value, and
expert estimates vary enormously according as to whether they tend to repre-
sent cost-price, fair market value, or value at forced sale. Individual estimates
made at leisure differ enormously, and may be either sanguine or conservative
estimates, while the differences between esteem, utility, and market values are
very great.

The problem cannot be made absolutely definite, even by a Census of Wealth,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F,. 477

and is only fairly so when the fluctuating value of the money-commodity (gold)
in comparison with commodities generally is taken into account. The expression
of estimates of this character to a high order of precision is of course misleading,
and, owing to the uncertainties in the method, it is of limited value for estimates
of material progress.

The following Paper was not read, but was printed in full and distributed
to members of the Section :— y

Australian Defence.
By Senator the Hon. G. F. Pearcr, Hz-Minister for Defence.

This subject falls naturally under two main aspects, Imperial and Local,
with technical divisions, Naval and Military.

Australia is affected by, and interested in, the defence schemes of the Empire,
and every phase of the question must be considered from the point of view of the
effectiveness of those schemes.

The Imperial Conference in 1911 made full provision for the co-ordination
of Australian Naval Defence with the Admiralty plans. Theoretically it is
argued that any system of divided control is unsound, while, on the other hand,
if local control is given up, local autonomy is surrendered. The latter course has
no chance of being adopted in Australia, the people of the Commonwealth con-
sidering national sentiment more powerful than written agreements. A navy
within a navy is a logical outcome of a nation within a nation. The naval
subsidy was never a popular arrangement in Australia. The Dreadnought scare
solidified opinion in favour of an Australian owned and controlled navy. The
expenditure on local naval defence has evoked no protest. British interests
in the Pacific cannot be left to arbitrament of European nations or to the friendly
keeping of an Asiatic ally. The provision of a fleet unit has made available to
the Admiralty ships and personnel previously locked up in Australian waters.
The Japanese alliance is only for a definite term, and at its conclusion a fleet
could not be brought into being in a moment. Even a weak navy guarantees
that there can be no land invasion until it is destroyed or neutralised, thus giv-
ing breathing-time. The question of so directing the naval policy of the
Dominions as to afford methods of effective combination and co-operation in time
of war was decided for in the Naval Agreement of 1911.

With reference to Military Defence, Australia has adopted the principle of
compulsory universal military training. Persons enrolled under the Defence Act
cannot be called on for service outside Australia. The obligation for universal
service in time of war was always a feature of Australian Defence Acts. The
claim for universal training is based on the fact that all are entitled to vote, and
as the result of a vote may involve Australia in war, all should therefore bear the
responsibility. Voluntary service is unfair, and is found by experience to be
ineffective. The vastness of the country demands a numerically strong force.
All law is based upon compulsion and to some extent trenches on the liberties
of the people. The distance from Europe makes it unlikely that Australia can
take any effective part in European conflicts. Apart from its purely military
aspect, the military scheme provides for the physical training of the youth of
the Commonwealth and for universal medical inspection. Training from youth
upwards instils discipline into the mind while still receptive, and is a substitute
for conscription of adults and for the barrack life inseparable from a permanent
army. Medical examinations take place at the ages of twelve, fourteen, and
eighteen; the particulars are entered on cards and tabulated, thus providing
data of very great value to medical scientists. These examinations at the ages
specified enable physical defects to be revealed, so that remedial action may be
taken at such time as to ensure the future life of the youth being useful and
healthy. The obligation of universal training will be an effective check on
military jingoism by creating a sounder opinion on the realities of war.

The possession of a navy makes it essential that naval bases and dockyards
should be provided, and steps are being taken for such provision. The distance
of Australia from Great Britain as a base of supplies renders it necessary to make
local provision for munitions of war, and to this end various departmental

478 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F,

factories have been established. The magnitude of Australia’s maritime trade is
a further justification for defence expenditure, apart from the fact that her
population and principal cities are chiefly confined to the sea-board and so render
her particularly vulnerable to attack.

The most important events in the development of the scheme since its incep-
tion are here outlined :—

In 1901 the Deakin Government sent a representative to the Imperial Defence
Conference in London, at which arrangements were concluded for the establish-
ment of a Pacific Fleet, to which the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand,
and Australia were to contribute fleet units. Subsequently, the Federal Govern-
ment asked the Admiralty to invite tenders for battle-cruisers.

In 1908-9 the Fisher Government gave orders for three torpedo destroyers.

In May 1910 the Federal Government invited the Admiralty to send out an
expert naval officer to formulate a scheme of naval defence. As a result of this,
Admiral Sir Reginald Henderson arrived in September of that year and pre-
sented his report in March 1911,

In 1910 the Fisher Government undertook to provide the remainder of the
fleet unit, and at the present time, with the exception of one cruiser and three
destroyers, which are in course of construction at the Commonwealth Dockyards
in Sydney, the Australian fleet unit is in commission.

With regard to the military scheme, the Deakin Government in 1909 invited
Lord Kitchener to visit Australia and propound a scheme of Military Defence
under the Defence Act. Lord Kitchener’s scheme is based on territorial organi-
sation.

In 1910 the Fisher Government extended the provisions of the Defence Act
to provide for adult training.

SYDNEY.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Sociological Aspects of Town Planning. By J. D. Fivzarran.

2. The Health Aspect of Town Planning.
By Joun Ropgrtson, M.D., B.Sc.

Town planning in England, as we now know it, was originated to prevent the
evils which have arisen in the larger towns due to crowding on space, and the
baneful influences arising from permitting factories and works of all kinds being
interlarded between dwelling-houses, in such a way as to make these dwellings
dull and gloomy from the smoke-laden air, and dirty from the soot which gains
access to the interiors. In most of these large English towns adequate space for
the healthy recreation of the dwellers in the central areas was not provided, and
in most instances no attention was paid to the amenities of the district, except
in a few instances where great natural features existed.

It is very important that density of population should be limited to enable
houses to be separated from each other: (1) to allow of sunlight gaining access
to each inhabited room, (2) to permit of a current of air at all times round the
house, (3) to allow of privacy in the dwelling without the necessity of covering
windows completely with curtains, which have been proved to shut out up to
ninety-seven per cent. of the actinic power of the sun.

Artisan areas arranged on town-planning lines are difficult to compare with
good areas on old lines as regards their health statistics. If one makes all
allowance for selection and class, there still remains so great a difference between
the statistics of the new and the old conditions as to leave no doubt that in
actual practice town planning is one of the greatest advances which have been
made in recent times for the benefit of the public health.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 479

3. The Planning of Sydney—Past, Present, and Future.
By Joun Surman, F.R.I.B.A.

Captain Phillip landed on January 26, 1788, in Sydney Cove, now the
Circular Quay, and formed the first settlement in Australia. In his earliest
report he refers to the large trees covering the site, the rocky points, and deep
water close in shore. His plan shows a street 200 feet wide, and allotments
60 feet by 150 feet for each house, but it would not have been a workable one
for a city as the outlets were not studied.

The actual plan followed the lines of the original barracks on the Tank
Stream, and the track to the surrounding country (now George Street) later on
developed by parallel and cross streets.

Up till 1809 the growth was more or less haphazard, but Governor Macquarie
then initiated many improvements, aligning the streets to 50 feet wide, abolish-
ing nuisances on the Tank Stream, the only water supply, and reserving Hyde
Park in perpetuity for the recreation and amusement of the people and
exercising the troops.

Sir Thomas Mitchell, the Surveyor-General, whose reports from 1827 to 1855
are available, did much to improve Sydney, and, had his suggestions been
adopted, much excellent town planning would have been effected. He was
responsible for the reservation of Cook Park, the preservation of native timbers,
and the laying out of well-graded roads into the surrounding country. His
many recommendations include a contour road which would have obviated the
steep William Street hill, the artistic treatment of Church Hill by a crescent
and obelisk and radial planning leading up to a dignified entrance to Govern-
ment House. He advocated wider streets, and obtained an order to align to
100 feet if possible, and proposed an excellent lay out for North Sydney around
the present Crow’s Nest. He also effected many sanitary reforms for traffic
purposes, and suggested small squares at street crossings instead of rounding off
corners.

Outside the city, however, speculators cut up land into small allotments
with frontages to 20-feet lanes, and so laid the foundations of the slums of
to-day. Later on, the outer suburbs were mostly planned with 40-feet roads,
but cross communication between suburbs was entirely neglected. Mr. (after-
wards Sir) George Reid passed an Act to compel a minimum width of 66 fect
for all roads, which is still in force and has its defects as well as advantages.

For twenty-five years the author has been advocating town planning, and
in 1908 this resulted in the appointment of a Royal Commission to consider
the improvement of Sydney, and some of the recommendations thereof have
been carried out, such as the widening of Oxford Street, the formation of
Wentworth Avenue, and a new road from Woolloomooloo, and the resumption
of one or two slum areas. But these improvements have been confined to the
city proper.

In 1913 the Greater Sydney Royal Commission recommended a scheme by
which in time all the numerous suburban councils and areas would be absorbed,
and power given to a unified council to town plan on a comprehensive scale,
but legislative sanction thereto has yet to be obtained.

As regards the future development of Sydney the most urgent problems
appear to me to be as follows :—

1. The provision of an underground city railway with branches to the
suburbs.

2. The building of the North Shore Bridge or tunnels or both.

3. A bridge or tunnel to Balmain.

4. The widening of the main city streets to at least 100 feet to provide not
only for increasing surface traffic but for light and air to the buildings 150 feet
high permitted by Act of Parliament.

5. The formation of main north and south and east and west avenues.

6. A proper convenient and beautiful land entrance to the city at the railway
station, and a water entrance at Circular Quay.

7. The setting aside of an industrial area with all facilities in the way of
railway communication and water frontages, so that manufacturing may be
carried on to the best advantage.

480 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

8. The planning of a series of main radial and circumferential roads, 100 to
200 feet in width, to link up all parts both of the Sydney of to-day and the
greater Sydney of the future, and the planting thereof with trees.

9. The provision of playgrounds over the whole area not more than half a
mile apart, and parks or reserves not more than a mile apart.

10. The reservation wherever possible of belts of open land in perpetuity
between suburb and suburb, so that the greater Sydney of the future may
consist of the city proper and a number of subordinate but economically self-
contained and independent centres, and thus avoid the formation of a single
large congested city area.

11. The resumption of the foreshores of the harbour wherever possible, the
allotting of specific portions for trade with adequate rail communication thereto,
and the beautifying of the remainder for the use and pleasure of the public.

12. The duplication of the water supply, for at present everything depends
on one line of pipes.

13. The passing of a Town Planning Act similar to the English one of 1909
to enable many of the above suggestions to be carried out.

There are many other improvements that could be suggested, but if the
above are effected Sydney would be a city very different from what it is, and
worthy to rank amongst its peers not only in Australia but in the greater
world beyond the seas.

In conclusion the author expressed his hearty acknowledgments of the
valuable aid given him in his researches, and for the permission to photograph
rare and valuable maps and plans by the authorities of the Lands Department,
the Mitchell Library, the Municipal Library, the City Surveyor, and others.

4. Town Planning in relation to Housing and Health.
By Wituram R. Davince.

The present-day evils of cities are largely of modern growth and due to the
rapid industrial expansion of the nineteenth century. Slums exist in
Australasia as in Europe, though not at present to so marked a degree.

The incidence of bad housing, wages, land values, and transit should all
be considered. The evils of uncontrolled suburban development are everywhere
apparent, and the effect of existing by-laws and legislation is in many cases but
to increase the cost of living for the masses.

Cheap housing depends primarily on cheap land and cheap transit. Cottages
compete favourably with block dwellings from the point of view of commercial
and family life. Economic rent is, however, strictly limited, and capital
expenditure on roadmaking and constructional works should be reduced to the
absolute minimum. Prices of building materials are advancing, and the cheap
cottage becoming increasingly difficult.

Garden Cities and Garden Suburbs seek to amalgamate the forces of industrial
progress with those of health and social welfare. Ina system of garden suburbs
linked to a central business community the advantages of both town and country
may be secured.

The effect of public open space and parklands is under present conditions to
increase the value of land in the immediate vicinity, and thus in some cases
to render still more difficult the housing of the poorest part of the community.
The Garden City ideal is to bring every part of the community in close touch
with the open country. The belt of agricultural land has many economic
possibilities, apart from its use for allotments, recreation grounds, and similar
purposes. The pioneer settlements in both Australia and New Zealand were in —
many ways practical forerunners of the Garden City ideal.

The individual owner under a properly considered town-planning proposal
has perfect security as to the development of adjoining properties, and the
growth of a proper civic spirit can be encouraged. Co-partnership in housing,
combined with the limitation of dividends, has achieved great success in the
development of such communities, and by the aid of State loans there are many
further possibilities of co-operation between State, municipality, and individual.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 481

Greater still is the possibility of bringing existing towns into conformity with
Garden City principles. Legislation is necessary to provide for the town
planning of future suburbs and the improvement of existing towns.

MONDAY, AUGUST 24.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Influence of Distribution on Production.
By Professor R. F. Irnvinz, M.A.

The object of this paper was to suggest a line of inquiry rather than to
attempt a complete demonstration.

1. Owing partly to the fact that economists have often failed to give due
weight to social reactions and interactions, the tendency has been to regard
Distribution as a result, and as a result only. The social income is always a
function of production; the amount which is actually distributed depends
entirely upon the efficiency of the Productive system.

2. There was no hint in the ‘Classical’ Political Economy that an improve-
ment in Distribution—by which is meant an approach to greater equality—
might lead to greater social well-being than actual increase of the income.
Professor Pigou has recently shown, and most economists admit the validity of
his reasoning, that ‘so long as the dividend as a whole is not diminished, a gain
to the poor, achieved through more equal distribution, means an addition to
economic welfare.’ This is the first step in the line of argument suggested.

3. The next step is to show that at almost every stage of industrial evolution
there has existed a fund which might have been redistributed without in any
way impairing the efficiency of production.

4. Except in so far as they have recognised the ‘economy of high wages’ or
expressed, in stray passages, the belief that a more equal distribution would be
a gain to production efficiency, economists have made no formal attempt to
examine the further possibility that an improvement in distribution might lead
to an increase in the dividend itself. It was the aim of this paper to suggest that
carefully graduated approaches to greater equality will in the long run result
in (1) a change in the direction of industry, and (2) an increase in the volume of
production.

5. The first point needs little elaboration. If the incomes of the wealthier
classes, or, rather, the amounts they normally expend on consumption, were
reduced by a given amount, and this amount distributed among the poorer
members of the community, it is evident there would be, in consequence, (a) a
diminished production of some of the luxuries of the rich, and (4) an increased
production of the necessaries, comforts, and luxuries desired by the poorer
classes. No matter how slight the increase of ‘purchasing power’ thus diffused
among the latter, it will effect a change in the direction of industry. Society
will begin to organise itself in a new way, better calculated to promote the
general welfare. Fewer workers and less capital will be engaged in the service
of wasteful ostentation and in the provision of luxuries which tend normally to
diminish productivity.

6. But this diffusion of purchasing power cannot stop at a mere diversion of
industry. Given time, it will exercise a powerful stimulus on the whole produc-
tive system. The new force of demand, coming as it does from the millions,
will be persistent and reliable, and will set in motion forces which tend to
progressive improvements in machinery, in processes, in organisation, and finally
to reduced costs. It will tend also to increase the supply of ability by bringing
new classes to a higher plane of existence. A ag

7. There are, of course, limitations, but they are all capable of expansion,
They are :—

(a) Available natural resources.

(6) The capacity of all classes to understand the situation
to make the most of opportunities.

1914.

and to co-operate

482 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

(c) The recognition that if production is to be efficient no factor can safely be
deprived of the stimulus necessary to evoke its fullest service.

(d) The capacity of society to secure control of monopoly, and particularly
monopoly price-making.

8. Illustration of the principle from a consideration of transitions in industrial
history.

9. Its relation to the question of a national minimum. wage and to Wages
Board awards.

2. Some Thoughts on Economic Evolution.
By Professor H. O. Merepiru.

Economic evolution is due partly to changes which are external to the indi-
vidual and are largely non-economic in their own nature. It is part of the
business of the economist to study these changes because they are in themselves
indubitably economic phenomena; but inasmuch as some at least of their causes
belong to the data of other sciences, they illustrate the difficulty of drawing a
precise line between the economic and other fields of study.

Economic evolution is also partly due to a kind of activity which is both
individual and in a strict sense economic. This activity may be called ‘ creative
enterprise’: it offers close analogies to the activities which chiefly determine
progress on other sides of human life. The working of this force has been some-
what neglected or disguised in the development of economic science: mainly
because it lends itself so little to scientific measurement or analysis. This
neglect is of small moment in statical studies, since the force plays no part in
relation to statical phenomena. Its tacit exclusion from dynamic hypotheses
is a more serious matter : a study of dynamic phenomena which neglects one of
their main determinants is necessarily unsatisfactory.

3. The Rate of Interest in Australia. By A. Duckwortu, F.R.Econ.S.

The circumstances which regulate the rate of interest have by many writers
been treated in a somewhat loose way. The rate of interest on new investments
of capital is that which is of chief importance. Some writers regard the real
cause of interest as monopoly, and without private ownership of land, interest
never would have existed, whilst compound interest is asserted to be wrong in
theory. Such views need to be considered in any consideration of the subject.
As regards Australia, borrowed capital has been largely availed of in the
development of the country. The public debt of the Commonwealth exceeds
three hundred millions, but is largely represented by productive assets such as
railways, &c. At times the internal market has been denuded of capital by
Governments competing with private horrowers. The State, by means of the
savings banks, has been able to attract savings of the community to the extent of
about seventy millions. To stop the supply of Government loans would mean
disturbance of trade and stoppage of public works already in progress. Austral-
asian Government loans issued in London falling due up to 1920 exceed fifty
million pounds. The importance of renewals on good terms is obvious. Next to
Governments, the cheque-paying banks control large sums on deposit. Average
deposits, one hundred and one millions in 1893, in 1912 were one hundred and forty-
eight and a half million pounds. The fire and life insurance offices form another
financial factor with funds exceeding sixty million pounds and possibly becoming a
dominating factor in the local markets. As they do not trade on borrowed money,
and need not realise for long periods, they may impartially select both borrower
and security. In England and America their operations are much more extensive.
On the whole, Australia now owes overseas less than she did ten years ago. The
security of the principal of her debt is of course undoubted, being based on
public credit, backed by rates and taxes, and by the revenue from public under-
takings and private enterprises. With a high rate of profit, such as is usually
attendant upon the successful and rapid development of new countries, it follows
that the rate of interest in Australia must continue for long enough to be higher

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 483

than in older settled communities. The taking of interest presents itself in a
different aspect now from that of the Middle Ages, when the actual prohibitions
of the Church were constantly evaded by ingenious legal fictions. Supposing
farmers in Australia to obtain a profit of twenty per cent. in comparison with
farmers in England able only to obtain, say, a profit of ten per cent., the Austra-
lian farmers can obviously afford to pay a higher rate of interest for the use of
the necessary capital. The rate of profit determines in general both the maximum
and the minimum of interest. If any monetary combination were to be pro-
posed so as to secure any monopoly of capital—a money trust—Government
moneys and funds of insurance and other financial corporations would be oppos-
ing factors. The wo1ld’s need for capital leads to higher prices for capital.
Australia is necessarily affected by the outlook, but unforeseen factors may
modify the most careful attempts to forecast the future of the rate of interest in
Australia.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Economics of Marine Fuel. By Professor A. W. Kirgaupy.

The utility of the steamer was limited until :—

(1) Coaling-stations were available at convenient distances on ocean routes.

(2) Improvements were effected in the marine engine and boiler which
resulted in a moderate consumption of fuel. Of these :—

(1) was effected under British stimulus. First the mail routes were
equipped with coaling-stations ; then, when these were prepared to supply fuel
to all comers, the cargo-steamer became a possible competitor with the sailing-
ship. Gradually all routes where steamers can operate have been provided with
coaling-stations. In the first instance these coaling-stations were supplied with
English coal.

The mail and passenger services admitted of heavy expenditure which cargo-
oats competing with sailing-ships, and without subsidies, could not have
faced.

(2) The second limitation to the steamer was met by the invention of the
compound engine in the year 1858. This invention opened up the possibility
of steamers competing with sailing-ships for world-commerce. In 1881 the
triple-expansion engine and subsequent improvements—quadruple expansion,
twin and quadruple screws, the geared-turbine and the internal-combustion
engines—have completed the victory of mechanical propulsion over sails.

At the present moment the attention of managers of cargo-steamers is
focussed on the rivalry between the geared-turbine engine and the internal-
combustion engine.

Coaling-Stations, their Equipment and Supply.

(1) At first they were English both in organisation and in supply of fuel.

(2) Gradually came the opening up of other sources of supply of fuel for
shipping purposes :—

Australia, India, Japan, the United States of America, Germany, South
Africa, etc.

(3) Hence a restriction of the area that can be economically supplied from
English collieries. The area has been reduced, but there has developed an
increased demand for English coal in the smaller area.

(4) The importance of coal freight to ocean commerce :—

(a) ae the bulk of imports and exports in United Kingdom
trade.

(6) The Suez route supplied mainly with British coal.

(ad) What this competition may entail.

484 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

The Economics of Oil Fuel.

Coal in its crude state can only be utilised for steam-raising purposes in a
furnace, hence :—

(1) the necessity of large coal-bunker space in steamers.

(2) coal being comparatively difficult to handle and stow on board ship has
to be placed near the boilers.

(3) the bunkers occupy some of the best cargo space.

(4) these very considerably affect cargo-carrying capacity, and so the
economical working of the ship.

Oil can be utilised in either a furnace or in a cylinder—i.e., may be used for
either reciprocating or internal-combustion engines. This has several im-
portant economic effects :—

(A) Where used as fuel for reciprocating engines :—

(i.) one ton of oil will do the work of 14 ton of coal.

ii.) bunker space is greatly reduced because :—

(a) less fuel need be carried.

(6) the oil can be pumped into any out-of-the-way space in the ship; thus
spaces into which neither coal nor cargo could be stowed can be utilised.

(ii
(iv.) less labour is required :—
(a) only about two-thirds the number of firemen need be carried.
(b) no trimmers are required—these two items reduce the wages bill by about
33 per cent.

(d) less accommodation is required for engine-room staff.

The saving in wages, food, and cost of fuel in a recent trial of oil against
coal, tried on the same vessel, showed an advantage in favour of oil of no less

than 34/. on one day’s steaming on a steamer of 3,800 tons.

(B) In the case of internal combustion engines :—

(i.) one ton of oil will do the work of four tons used for heating boilers.

(ii.) there is considerable reduction of bunker space over oil-consuming
reciprocating engines, and a very much greater saving of space over coal-driven
engines.

(iii.) there is the economy in handling, transporting, storing, and stowing
already noticed.

(iv.) effects on labour :—

(2) less labour is required; here there is an economy over engines driven by
oil fuel, as neither firemen nor trimmers are required.

(b) the number of the other members of the engine-room staff can be reduced.

(c) social effects—these are important. The coaling and stoking of steamers
have a brutalising effect on the men employed.» This is a blot on steam-
ship service. The greater cleanliness and the better conditions of work
connected with the use of oil as fuel will tend to raise the standard of one class
of shipping labour, and will eliminate altogether a type of work which is
inherently brutalising.

(v.) the engines occupy less space and there are no boilers. Hence saving
in space includes :—

(a) bunkers.

(6) engine and boiler-room space.

These are now known to be far greater than was once thought. They
include :—

(I.) Oil in the fluid state.

(II.) Various shales, coal, etc., whence oil can be distilled.

As to (I.) of areas already supplying oil there is Eastern Europe, and
apparently a vast workable area running thence throughout Asia to the Pacific.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 485

The known resources of North and South America are very great, and in
Canada, the West Indies, and in many parts of South America there is promise
of equally rich supplies yet to be tapped.

As to (II.) the various shale areas have hitherto scarcely been worked.
Scotland is rich in shales, and, only to mention newly discovered fields, there
are rich shale areas in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. In nearly
every land area there exist shales, coal of various qualities, or clays whence
oils can be distilled.

So far as coal is concerned, to utilise it in this way would result in
economising coal resources, and much that is now wasted would be utilised.

Some distilled oil contains impurities, but this drawback must sooner or later
be overcome. :

(D) Price of oil :—

This at present is a problem, but some experts are sanguine that when the
oil industry is efficiently organised the great supply available will sell at a
moderate price.

It has been estimated that, given an efficient internal-combustion engine, oil
at even 6/. a ton would show a saving over coal-driven reciprocating engines, at
current coal prices.

(EH) The need of the moment is that the Empire should train men to work
its resources, which promise to be ample for all purposes. At present oil experts
are either Americans or natives of Eastern Europe. Hence the British industry
is, to some extent, in the hands of those possibly having antagonistic interests.

Only one University in the United Kingdom has organised a course of
training for oil-mining. Every modern University in the Empire should supply
this training.

In conclusion, this is not merely a matter of international commercial
competition, It is a far wider question on which the healthy social development
of the Empire may depend. Sources of power must be developed to the utmost
in the interests not only of the trade and commerce of the Empire, but of the
world as a whole. The possibility of the British Empire taking a lower place,
when it contains resources which should enable it to lead the world, would
result in a set-back to civilisation.

2. The Selection of Employment for Juveniles.
By Mrs. C. M. Merepiru.

The selection of employment for juveniles has only recently become a matter
for State action in England. Attention has been directed to it primarily as one
side of the general movement for dealing with unemployment, and as a means of
lessening the number of ‘blind alley’ occupations adopted.

In this paper I propose to discuss two questions :—

1. The considerations of economic importance to the community which should
be kept in view in selecting employment for a boy or girl leaving school at
fourteen.

2. The information at present available to aid in such selection and in what
ways this requires amplification.

1. From the economic point of view the boy’s future work as an adult citizen
is more important than his present capacity for work; hence an employment must
be regarded as ‘ bad’ not only (a) if it tends to produce deterioration (whether
physical, mental, or moral) in the worker, but also (b) if, although healthy and
desirable in itself, it prevents him from getting the training required to enable
him to earn an adequate wage when he is grown up.

It is also necessary to consider how far a boy’s success is dependent on the
nature of the occupation he selects and how far it is chiefly a matter of character
and ‘general’ intelligence. On this point different opinions are held, and some
questions await further investigation, notably that of the connection between
enjoyment of work and efficiency.

2. We require to know (a) the conditions prevailing in the various employ-
ments and the qualities demanded in those who enter them; (b) the qualities

486 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

and tastes of the boy seeking employment. On the former point a considerable
body of evidence is readily available, and more can be obtained without serious
difficulty. The second point presents many more obstacles. The chief sources of
information are: (1) The boy himself, (2) his parents, (3) other persons interested
in him, such as members of the school care committee, (4) the reports from his
school.

Of these sources of information the possibilities of No. 4 have as yet hardly
been recognised in England, with the exception of the reports relating to health.
The school reports on other matters could be extended, and could be based on
evidence collected, by experimental or other means, directly with a view to find-
ing the special qualities whose presence or absence is important as a guide to the
selection of work. 3

3. Inlerim Report on the Question of Fatigue from the Economic
Standpoint.—See Reports, p. 175.

4. Industrial Arbitration in relation to Socialism.
By F. A. A. Russeuu, M.A.

The system of Industrial Arbitration commenced in New South Wales by the
Act of 1901 (Mr. Wise’s Act), the Board system introduced by the Act of 1908
(Mr. Wade’s Act), the rapid creation of Industrial Boards dealing with nearly
all industries in Sydney and in many country parts. This Act becomes a means
of vapid introduction of State regulation of labour both as to wages and other
industrial conditions; the system of the Wade Act continued and enlarged by the
Act of 1912 (Mr. Beeby’s Act). So that for most practical purposes we may
regard the operation of Industrial Arbitration from 1908 to the present moment
as the working of a continuous system, subject mainly to some difference of
administration.

A. First main result of the 1908 Act:—(1) The spread of unionism is
assisted and accelerated both in the country and in the metropolis in industries
where it had before very little foothold, and (2) the consolidation of unionism
where it already obtained. The 1912 Act helps on completion of this process.

B. Further results :—It is my opinion, and I shall attempt to show, that the
Wade Act introduced a larger measure of Industrial Socialism than the leaders
of the party which passed it realised at the time. Suggest there are few people
who realise now the changes capable of being achieved in the industrial structure
of society, and which are in part occurring at the present moment, under these
and similar Acts.

Some description of the more important controversies which have arisen in the
working out of the system and some understanding of the stages reached to date
on the lines of these controversies required to illustrate these views.

(1) Preference to Unionists tends to drive all men into Unions; the mild form
in which it is allowed in New South Wales tends to mitigate personal hardships
in transition stage; its chief value to the Unions lies in fact of further recog-
nition, plus an organising value—not directly injurious to employers (unless the
whole system is injurious)—a part of a Socialist movement, but right in kind.
Combat the idea that personal freedom is really menaced by unionism.

(2) The lines of development of unionism, and of the jurisdictions dealing
with industrial matters. The Crafts v. Industries argument in relation to the
principles on which Unions are constituted, and jurisdictions dealing with them
marked out. Larliest administration of the Beeby Act represents high-water
mark for Craft Unionism in New South Wales. Both the Craft and the Indus-
tries Union are necessary. The problem of adjusting their rights. Opinion that
Unions constituted on the Industry basis are the more suited to modern develop-
ments, and the mere force of circumstances is favouring this principle of con-
stitution, while the Crafts Unions act as a conservative check. The Industries
Union may favour Syndicalist action, but any danger in that should be averted
by means other than an attempt to favour the Craft Union.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 487

(3) Claims for flat rates of wages—reasons advanced—instances of attain-
ment and instances of increasing diversity of rates—general tendency.

C. Rising Wages.—How far the Boards have created, and how far merely
regulated, a rising tide of wages. The effect of increases of wages upon
employers, assets, and business. The relevancy of profits to wages, and the
movement towards the adoption of higher standard for prescribing rates of wages
rather than the mere prevention of sweating; prescribing the standard wage.
Conjecture as to the future operation of the system in periods of falling as well
as of rising markets.

5. The Artificial Regulation of Wages. By G. 8S. Brssy.

The original conception of the Australasian experiments in industrial regula-
tion was the prevention of sweating by the legal enactment of minimum wages.

To this has been added the statutory prohibition of strikes and lock-outs, and
the consequent establishment of tribunals with power to substitute elaborate
codes of working conditions, capable of legal enforcement, for voluntary con-
tracts of employment. There is now suflicient data available to justify a critical
analysis of this experiment.

Industrial arbitration has been successful in removing from Australia the
reproach of sweated industries, and in raising the standard of unskilled workers.

It has proved that permanent conciliatory machinery is of value in bringing
disputing parties together and effecting earlier settlement of serious strikes.

Constant open inquiry into the wages and working conditions of employees
has been of great educational value and has led to more sympathetic considera-
tion by the general public of the wage-earners’ agitation for a higher standard
of comfort, and to a wider public interest in economic problems.

It has failed to give the promised immunity from strikes and lock-outs, but
has reduced the duration and intensity of serious industrial disturbances. By
encouraging and facilitating the organisation of employees in many occupations
which were not previously unionised it has increased the number of minor strikes.

It has contributed to a decline in the standard of efficiency in two ways:
first, by largely increasing the wages payable to unapprenticed juniors, thereby
reducing the incentive to follow fixed trades; secondly, by—in exercise of its
arbitral functions in settlement or prevention of strikes—prescribing high
minima, which become ‘standards,’ thereby removing the competitive incentive
to inefficient workmen to improve their earning capacity. This decline in effli-
ciency is accompanied by a reduction of output. In many occupations, notwith-
standing the increase of wages, the average output per employee has substan-
tially decreased. But this cannot be regarded as a result of artificial regulation
of wages. It is clearly traceable to shortage of labour—the continued increase
in demand for workmen, without a corresponding increase in supply.

Australia’s greatest period of material development and progress has syn-
chronised with its industrial experiments. Employers as a class have up to the
present generally been able to adjust increased labour cost without reducing
profits. But we are approaching the breaking-point. The elaborate codes which
the Arbitration Courts substitute for ordinary contracts of employment, and the
persistent increases in minimum wages, will shortly begin to encroach on profits.
When this happens, and shrinkage of enterprise follows, a general reconsidera-
tion of the whole scheme of industrial regulation is inevitable.

Before long I believe we will sift the good results from the bad, and out of
the whole system will retain the living wage, the maximum hours of employment,
and a revised scheme of apprenticeship. We will draw a line below which there
will be no competition for employment, but above which the ordinary economic
forces will again come into play.

The elaborate machinery now existing will give way to a Board of Trade
which will each two or three years prescribe a general living wage. The attempts
to penalise strikes and lock-outs will give way to simple conciliation machinery,
under which every threatened industrial upheaval will be openly inquired into
and the parties encouraged and assisted to voluntarily settle their differences.

The worker will before long realise that we have reached the limit of artificial

488 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

regulation of wages, and that his energy in the future will be better directed to
increasing the purchasing power of his sovereign, rather than to adding another
sovereign to his weekly wage.

6. The Development of Organisation in relation to Progress.
By We ResScorteaeA DyPhily, Late:

Though the name ‘organisation’ is comparatively new, the idea is old. In
Mercantilism there was involved the conception of the organisation of States on
a national basis instead of the medieval one of a manor or city, and a somewhat
similar tendency may be seen at the present time in the development of the policy
of new countries. The view that the Physiocrats represent a revolt against
Mercantilism is erroneous. There was really continuity of thought. While the
Physiocrats aimed at an ideal of cosmopolitanism, organisation came to be con-
sidered as something emanating from the initiative of individuals, not from the
State, as with the Mercantilists. Under the influence of Adam Smith this idea
continued till biological studies gave as a by-product the conception of ‘social
organisms,’ whence organisation acquired a new meaning in relation to the creat-
ing of such organisms or adding new functions to them. The implied reference
to a social organism causes organisation to be used in an analogical sense, and
there is a tendency to abstract the mode of organising from that which is
organised, and to hypostatise the abstraction—as when organisation is termed an
agent of production.

The modern conception of organisation, when duly limited and defined, is
valuable in suggesting an organic reference; and as indicating that an organised
body is something different from the parts which go to the making of it. But the
term ‘organisation ’ is generally applied to small groups of persons, which may
behave antagonistically to each other. Hence, in this use of the word, modern
organisation is narrower than that which the Mercantilists aimed at. Socialism,
on the other hand, presents a more comprehensive idea of organisation, but one
which most of its advocates now believe is unlikely to be brought into existence
as a completed whole, and which can only be approximated gradually by succes-
sive stages.

In addition to what is now usually called organisation, there is also social
organisation, which is often described as social betterment, social service, or social
reform. This movement involves united action by the whole community for
improving the condition of some section of its members, in the belief that such
action is for the ultimate, if remote, benefit of the State. Instances are to be
found in State-education, State-controlled immigration, labour exchanges, sick-
ness insurance, invalidity insurance, conciliation or arbitration in labour disputes,

Social organisation differs from the primary form of State-activity (e.g., the
defence of the country or the administration of justice) in that, while both are
administered by the State, the latter concerns all citizens, while the former
relates much more nearly to certain groups only. Modern social organisation
differs from that of the Mercantilists in being concerned in the first instance with
the creation of immaterial wealth, though in the end it is likely to yield a vast
return on the labour and outlay in material wealth also. But that return cannot
be predicted as absolutely certain. In most cases the result of social reforms
only appears after a long lapse of time, and therefore there is the danger that,
in the interval before actual experience yields a verification or refutation of the
special form of organisation, social welfare may be pro tanto diminished instead
of being increased. Therefore the conditions under which social organisation
must be carried on render it imperatively necessary that the widest and most
accurate knowledge of economic and social conditions should be available, aided
and supplemented by the tact and judgment of the man of affairs.

7. The Economic Ideal. By Professor 8. J. CHAPMAN.

This paper was an attempt to define the main economic characteristics of the
ultimate end that should be aimed at by social reform. On the productive side

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 489

the need of efficiency is obvious, but in addition production should be directly
yielding in satisfaction and be responsive to demand, From these desiderata
important practical corollaries can be deduced. Two maxims of distribution
can be laid down—the one leading to distribution according to needs, and the
other to distribution according to productive value. They appear to conflict, but
analysis of fundamental ideas seems to show that their harmony is not inherently
impossible. In consumption or demand the ideal is easily stated, but the
reform of demand has hitherto proved itself a remarkably intractable problem.
‘Individualising ’ betterment is of great value, but massive results can only
be attained when it is aided by a suitable environment and measures calculated
to mould class ideas. Socialism and Individualism, as commonly understood
to-day, relate mainly to means. Advocates of both may agree as to ends; and to
attain this agreement would save endless futilities in discussion and action.

490 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS,

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

PRESIDENT OF THE SxctTIoN.—Professor E. G. Coxer, M.A., D.Sc.,
M.Inst.C.EH.

The President delivered the following Address at Sydney on Friday,
August 21 :—

Tue subject of stress distribution in materials, which I have chosen for this
address, is not one which an engineer can claim as his peculiar province, for it
has been and still is a fruitful field of investigation for the mathematician, the
physicist and the geologist, and has always been so since the commencement of
scientific inquiry ; indeed, it must have been the source of speculation and con-
troversy ever since mankind emerged from a primitive state, and began to fashion
dwellings, weapons, and tools from the materials at command.

The development of architecture from the earliest dwellings of savage races
to the great temples of Egypt and Greece, the bridges and aqueducts of the
Romans, and the medieval buildings of Europe, all bear witness to the accumula-
tion of practical knowledge of the properties of materials and of the stress dis-
tribution in structures, which we cannot fail to admire, although we know far
too little of the way in which these ancient structures were planned and con-
structed. The magnificent arched and domed buildings of the Roman period, and
the stately cathedrals of later times with their wealth of architectural form—
tower and spire, flying buttress and vaulting—all show how considerable was the
practical knowledge of stress distribution possessed by the master builders who
planned and carried out these great structures. We, who inherit these buildings
as a precious legacy of bygone ages, have at our command far greater resources
in the accumulated knowledge of centuries of scientific discovery and invention,
and can build more complex structures—great bridges of steel, towering frame-
works covered by a thin veneer of masonry, and floating arsenals of the most
bewildering intricacy. All these we can show to our credit as the result of the
steady increase of scientific knowledge applied to practical ends, but, even now,
knowledge of the stresses which come upon these complex structures and
machines is relatively small. Scientific investigations of engineering problems of
stress still lag behind constructive ability, and defective knowledge is obscured
more or less by approximate theories and buttressed by factors of safety, which
serve in one instance perhaps, but show in others that they have merely given a
sense of fancied security with no real basis, and are more properly factors of
ignorance, to be discarded at the earliest moment. Who, for example, can say
with certainty what is the stress distribution throughout the compression members
of a great bridge, built up of complicated steel shapes and plates, united by
stiffening angles, gusset plates, and innumerable rivets? There is probably good
reason for the belief that a great strut is relatively weaker than a small one,
when both are designed according to the same approximate formule now used in
current practice, and engineers are unwilling to take the responsibility for such
members in a great structure, without providing a very ample margin of safety
to cover the contingencies arising from lack of precise knowledge of the strength
of these members. So numerous are the problems which arise in the design and
construction of machines and structures, that it is perhaps not unprofitable to

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 491

devote a short hour to the consideration of some of the available means which
an engineer can use as a guide for his applications of science to construction,
since of whatever kind are the professional activities he pursues, his place in the
scheme of afiairs mainly depends on his ability to make machines and structures
for directing and modifying natural sources of power in known ways, or applying
them to new purposes as scientific discoveries advance the boundaries of
knowledge.

The power to do this depends, to no small extent, upon the ability to deter-
mine the distribution of stress in a structure, and the skilful manner in which
material can be disposed for the required purpose.

It is of some help to our appreciation of the achievements of the great con-
structors of past ages, if we remember that they probably all held the erroneous
view that materials of construction are perfectly rigid bodies, and, indeed, we
know that as late as 1638 Galileo Galilei was of that opinion, and that he came
to an entirely wrong conclusion as regards the stress distribution in a loaded
cantilever.

It required the genius and insight of Robert Hooke to make a really great
step, with his celebrated theory of the linear relation of stress to strain, and we
can appreciate the glow of pride and satisfaction which he must have felt at his
great discovery, when he records in 1675 that ‘his Majesty was pleased to see the
experiment that made out this theory tried at Whitehall, as also my spring
watch.’

Hooke had, in fact, discovered the fundamental principle upon which a
theory of the elasticity and strength of materials could be based, and it would be
interesting to trace the great advances which were rapidly made from this new
vantage-grouud, whereby the main facts of the distribution of stress in simple
members of structures became known, and a foundation was laid for the great
advances of the mathematical theory. If I am silent upon the enormous develop-
ments of the modern theory of the strength of materials it is not from lack of
appreciation, but because I do not deem myself adequately fitted to discuss the
great work of the elasticians, which all engineers admire, and so few are
equipped to follow with the full battery of mathematical tools which have been
pressed into service in the pursuit of this great science.

Among the greatest of the services rendered by early pioneers was that of
Young, who was the first to notice that the elastic resistance of a body to shear
was different from its resistance to extension or contraction, and this led him to
define a modulus of elasticity for materials in compression. As Professor Love
remarks, ‘This introduction of a definite physical concept, which descends, as
it were, from a clear sky on the readers of mathematical memoirs, marks an
epoch in the history of the science.’

From the standpoint of the engineer, nothing is of more practical importance
than the great discoveries of Hooke and Young, that bodies like metal, wood, and
stone are ‘springy’ and have a simple linear relation between stress and strain.
It is probably within the mark to say that nine-tenths of all the experimental
investigations on stress distributions in structures have been entirely based on
the fundamental principles which they enunciated, and new uses are continually
arising. The recent application of the steam turbine to the propulsion of ships
produced a profound change in marine-engine practice, and incidentally involved
an entire reconstruction of methods for obtaining the horse-power developed,
which had been gradually perfected from the time of Watt, but were absolutely
useless for the new system of propulsion. Hooke’s discovery of the essential
springiness of metals enabled engineers quickly to devise new instruments capable
of accurately measuring the infinitesimal angular distortions of propeller shafts,
and from these to determine the horse-power transmitted by the aid of an appro-
priate modulus.

The construction of tall buildings affords another example where advantage
has been taken to determine the loads upon columns by measuring the minute
diminutions of length as the structure proceeds, thereby affording a valuable
check upon the calculations for these members, and a reliable indication of the
pressures supported by the foundations.

The distribution of stress in buildings constructed of composite materials like
concrete reinforced with steel has also been examined by similar methods, and

492 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

much data for guidance in future constructional work has been obtained,
especially in the United States of America.

The still more difficult problems involved in the determination of the stresses
in joints and fastenings of complicated structures have often been investigated
by purely mechanical measurements of strain, and the experimental investigations
of Professors Barraclough and Gibson and their pupils upon the distribution of
stress due to riveted joints and curved plates of boiler shells afford a notable
example of the successful application of the measurement of small strains to a
stress problem of great complexity.

That ‘ science is measurement’ is here sufficiently obvious, and it seems only
due to the memory of that great engineer, Sir Joseph Whitworth, to refer to his
great mechanical achievements of a true plane and well-nigh perfect screw,
which enabled him to measure changes of one-millionth of an inch, and thereby
gave experimental investigations of strains a new impetus, which is reflected in
subsequent work on the subject. Nor must we forget the no less important
exposition, by Kelvin and Tait, of the scientific principles of instrument construc-
tion which have done so much for the design of instruments for the precise
measurement of strains.

Mechanical measurements cannot, however, completely satisfy all our modern
requirements, since they are essentially average values, and fail to accommodate
themselves to many of the problems which press for solution.

In the quest for exact experimental knowledge, the measurement of stress at
a point becomes of paramount importance, and we may, therefore, inquire what
further means the researches of pure science have placed at our disposal for the
determination of stress distribution in materials.

It is well known that many materials when tested to destruction show a
considerable rise of temperature at the place of fracture, especially in very ductile
materials; but Weber was the first to discover that a metal wire when stretched
within the elastic limit is cooled by the action of the load, and this result was
deducted later from the laws of thermo-elastic behaviour of materials by Lord
Kelvin, who showed that tension and compression loads produce opposite effects,
and that materials which have the property of contracting with rise of tempera-
ture show thermal effects of the reverse kind. Although the changes of tem-
perature produced by stress are small within the elastic range—less than 1° C.
for most materials—yet their effect upon a thermo-couple is readily measurable
if the equilibrating effects of surrounding bodies are neutralised or allowed for,
so that stress distribution can be determined by thermal measurements at a point.
The correction for such disturbing causes is usually an important factor, and is
generally so large that experimental work is more suitable for the laboratory than
the workshop; but if all necessary precautions are taken a linear relation of stress
to strain can be shown to hold up to the elastic limit of the material, while above
this point the break-down of the structure causes a rise of temperature of so
marked a character that it has been utilised by several investigators as an indi-
cation of the yield point.

Experiments, upon members subjected to tension, compression, and bending,
show that thermal phenomena afford trustworthy indications of the stress in
materials so diverse as a rolled-steel section, a block of cement, and beams of
stone and slate. Although no attempt appears to have been made to investigate
stress distributions of any great complexity, it seems not unlikely that thermal
methods of investigation will ultimately prove of considerable value.

The transparency of metals to Réntgen rays is another phenomenon which
has often been suggested as likely to be of service for work on stress distribution
in materials, and Mr. Howgrave Graham and I have examined a number of
rolled metals under stress up to the breaking point, without, however, discovering
any change in the appearance of the material as seen on a fluorescent screen.
Although our experiments showed no perceptible change, it is, of course, not
impossible that an effect may have escaped our notice.

Another and still more fascinating field of research on stress distribution is
afforded by the doubly refractive properties of transparent bodies under stress,
a discovery made by Sir David Brewster almost exactly one hundred years
ago, and but rarely made use of since by engineers, although Brewster himself
immediately saw its value for experimental purposes, and suggested that models

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 493

of arches might be made of glass, and the effects of stresses due to loading
rendered visible in polarised light.

Brewster carried his investigations further, by the invention of a ‘ chromatic
teinometer’ for investigating the nature of strains, and consisting of plates or
bars of glass subjected to flexure in definite ways for comparison with the body
under stress.

At a much later date (1841) Neumann developed an elaborate theory for the
analysis of strain in transparent bodies due to load, unequal temperature, and
set, while, still later, the youthful genius of Clerk-Maxwell supplied an algebraic
solution for the stress distribution in any plate subjected to stresses in its own

lane.

‘i The early history of the development of this branch of science is, in fact,
remarkable for notable contributions at long intervals of time, and the almost
complete disregard by engineers of its practical importance.

The application of optical investigation to the determination of stress distri-
bution in engineering structures and machines has, however, been hindered by
causes which, although apparently insignificant, have been very real obstacles,
and among these was the absence of a transparent material which could be
fashioned into shapes suitable for investigating technical problems. It is not
an easy matter, for example, to construct a glass model of a bridge free from
internal stress, in the manner suggested by Brewster; and, moreover, glass is
extremely fragile under load, especially in cases where the stress distribution
in it varies very much, while the cost of construction is very great. Happily
there is now no necessity to employ glass for experimental investigation on
engineering problems, since modern chemistry has supplied artificial bodies, such
as the nitro-cellulose compounds used for many trade purposes, which have
optical properties very little inferior to glass, are able to bear great stresses
without injury, and also are capable of being fashioned with the ease and cer-
tainty of a wooden model. Photographic processes are also able to reproduce the
brilliant colour effects caused by stress in transparent materials, so that per-
manent records can now be made for future reference.

The construction of polariscopes for examining models on a large scale is
very essential for technical research, and the great scarcity of Iceland spar of
sufficient purity and size for use as Nicol’s prisms has caused much attention
to be paid to the construction of apparatus for producing plane polarised light
by the aid of sheets of glass. Fortunately this presents little difficulty, and
although the light is not nearly so well polarised as that obtained from a Nicol’s
prism it is sufficiently so for the purpose. Large quarter-wave plates of mica
have also been constructed by my. colleague, Professor Silvanus Thompson,
F.R.S., for obtaining circularly polarised light, and these have proved suffi-
ciently exact and exceedingly useful for large models.

It is of importance to show that the stress distribution revealed by a
polarised beam of light passing through an elastic transparent material in no
way differs from that obtained by other means, and evidence is available in
modern researches, especially by Filon, that the experimental results obtained
with glass agree with those of the theory of elasticity, while a satisfactory
agreement of a similar kind has also been obtained with nitro-cellulose com-
pounds, although not in so complete and direct a manner. Such an agreement
may be expected on theoretical grounds, since the values of the elastic constants
do not affect the fundamental equations for stresses in a plane, and although for
three-dimensional stress the effect of the stretch-squeeze ratio causes some
difference, yet this is usually negligible.

Most of the physical constants of glass have been determined with very con-
siderable accuracy, but other transparent substances have so far received little
attention, and their optical constants are not well known. The stress-strain
relations of glass and nitro-cellulose have been determined with considerable
accuracy, and a useful idea of their relation to metals may be gained from the
values of the stretch-modulus, EF, and the stretch-squeeze ratio, s.

The accompanying table shows some average values for a few important
materials, and it is of interest to note that the stretch-squeeze ratios of cast
iron and plate-glass are very similar, while the values of the stretch modulus
are nearly as three to two. These two materials also possess other like charac-

494 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

teristics: they are both very brittle, and possess well-developed crystalline struc-
ture, so that we may expect the properties of cast iron under stress to be very
faithfully followed by plate-glass.

Material E c
Steel 4 ‘ ; : 5 30,000,000 0°25
Wroughtiron . . . . 28,000,000 0:28
Cast iron . : ; 3 4 15,000,000 0:25
Plate-glass . : , ‘ : 10,500,000 0:23
Nitro-cellulose . ; ; : 260,000 to 300,000 0:40

The high values of the stretch modulus for steel and wrought iron are not,
apparently, approached by any transparent material having similar ductile pro-
perties, but although nitro-cellulose has a stretch modulus of rather less than
one-hundredth that of steel, its stress-strain properties are not unlike. In some
recent experiments with a miniature testing machine fitted with an arrangement
for recording the stress-strain relations of xylonite throughout the whole range
of stress up to fracture, the main characteristics of steel appear on a very much
reduced scale, and give additional confidence that the results of optical experi-
ments on this material are applicable to metal structures.

The complete analysis of stress distribution in a plate is not, however, a
simple matter, and the analysis of Clerk-Maxwell was intended to provide a
solution based on the properties of the isochromatic and isoclinic lines, coupled
with the law that the optical effect is proportional to the difference of the
principal stresses at a point, and to the thickness of the plate.

A principal stress perpendicular to the bounding planes is assumed to have
no optical effect ; but since many cases have arisen where there are three principal
stress components, it seemed desirable to examine such a case experimentally.

It is a matter of some difficulty to arrange apparatus to stress a specimen in
the direction of the incident beam, and at the same time observe the optical
effect free from disturbing causes, since a transparent medium must be inter-
posed for applying the required load, and this will be subject to stresses which
may interfere with the optical effect on the specimen.

Some observations on circular plates clamped at the edges and uniformly
loaded over one face, showed that the bending stresses produced in the plate
caused very little optical effect, since the tension and compression stresses
neutralised one another, while the shear effects also appeared to be practically
negligible. The only remaining stresses of importance were those caused by the
clamping plates at the boundary, which produced radial and circumferential
stresses having circular symmetry, and as the optical effects of these latter dis-
appeared at a small distance from the edge, a field of view was obtained in which
the optical effects of load applied perpendicularly to the plate were quite small,
even when the internal stresses were very great.

Two circular plates clamped together to enclose a space between them may
therefore be used as windows for observing the effect of a uniform pressure upon
a transparent specimen, which latter may be a plate with its faces parallel to
the end plates closing the chamber. If cubical compression is applied by a fluid,
the principal stresses in the plane of the plate produce opposing optical effects,
and any remaining effect is due to perpendicular pressures on the faces. The
arrangement of experimental apparatus, therefore, took the form of a pair of
transparent windows separated by an annular disc, and firmly clamped together
by collars. The central chamber so formed was subjected to pressure of air, or
other fluid, up to about one thousand pounds per square inch, and afterwards
the specimen was introduced and the same pressure applied; but no visible
change of effect could be observed. Finally, the specimen was set in the field
of view outside the chamber, and pressure again applied by the fluid, but still
no change was apparent. In all three cases the optical effects produced were
small, and practically alike, so that the experimental evidence appears to warrant
the conclusion that a principal stress in the direction of an incident beam of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 495

polarised light has no optical effect in a thin plate, or at any rate is so small
that it may be neglected.

That the retardation between the ordinary and extraordinary rays is pro-
portional to the stress difference perpendicular to the incident beam within the
elastic limit of the material may, therefore, be taken as reasonably accurate,
although future research may show that it is only an approximation, or even
that it is more accurate to commence from a fundamental strain equation; but
according to present knowledge there appears to be no warrant for such a
procedure.

A more pressing difficulty arises with regard to the optical constant connecting
the wave-length retardation with the stress difference. The recent researches of
Filon on glass show that the value of this constant is curiously dependent on the
previous history of the material, especially as regards its heat treatment. Until
further knowledge is gained on this matter it appears to be necessary to guard
against errors in stress measurement from this cause by a careful selection and
treatment of the material used, since for other artificial bodies we may find that
the variation in the constant is not less in magnitude, and is at least as complex
as in glass. In some instances the stress optical coefficient may be dispensed
with, and Filon has shown, in cases where a theory of stress distribution has
been worked out and it is desired to compare it with the results of optical
measurements, that the isoclinic lines offer many advantages, since they are
independent of photo-elastic constants, and the material need only be subjected
to small stresses.

The experimental analysis of stress distribution in a body depends on the
‘possibility of finding the magnitudes and directions of the principal stresses at
every point, and in practice it is found the simplest plan to determine the
directions of stress from the lines of equal inclination obtained in plane
polarised light, and to measure the stress difference by comparison with a wave-
length standard, such as a Babinet compensator, or by comparison with a simple
tension member set along one of the lines of principal stress, and loaded until
the total effect produced is a dark field denoting a zero value. The difference
of the principal stresses is then measured in terms of a simple tension. This
alone is insufficient to determine the distribution, unless one of the principal
stresses is zero, and, in general, another independent measure must be obtained.
This is very conveniently supplied, as Mesnager suggested, by the change in the
lateral dimensions of the plate under stress, since this change may be taken, in
the absence of a third principal stress, as proportional to the generalised sum of
the principal stresses throughout the thickness.

The determination of the lateral strains in a comparatively thin plate, forming
part of a model of a machine or structure, necessitates measurements of
extremely minute linear quantities. If, for example, a plate of xylonite is
taken, of the maximum thickness obtainable for optical work, a simple calcu-
lation shows that these strains must be measured to an accuracy of one or two
millionths of an inch. Several instruments have been designed and constructed
for this purpose, to fulfil conditions which appear to be essential for successful
use. It is necessary to avoid all chance of injury to the surface of a transparent
material, so that the measuring points of an instrument can only be pressed
lightly against the surfaces, and the weight must, therefore, be supported inde-
pendently of the model. In instruments so far constructed, the measuring
mechanism is carried on a U-shaped frame, for convenience of movement from
point to point of the specimen. One measuring needle is secured and operated
by a calibrating screw, and the other is free to move a multiplying lever system,
and thereby tilt a mirror to give an angular deflection, which latter is calibrated
by reference to the standard screw when the instrument has been finally secured
in place. In recent work the labour of accurately setting the instrument in a
number of different positions has proved so great, that my assistant, Mr. F. H.
Withycombe, has designed a useful adjunct in the form of a mechanical slide-
rest, to effect the required changes easily and expeditiously. In one arrange-
ment, a bracket carries the measuring instrument on a three-point sup-
port, and movement is effected by slides arranged to give displacements along
three axes at right angles, and their amounts are measured by micrometer screws
to an accuracy of rather less than one-thousandth of an inch.

496 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

These methods of stress determination avoid the difficulties of the Clerk-
Maxwell analysis, which necessitates the determination of the equations to both
families of isochromatic and isoclinic bands, usually a mathematical problem of
considerable complexity. In some simple cases Mr. Scoble and I have verified
the accuracy of the method of lateral measurements for determining the sum of
the principal stresses, by comparing the calculated stresses with the experimental
values obtained in a plate of transparent material. We have lately carried these
experiments a stage further, and have shown that the measured sums of the
principal stresses in steel agree with the calculated values. This experimental
solution, in fact, gives the stress at a point in a plate, if the conditions are those
assumed by the mathematical case of a plate where generalised equations of
stress apply.

It is at once obvious, if the utility of experiments on models of this kind is
admitted, that experimental evidence is available on a variety of practical
engineering problems covering a very wide field of practice, not merely qualita-
tive, but quantitative, and approximating to the needs of the physicist and
mathematician, and well within the known variations of the materials with which
the engineer has to deal in his daily practice.

During the last few years much attention has been paid to the determination
of the stresses in structural elements of primary importance, but only a small
number of cases have been examined, since even the simplest problems have
proved somewhat difficult, and much time and labour have been spent in per-
fecting optical and mechanical appliances to suit the special conditions required
for investigations on transparent models. A simple example of a case easily
examined and of practical importance is that of a tension member subjected to
an eccentric load. The optical effects here show a linear distribution of stress
due to the combination of direct pull and bending, while the neutral axis moves
towards the tension side as the stress increases. Not only can these effects be
measured, but if the specimen begins to fail some indication is obtained of the
way in which the stress distribution is changed to meet the new conditions, and
there is found a tendency to an equalisation of the maximum stress at the
boundary, although at present the form of the curve of distribution beyond the
elastic limit is largely conjectural.

A case like that of a very short member subjected to direct compression is
also not without interest, partly because it reveals unexpected difficulties. In
the first place it is not easy to apply a pure compression stress, and if the sur-
faces in contact are not of the same materials it appears to be practically im-
possible, since the lateral changes are unlike, and shear stress is therefore
produced at the plane of the surfaces in contact. In a short member this shear
has a very important influence, and by interposing a thin layer of a material,
such as india-rubber, between the pressure plates and the short transparent block,
the artificial shear effect produced by the india-rubber is easily shown to in-
fluence the distribution throughout, and to increase the stress in a very marked
way. Experiments on transparent materials show that the increase of stress may
be twenty per cent. or even more. Such an elfect is known to take place when
cubes of stone are crushed between lead plates, and optical investigations on
models have enabled a quantitative measure of the effect to be ascertained in
this and other cases, thereby confirming the theoretical investigations of Filon
on the distribution of stress in such members under various practical systems of
loading.

The local effects produced near the points of application of a load are usually
of considerable importance, and their influence on the stress distribution in
beams has been examined by Carus-Wilson.

The stress effects produced by discontinuities in materials is also of con-
siderable interest, and the cases arising from the necessities of construction are
infinite in their variety.

The practical importance of an accurate knowledge of the change in stress
distribution produced by changes of section in a member is so thoroughly appre-
ciated that it needs no insistence, and it has received much attention from a
mathematical point of view. Thus the local effect of a spherical cavity in a
member subjected to uniform tension or compression load has been shown by
Love to double the intensity very nearly, while Kirsch has shown that a small

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 497

cylindrical hole in a tension member trebles the stress intensity. If the hole
is elliptical the increase of stress may be still greater, and Inglis has shown,
among other interesting cases, that if the minor axis of the ellipse is parallel
to the direction of the applied load in a tension member, the stress intensity
is increased by an amount measured by twice the ratio of the axis of the ellipse.

A crack, considered as the limiting case of an elliptical hole, is thus seen to
give extremely great stresses at the ends, tending towards infinite values for
an extremely fine crack.

Optical experiments afford an independent means of examining the alterations
of stress intensity produced by discontinuities, and the results are found to agree
remarkably well with those obtained from the theory of elasticity. The stress at
the boundary of a small cylindrical hole in a plate has been found to be almost
exactly three times the stress in the full plate, and the effects of holes com-
parable with the width of the tension member have also been examined in some
detail.

In the case of a rivet just filling the hole and exerting no tangential effect
at the boundary, there is a lessened tension stress across the minimum section
at the boundary hole, accompanied by a marked radial tension. These effects have
been recently confirmed in a mathematical discussion by Suyehiro. Other cases
give satisfactory agreement with calculation, and we may therefore feel some
confidence that experimental investigation will prove useful in some of the very
complicated cases arising out of engineering practice where analysis is difficult,
if not impossible.

The effects of overstress in materials may also be examined by optical means,
and although the laws relating to stress distribution in overstressed transparent
material are not known, the general effects observed in simple cases are fairly
evident. If, for example, a tension member of glass is stressed, there is no
ductile yielding of the material, and the stress will therefore rise very rapidly
at the boundary of a small hole, and fracture will therefore occur with a
moderate load. If, however, a ductile transparent material is employed, and
the material shows signs of failure at the hole, the break-down of the structure
spreads outwards as the load is increased, until we may have a condition in which
within the elastic limit the curve of stress intensity at the minimum section
accords with calculation, but at the overstressed part the stress tends to equalise,
and the curve of intensity tends to become horizontal near the hole. The mean
value of this part of the stress distribution may be inferred from the difference
between the total load and the measured values below the region of failure;
but the true distribution of the overstress has not been accurately determined, so
that the shape of this peak is largely conjectural.

The effects of groups of rivets such as occur in bridges, boilers, and struc-
tural members of all kinds, afford ample scope for further inquiry; but before
more exact knowledge can be gained of the condition of stress in a complicated
riveted joint it appears necessary to examine thoroughly the very simple cases.

Mr. Scoble and I have examined the case of the load applied by one rivet to
a plate with various amounts of overlap, and the stresses around the rivet holes
have been measured with fair accuracy.

Other interesting cases of discontinuity in structure are afforded by the
engine hatchways, gun-turrets, funnel openings, and the like, in ships’ decks, and
some progress in this direction has been made by experiments on model decks,
subjected to loads like those produced when a vessel meets the waves due to a
head sea.

Even if the utility of transparent models is left out of account, it is generally
acknowledged that many engineering problems are often simplified by the use of
models of machines and structures on a small scale, where circumstances forbid
experimental examination of the actual work. No defence of their use is, I
think, necessary, since the employment of models is a characteristic feature of
British methods, not limited to engineers. Kelvin did not disdain their use, and
his successors, who have done so much to advance knowledge of the ether and the
atomic dust, have freely employed their great ingenuity in the construction of
mechanical models and diagrams to explain their views, as in the Lodge cog-wheel
diagrams of the ether, the planetary systems of atoms of J. J. Thomson and
Rutherford, and the grouping of elements by Soddy.

1914. K K

498 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

Engineers have not the same great difficulties which confront those who are
advancing the boundaries of pure science; their models are very much what they
please to make them; but, even then, problems arise which are sufficiently difficult
to tax all the resources of applied science. The behaviour of models considered
as similar structures is, therefore, a subject which engineers are bound to inves-
tigate in order to determine the effects of fixed and moving loads, the action of
wind, the pressure and frictional effects of steam and other fluids, and many
other problems.

In the majority of cases the simplest and the most direct method is the
experimental study of a model, from which to obtain the data required for
calculating effects on a full-sized structure, and hence the laws of similarity have
received a very close scrutiny.

Although most valuable information can be obtained from models, their use-
fulness is clearly limited. The effects of the dead weight of a structure are pro-
portional to the cube of the linear dimensions, and are, therefore, not usually
measurable on a model except in exceptional circumstances, as, for instance,
where elastic jellies are employed, as in the well-known investigations of Pearson
on the stress distribution in reservoir dams. Nor are questions of stability easy
to solve, since the forces producing instability are proportional to the size of the
model. On the other hand, stress effects due to applications of load may be
measured by the strains produced in a model of the same material, if the loads
are proportional to the squares of the linear dimensions. The effects of applied
load are studied even better in a model constructed of transparent material, since
the variation of stress from point to point can be studied with much greater ease
and certainty.

As detailed models of this latter kind present some variations from the usual
laws of similarity, it may be of interest to indicate their nature. Questions of
deformation clearly involve the elastic constants of the transparent material and
their relation to those of the proposed structure, while stress distribution in the
solid is influenced by the value of Poisson’s ratio. This latter effect is quite
small for glass, but may become appreciable with other substance. It is
negligible in a model of any material which approximates to a thin plate stressed
by forces in its own plane.

The optical effects for any given load are, moreover, independent of the thick-
ness of the material, and depend upon the stress difference, so that colour effects
are obtained which may be regarded as pictures of shear stress throughout the
model. Modern researches on ductile materials like structural steel indicate that
such materials fail at some limiting value of shearing stress, and since the places
where these limiting values are reached in the model are visible to the eye, the
weak places in the design of a structure can be ascertained and a faulty design
corrected by purely experimental means.

In this connection it is of interest to mention that M. Mesnager, the chief
engineer of bridges and roads to the French Government, has recently constructed
an elaborate model in glass of a design for an arched bridge of about 310 feet
span. This investigation was considered advisable for a work of this magnitude
constructed of reinforced concrete, in order to check the calculations, especially
of maximum stresses in the arched ribs, which iatter were assumed to be fixed at
the ends.

The effects of reinforcements were allowed for by determining equivalent
sections of glass for the members of the model. Many difficulties had to be over-
come in the production of a model free from optical defects, but these were all
successfully surmounted. The stresses in the model were determined by aid of a
Babinet compensator, and formed a valuable check upon the calculations for a
structure of this great magnitude and somewhat unusual design.

In this brief and incomplete account of a small branch of applied science
relating to engineering the fundamental importance of discoveries in pure science
is manifest.

The discoveries in pure science and their innumerable applications to practical
ends are ever a potent factor working for the common good, and the value which
the British Association places upon applied science was most cordially voiced by
Professor Bateson in his Portsmouth Address when he said : ‘ To the creation of
applicable science the very highest gifts and training are well devoted,’ and,

eae: PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 499

‘The man who devotes his life to applied science should be made to feel that he
is in the main stream of scientific progress. If he is not, both his work and
science at large will suffer. The opportunities of discovery are so few that we
cannot afford to miss any, and it is to the man of trained mind, who is in contact
with the phenomenon of a great applied science, that such opportunities are most
often given’; and, again, ‘If we are to progress fast there must be no separation
between pure and applied science. The practical man with his wide knowledge of
specific natural facts, and the scientific student ever seeking to find the hard
general truths which the diversity of Nature hides—truths out of which any
lasting structure of progress must be built—have everything to gain from free
interchange of experience and ideas.’

Engineers who are more immediately concerned with the problems of directing
the great sources of power in Nature for the use and convenience of man are
indeed grateful to our President for these inspiring words, and trust that the ties
which unite investigators in pure and applied science will never slacken, but will
knit together more closely for a joint advance to a more perfect understanding
and utilisation of the laws of Nature.

MELBOURNE.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 14.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Aviation Research. By Professor J. E. Peraven, F.R.S.

2. Railways and Motive-Power.
By Professor W. E. Datay, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.

The object of the paper was to initiate a general discussion on the question of
railway development in Australia. Various curves relating to the development
and cost of working of English railways were shown on the screen, The question
of motive-power was then considered and the advantages of the locomotive and
the electric motor compared. Curves were also shown illustrating the proportion
of fuel actually used to draw a train as compared with the quantity fired in the
furnace of a steam locomotive and in the furnace of a central station in the case
of electric traction. Other curves illustrated the limits of economy and speed of
a steam locomotive and the electric motor compared together in relation to
special problems in connexion with suburban traffic.

3. A Transmission System suitable for Heavy Internal-Combustion
Locomotives.t By Hepury J. Tuomson, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E.,
M.1.E.E.

The author pointed out that the slow progress made in the use of internal-
combustion engines for heavy traction has been due to the want of suitable
variable-speed control mechanism. He enumerated four types of variable-speed
gear, and gave in detail, with diagrams, a technical description of the Thomas
electro-mechanical transmission, which is put forward as the most suitable for the
class of work referred to. With this system, so long as the prime mover, when in
direct drive, can overcome the resistance encountered, the transmission is direct
and altogether mechanical. At all other times the power of the prime mover is
divided by means of planetary gearing into two parts, one portion being applied
to the load by electrical means and the other mechanically. The electric trans-
mission ensures that ease of control characteristic of all electrical drives, and yet,
owing to the large proportion of the total power transmitted mechanically, the
system is not subject to the heavy losses unavoidable with a system wholly

* Published in the Electrician, vol. Ixxiii., p. 826.

iat
A
bo

500 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

electrical. It was stated that for general locomotive work on a route with give-
and-take grades, only 1 per cent. of the total energy of the prime mover would be
lost in the electrical apparatus used.

Particulars were given of results calculated as obtainable with the system as
applied to 1,000 h.p. express locomotive, and in conclusion it was suggested that
the system should be of special interest to railway engineers, particularly in
countries where difficulties are encountered in providing satisfactory supplies of
water and fuel for steam locomotion. :

4. The Canberra Plan. By Water BurLey GRIFFIN.

Canberra is the name of the future Federal Capital of the Commonwealth of
Australia. The author discussed the principles underlying modern town plan-
ning with special reference to the lay-out of an administrative capital. It was
shown how these principles have been applied in the scheme adopted at Canberra
and how the natural features of the landscape have been utilised.

5. Development of the Port of London. By C. R. 8. Kirkpatrick.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 18.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. The Behaviour of Metals under Stram.
By Wauter Rosznuain, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

For a rational understanding of the behaviour of metals under strain the
truly crystalline character of all metals and alloys in their normal (cast or
annealed) state is of fundamental importance. Evidence for this fundamental
proposition is readily obtained by the microscope in a variety of ways, including
the development of ‘etch figures,’ ‘negative crystals,’ and the ‘ oriented lustre’
of crystalline aggregates. The manner in which a crystalline aggregate is formed
when a material undergues solidification by a process of dendritic crystallisation
such as is typical in metals is illustrated by the building up of aggregates of
cubical blocks, a process which is shown by the aid of the cinematograph. By
the same means the behaviour of etched metal surfaces under oblique light is
demonstrated. The behaviour of crystals and of a crystalline aggregate under
plastic deformation is next considered, and the manner in which a crystal can
undergo deformation by a process of slip on its cleavage or gliding planes is
explained and illustrated by the cinematograph, a summary of the evidence upon
which our present knowledge of the true nature of plastic deformation is based
being given and illustrated. :

The more detailed and difficult questions connected with the deformation and
fracture of metals which have received increasing attention recently are next
considered, including such phenomena as ‘ fatigue,’ testing by, and failure under,
shock or repeated impact, and the phenomena of semi-plasticity and elastic
recovery. The behaviour of metals at high temperatures is also discussed, and the
explanation of these phenomena afforded by the modern development of the theory
of an amorphous phase in metals, as originated by Beilby and extended by the
author and his collaborators, is summarised.

2. The Testing of Materials.*
By Professor W. HE. Dasy, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.H.

In this paper a short account of some modern photographic methods of test-
ing materials was given. The practice of showing the structure of metals by

1 Published in Engineering, September 4, 1914.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 5O1

means of microphotography has steadily developed during the last few years.
The author has recently applied a photographic method for obtaining a record
of the relation between the load and extension of metals right up to the break-
ing point. The diagrams taken in this way show very clearly the peculiarities
of the metals at their yield points, and also the load actually on the specimen
at the moment of fracture. The combination of the two methods offers a
promising field for research. Some photographic records and microphotographs
were exhibited on the screen.

3. The Humphrey Pump.
By H. A. Humpurey, M.Inst.C.H., M.1.H.E.

The paper explained the principle, theory, and construction of these pumps,
and concluded with a description of the two most important installations—the
plant at the King George V. Reservoir at Chingford, Essex, where five pumps
each lift 40 million gallons per day to a height of 30 feet; and the scheme for
draining Lake Mareotis now being carried out for the Egyptian Government at
Mex, near Alexandria, where eighteen pumps are ultimately to be installed, each
capable of lifting 100 million gallons per day to a height of 20 feet.

4. The Stress Distribution in Short Compression Members.
By Professors Coxrr and Fiuon.

Short compression members are occasionally used for constructive purposes,
but more especially for tests on materials like brick, stone, and concrete, which
are almost invariably used in compression. In all such cases the mode of
application of the load is an important factor, and its influence on the stress-
distribution is known to be great.

This is recognised in the testing of engineering materials, and care is taken
to ensure as uniform a distribution of load as possible over the end faces of the
loaded member. Occasionally these faces are ground to approximately true
planes by means of emery wheels or the like, in order to obtain a uniformly even
bearing, and when the size or material of the specimen makes this impracticable
the specimen is often faced with plaster of Paris for the same purpose.

A convenient method of investigating the stress at any point of a short com-
pression member of rectangular section is afforded by the optical effects pro-
duced in a transparent model, combined with mechanical measurements of the
lateral changes produced by the load.

In the experiments described in the paper a special form of compression-
testing-machine was used, having one fixed pressure-plate, while the other has a
slight frictionless movement in the direction of application of the load, and this
latter is weighed by a system of levers. Experiment shows that a block of
transparent material subjected to compression between steel or brass plates is
never uniformly loaded owing to tangential stress at the planes of contact pro-
duced by the lateral changes of the two different materials. If a very exten-
sible material is interposed between the specimen and the pressure-plates of the
testing-machine, a very marked effect is produced of a similar nature to that
obtained when a fine-grained homogeneous stone is stressed between lead plates.

Approximately pure compression-stress may be obtained when the com-
pression-plates are of the same material as the specimen, and measurements of
stress distribution in various cases were described and compared.

5. The Artificial Electrification of the Atmosphere.
By Sir Outver Lovag, I’. RS,
6. Report on Stress Distributions in Ungineering Materials.
See Reports, p. 200.

7. The Stresses in Built-wp Columns. By H. G. 5. Dunurinu, M.Sc.

502 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 19.

Joint Discussion with Section M (Agriculture) on Irrigation.
See p. 655.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. The Dynamic Increment of a Single Rolling Load on a Supported
Beam. By Professor H. Cuatuey, B.Sc.

The author suggested the use of the following formula for the dynamic
increment of a single concentrated rolling load on a beam supported at both ends,
the load being at the centre,

AS |
3 .

He showed that this is a close approximation to the solution of a complex
differential equation which states the conditions of dynamic equilibrium in the
given case.
~The dynamic increment is due to the vertical accelerations experienced by the
load as the result of the deflection of the beam, and is of course liable to a
“compound interest’ effect. The latter will not ordinarily more than double the
effect due to the static deflection alone.

5f=the dynamic increment of the load W.

V =the horizontal velocity of the load.

L=the span of the beam.

EK=the modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam.

I=the moment of inertia of the beam section, assumed constant.
g=the gravitational acceleration.

c=WV°L/gEI.

2. The Change in the Modulus of Elasticity and of other Properties of
Metals with Temperature.* By Professor F. C. Lea, D.Sc., and
O. H. Crowtusr, M.Sc.

The paper described experiments that had been carried out to determine the
influence of temperature, varying from 15° C. to 650° C., on some of the
properties of metals. The specimens were heated in an electrically heated fur-
nace, the temperature of which could be maintained nearly constant for some
hours, and were loaded by means of a horizontal hydraulic-lever testing machine.
The form of the specimens and the arrangements used for connecting them to the
shackles of the machine and also a special extensometer were described. Tem-
peratures were determined by iron-constantin thermo-couples. The effect of
temperature on the breaking stress, yield point, construction of area, elongation
per cent., and the modulus of elasticity of mild steel and other metals was shown
by curves plotted from the results of the experiments. The modulus of elasticity
of mild steel was shown to vary from 13,000 tons to 6,000 tons per square inch
as the temperature varied from 15° C. to 630° C. The breaking stress of mild
steel as measured on the original area was shown to be a maximum at about
250° C., but the stress obtained by dividing the breaking load by the fractured
area was a minimum at this temperature. The modulus of elasticity of micro
copper was shown to change from 5,100 tons per square inch to 3,270 tons per
square inch as the temperature varied from 15° C. to 650° C.

3. A Theory of Work Speeds in Grinding. By J. J. Guesy.

* Published in LZngineering, September 11, 1914.
* Published in Hngineering, October 16, 1914.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 503

SYDNEY.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.

After the President had delivered his Address (see p. 490) the following
Papers were read :—

1. Irrigation in New South Wales. By A. B. Wane.

2. Irrigation in Lybia.
By Professor Lurar Luiaci1, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.H.

The paper was prefaced by a general survey of the many works of general
economic importance undertaken in Lybia—that is, the region round Tripoli and
Bengasi—since its occupation less than three years ago by Italy. All these
works are arranged according to a plan prepared by Professor Luiggi in view of
the future development of agriculture in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, not only as
it must have been in Roman times, but as it can be further improved by modern
implements and methods of cultivation, with the assistance of scientific
irrigation.

Tripolitania, for the most part, is a flat country, slightly elevated above sea-
level, with a hot and dry climate, and a scanty rainfall during the winter
months and totally absent for two-thirds of the year, ranging from about
20 inches near the coast to 10 inches near the table-lands, and disappearing
altogether further inland. The soil within the line of the 15 inches rainfall
is sandy, but adapted to the culture of cereals of rapid growth, and for breeding
sheep and especially goats. The rainy season is from November to February,
and with proper cultivation—thanks to the abundance of sunshine even in winter
—a good crop can be raised, ready to be harvested in March or April. Then
begins the hot, dry season, and, where there is no irrigation, everything
dries up.

Cyrenaica is rather a plateau-land, some 2,500 feet above sea-level, very
undulating, with a milder climate and a rainfall of from 15 to 50 inches, so
that ordinary crops, fruit trees, olives, vines, etc., can grow; besides date-palm
trees, which form an important item in the agriculture of Lybia. But then the
summer months are hot and dry, and unless some sort of watering is applied to
certain classes of trees, many would die, especially in years of drought.

Thus practically the future development of Lybia depends more or less on
irrigation. At present irrigation, as practised by the natives, is very rudimentary,
but most ingenious. Owing to the great permeability of the soil there are no
running streams in Lybia—or, at least, they may run occasionally, but only for a
few hours after a cloud-burst. All the water passes rapidly into the subsoil
and has to be raised from wells by means of buckets operated by camels; and
thus only limited zones near the coast—where the surface is nearer to the water-
plane—can be irrigated with profit. A very clever artifice is adopted to reduce
evaporation. For this purpose on the same area to be irrigated are grown first
palm trees, which form a sort of sunshade and a protection for the successive
growth of orange or other fruit trees, which in turn shelter the plants to be
grown on the surface, such as ordinary vegetables or lucerne, and to these the
irrigation water is directly applied. In this way excess of sunshine and of
ventilation are avoided and evaporation from the soil reduced to a minimum.
At the same time three different crops are grown on the same plot of land,
which is thus utilised to the fullest extent.

This method of irrigation, which is practised also in some parts of Sicily
and must be of Roman origin, can be applied only to limited zones and where
the water-plane is not more than 20 to 30 feet below the surface.

For irrigation on a larger scale, as there are no superficial streams, it is
necessary to collect the rainfall from the mountain-sides and store it up in
artificial lakes formed by dams. This was practised by the Romans, and we
find in Lybia the ruins of many masonry dams and cisterns, some of which are
being restored and will soon be again in working order. In the meantime some
more important reservoirs are being considered and will soon be started. They

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

504

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TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 505

will be formed by rock-fill dams, which are the best adapted for the natural
conditions of the country, where labour is scarce and inefficient, good materials
rare, and earth tremors rather frequent.

Rock-fill Dams.—The rock-fill dams can be built almost entirely by mechanical
implements served by a few good workmen, and if the slopes do not exceed about
30 degrees the dam can resist any shock of earthquake without great damage,
and in any case repairs are easy. This type of dam is very common in the
Western States of America, and has been adopted with success also in Italy in
the valleys of Cenischia, Biaschina, and Devero.

A special feature of the new reservoirs will be the ‘ automatic syphon-spill-
ways’ applied by Mr. Gregotti to many dams and canals both in Italy and else-
where. It consists of a tube in the shape of a syphon, generally of square
section, made of ferro-concrete, and capable of discharging from 1 to 15 cubic
metres (525 cubie feet) per second, according to section and head, and if larger
discharges are necessary then several syphons are distributed side by side up to
ten. As soon as the water in the reservoir exceeds by 2 or 3 inches the normal
level, the syphon is automatically primed, owing to the special conformation of
its top-lip, and begins to act with full discharge till the level in the reservoir is
lower than the lip of the syphon, when air gets in and the flow ceases.

The velocity of the water in the syphon is that due to the difference of level
from the reservoir and the outlet of the syphon, and thus is greater, and the
discharge is correspondingly greater, than in an ordinary overfall-spillway, where
the velocity is due to the more limited head between the level in the reservoir
and the sill of the spillway.

At equal discharge the syphon-spillway works better and costs much less than
the usual overfall-spillway.

For example, in the Lagolungo reservoir near Genoa, the old overflow-spill-
way required a head of 1:40m. of water (4’ 8/) and a volume of 440,000 cubic
metres of water (more than 15 million cubic feet) ran to waste over the spill-
way after a storm had passed. A battery of ten syphons, each with an internal
square section of 1:90m. (6/ 4/ by 6/ 4/) and a working head of 5-75m,
(18/ 8”), was substituted to the old spillway, capable of discharging 150 cubic
metres per second (5,250 cubic feet); at the same time allowing the sill to be
raised by 0°95 (3 feet), by which an extra volume of 300,000 cubic metres of
water (104 million cubic feet) are impounded.

Besides, it was proved that the syphons give the discharge of 150 c.m. with
only 4 inches of super-elevation of the water over the lip, or with an elevation
of 14 inches less than before, when the overfall-spillway was used, thus reducing
correspondingly the water-pressure against the dam.

The greater volume of 300,000 cubic metres of water thus impounded repre-
sents an income of at least 15,000 francs (600/.), a year, and, capitalised at 5 per
cent., a total of 300,000 francs (12,000/.), equal to at least six times the cost of
the new syphon-spillway ; which, moreover, is more compact and more efficient.
Of these automatic syphon-spillways there are more than 100 on Italian dams
and canals, with heads varying from 38 to 20 feet, and all give complete
satisfaction.

The author exnibited several views of ruins of Roman works, and a cinema-
film showing the method of constructing the railway and the striking difference
in the zones cultivated with and without irrigation.

3. Investigalian of Nile River Flood Record from a.p. 641 to a.p. 1451
for Traces of Periodicity. By T. W. Krexe, M.Inst.C.F.

The author was led into this investigation when examining records of rain-
fall at various places, particularly those of the Commonwealth of Australia,
with a view to ascertaining whether periodicity exists.

The results of previous study of this meteorological question were given by
the author in a paper entitled ‘The Great Weather Cycle,’ read before the Royal
Society of New South Wales on July 1, 1910, and published in their Proceedings
(see volume xliv., pages 25 to 76), in which he sought to show that the period
must be a long one. He was of opinion that the defects which were apparent in

506 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 4.

the comparatively short period of nineteen years, so ably advocated by the late
Mr. H. C. Russell, Government Astronomer of New South Wales, disappeared
when testing multiples of that period, and that fifty-seven years more correctly
represented the true period in Australia. It was, however, ascertained from a
curve computed from the record of the Nile floods, which were at that time
available, namely from A.D. 1736 to A.D. 1905, that the Nile’s period would
appear to be either 114 or 171 years. .

These conclusions were based on the results arrived at by discarding the old
system of plotting the rises or falls above or below an arithmetical mean of
the figures constituting the record, and adopting a system which would show the
cumulative effect of the departures from the mean. Slow, persistent rises or
falls which are not discernible under the old system are immediately detected
by this method.

The Nile’s period then arrived at was so long that it extended far beyond
the limits of all rainfall records, except, perhaps, that of British rainfall, com-
piled by the late Mr. Symons, F.R.S., and the Paris and Padua records, all
three of which are more or less unreliable. There was consequently no means
of proving its reliability or otherwise unless by comparing it with tables of
histos1cal events, which was hardly admissible in an investigation of this nature.

Fortunately the records of the height of the annual flood on the Nile from
the years A.D. 641 to A.p. 1451 have recently been made available. In his letter
to the author, forwarding a copy of this historical record, Mr. J. I. Craig, M.A.,
F.R.S.E., Director Meteorological Service, Cairo, stated that, although there
is internal evidence of clerical errors in the Arabic records from which he
extracted the gauge readings, on the whole he believes them to be trustworthy.

With this assurance the author computed a series of residual mass curves
derived from the means of most of the periods which have been propounded from
time to time. None of these were satisfactory, with the exception of the curve
derived from the means of successive complete periods of 76 years, of which
there are ten altogether out of the whole record of 810 years.

An inspection of the diagram will show that the conformation to a 76 years’
period is very remarkable, even when this period is extended up to the present
time. Notwithstanding that there are two breaks in the records from 1451 to
1825 of 285 and 25 years, respectively, the curve derived from the recent records
still shows a similar conformation.

From an historical point of view the diagram is an extremely interesting one.
It represents the longest continuous record in the world. The dry and wet
periods are clearly defined, ranging from nineteen to fifty-seven years of
accumulated rise or fall with reference to the mean.

The author was severely criticised during the discussion on his paper of
July 1, 1910, previously referred to, for seeming to connect Halley’s comet in
some way with ‘the weather.’ This was because he had drawn attention to the
fact that the comet’s mean period was approximately 76 years, and also that its
appearance seemed to occur during periods of great drought.

The position of the comet at the time of its perihelion passage is shown on the
diagram on fourteen occasions from information kindly supplied by Mr. C. I.
Merfield, F.R.A.S. It will be seen that in almost every instance the comet made
its appearance during the periods of greatest drought in Egypt.

4. Imperial College of Science and Technology: The Goldsmiths’ Com-
pany’s Extension of the City and Guilds (Engineering) College. By
Professor W. E. Datsy, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.H.

This papergave a concise history of the development of the City and
Guilds (Engineering) College. The College was founded by the City and
Guilds of London Institute in 1884, and its federation with the Imperial
College of Science and Technology took place in 1907. In 1885 there were 35
students in attendance; last session (1912-13) there were 570.

After referring to previous extensions the paper gave a detailed account
of the present engineering extension, named after the Goldsmiths’ Company,
who have undertaken to defray the cost of erection. This extension includes

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 507

the following laboratories on the ground floor: a top-lighted laboratory, a rail-
way laboratory, a hydraulic laboratory, and also a boiler-room.

The top-lighted laboratory consists of four bays, having a total floor area -
of 17,628 square feet. The floor is of timber decking, supported on steel
girders and brick columns. Underneath is a basement of equal area, in which
all mains, pipes, cables, countershafts, &c., are placed. Machinery can there-
fore be installed without any structural alterations being made necessary.
Steam is supplied from the boiler-room adjoining. A five-ton travelling crane
is fitted to each bay of the laboratory.

The railway laboratory has a floor-area of 3,200 square feet. A portion of
the laboratory has been designed as a wind-flume capable of producing a current
of air of sixty miles per hour, the object being to ascertain the effect of wind-
pressure on train-models, aeroplane-wings, and structures.

The hydraulic laboratory has a total floor-area of about 8,000 square feet.
The equipment of the laboratory consists chiefly of supply tanks, measuring
apparatus (including a standardising tank of 12,500 gallons capacity), weir-
boxes, a west sump and an east sump (the latter having a capacity of 22,000
gallons) connected by flumes, a complete turbine plant, and two Gwynne pumps,
as well as a twelve-inch Venturi meter, and mains and piping. The chief
feature of the design of the laboratory is that the power to be supplied for the
circulation of the water through the equipment has only to overcome the
frictional resistance of a vertical lift, and is therefore at a minimum; the whole
circulation can be controlled by one man standing at the pumps; and experi-
ments with the different apparatus can take place independently and simul-
taneously.

The boiler-room contains two Lancashire boilers and one water-tube boiler,
each capable of giving 5,000 lbs. of steam per hour, arranged so that they can be
available for experimental purposes. Underneath the roadway behind the
boiler-room are the coal-bunkers, capable of holding a hundred tons of coal, as
well as an ash-pit from which the ashes can be hoisted through a trap-door and
emptied directly into the carts.

The paper concluded with some particulars of the advanced courses in the
Imperial College, showing that the objects of its founders have already been
successfully carried out. The College is still rapidly developing, and will
soon provide every facility for post-graduate study and research for students
from all the colleges of Greater Britain.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The Section divided into two Sub-Sections, G I. and G II.
In Sub-Section G I. the following Papers were read :—

1. The Metropolitan Electric Railways proposed for Sydney.
By J.J. C. Braprisip, M.Inst.C.H.

The paper described the proposed scheme for which Parliamentary sanction
is being sought. It comprises the construction of an underground railway in
the City itself, and the electrification of some of the suburban railways to
connect up with the underground railway. Statistics show that the present
railway and tramway systems are, or will shortly be, incapable of handling the
rapidly increasing traffic. It is proposed to connect North Sydney and the
City by means of a bridge across the harbour, while another bridge would
connect the City with the western suburb of Balmain. It was maintained that
a bridge would be cheaper than a subway, and would give better gradients and
greater comfort. Since Sydney is the fifth port in the Empire, it is essential
that the fairway be not impeded. For this reason the proposed harbour bridge
crosses in a single span of 1,600 feet, with a headway of 170 feet above high-
water. It provides for four lines of railway, beside vehicular and passenger
traffic. The design and material are discussed, and a nickel-steel cantilever
bridge is recommended, at an estimated cost of 2,600,000/. Details were given

508 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION @G.

of the proposed underground railways, location of stations, junctions, schedules,
fares, &c. It is proposed to employ continuous current at 1,500 volts, supplied
from overhead conductors.

A short description was given of the power station already in course of
construction at White Bay, Balmain, for the tramways, which, like the rail-
ways, belong to the Government. The station will be capable of developing
100,000 h.p., and will supply the power required for the proposed railway
system.

The total cost of the whole scheme is estimated at 17,000,000.

2. Australian Ports in relation to Modern Ships and Shipping.
By W. E. Avams, A.M.Inst.C.E.

The enormous increase in the size of ships trading to Australia during the
last fifteen years has set a problem to the Port Authorities of Australia that
calls for careful consideratiou. It has become very desirable to review the
position not only from the standpoint of the Harbour Authorities, but also from
that of the local commercial interests involved. That the civil engineer can
always rise to the occasion and provide for anything the shipbuilder can pro-
duce is evidenced by such works as the Suez and Panama Canals. But, as
engineering practically conceived cannot be divorced from economics, especially
in a young and growing country like Australia, where much money is required
for numerous lines of development, the engineer must be a rigid economist. On
this account, it is advisable carefully to examine the situation that is arising
in its most general aspect.

Privately-owned wharfage in the chief commercial sea-ports of Australia
has almost disappeared. Public ownership of the foreshores has been rendered
necessary in order that wharfage may be planned in conjunction with other great
public utilities, such as railways, tramways, roads of access, and to admit of
the segregation of berthage into mail and passenger, general cargo, frozen meat,
grain, coal, and other specialities.

Clearly it is necessary to separate the shipment of frozen meat and grain
from coal and other dirty or noxious cargoes, while passenger and mail services
should berth as close to the heart of the city as possible. Where these essentials
are laid out in advance contingent municipalities are enabled to co-operate to
advantage, and private industries immediately connected with shipping can
be established in the most suitable positions.

Thus it has come about that all the Australian capital sea-ports except
Brisbane have been placed under public trusts, of various constitutions, but
all aiming at the one object, namely, to provide for the shipping on a compre-
hensive scale, and on a self-supporting basis. In the endeavour to keep pace
with shipping developments the cost of the modern sea-port has become, and
promises to become in the future, a still more important commercial factor.
Port-dues already amount in many cases to 10 per cent. of the freight charges.

In ocean transport three separate interests are involved. Firstly, there is
the private shipowner, who invests for personal profit; secondly, the Port
Authorities, who build usually to meet expenses of maintenance, interest, and
sinking fund (though sometimes more is required); and thirdly, the merchant
or shipper, who ships goods.

To Australia, which is a large exporter and importer, and, moreover, a
country greatly in need of population, it is obviously important that oversea
freights, fares, and other charges should be as low as possible, on account of
the immense distance from the centre of civilisation. The point of supreme
interest to Australia in this connection lies in the question as to whether
modern shipping developments tend to increase or to decrease the total cost
of ocean transport.

It is unquestionable that cargo and passengers can be carried more cheaply
in large than in small steamers. That is, the cost per ton-mile, reckoning
working expenses, including coal, wages, and upkeep, are less per ton carried
in large than in small steamers. By way of illustration, Sir W. White in
1903 quoted the case of the P. and O. Company’s Moldavia, 10,000 tons, stating
that an increase in draft of three feet would increase her freight-earning

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 509

capacity by 66 per cent., while no appreciable loss of speed would ensue. This
is, of course, very important to the shipowners, but the economics of ocean
transport are not affected thereby unless some at least of this saving is passed
on by shipowner to shipper, and ultimately to the producer. Naturally some
reasonable advantage must be permitted to the shipowner, otherwise he would
not build large ships, but, to place the matter on a true economic basis, it has
yet to be shown that the shipper and the producer share in the saving. If
not, then the big ship must rely upon other grounds of justification, and, as
we shall see, these may not be lacking.

The next point for consideration is the effect of big ships upon the cost of
port and harbour works to accommodate them. Conditions vary so much
between the ports of Australia that the total increased outlay per berth, includ-
ing the necessary dredging, could only be considered for each port in detail.
Thus, at Sydney and Hobart, the matter would be practically narrowed down
to the actual increased cost of the new over the old class of berth, the dredging
being practically a negligible quantity ; while at Melbourne and Brisbane the
deepening and dredging would be heavy items. The natural physical difficulties
of these two ports must, therefore, exercise a limiting influence on the size of
ships trading to Australia for some time to come. Brisbane, being the only
possible outlet for a vast and productive hinterland, will surely develop rapidly
into a very large and important shipping centre, probably in time rivalling
the southern ports.

To meet the increase in the size of ships the Port Authorities of Australia
find themselves called upon to spend very large sums of money in reconstruction.
Wharves and jetties that sufficed twelve or fifteen years ago are now all obsolete.
Upon the cost of replacement planned on a vastly larger scale, maintenance,
interest, and sinking funds have to be provided for out of the port-dues. It
seems inevitable that the port-dues must tend to increase. It is not overlooked
that modern appliances and large vessels will allow more cargo to be handled
at a berth than formerly; but, on the other hand, when a small number of very
large ships replaces a large number of small ones, berths are apt to have longer
periods of idleness, and would, therefore, not be made the fullest use of.

The situation will be better understood by a comparison of the berths of
fifteen years ago at the port of Sydney with those of to-day. Up to the year,
say, 1900, the largest oversea vessels trading to this port averaged some 6,000
tons. and the inter-state vessels 3,000 tons. The lengths of the former ran from
430 feet to 470 feet, by 50 feet to 53 feet beam; and of the latter from 300 feet
to 350 feet, by 40 feet to 46 feet beam. For vessels of this class there were a
number of berths consisting of frontage wharves and jetties from 300 feet to
450 feet in length. The jetties were usually from 30 feet to 40 feet wide, and
the depths of water required ranged up to 28 feet. Several of the berths having
been built by private owners were without shed accommodation. The average
cost per berth with cargo-sheds, inclusive of value of frontage-land, was 21,300/.,
but the same jetties built to-day at the higher prices would have cost 25,500/.
per berth. The water-way between jetties varied from 90 feet to 110 feet,
but in several cases was as little as 80 feet.

The vessels now coming to Sydney have already touched 18,400-ton mark,
the largest measuring 555 feet by 69 feet, with a loaded draft of 32 feet.
Clearly it is necessary to provide for much larger vessels in the future, and it
would be inadvisable to look forward to anything less than a possible 1,000 feet
in length, with a loaded draft of 40 feet, though these dimensions may not be
reached for many years to come.

The jetties necessary to berth the oversea vessels at present trading to
Sydney are from 500 feet to 650 feet in length (with provisions for extension),
by 130 feet to 250 feet in width, and the water-way between them to allow for
handling, coaling, and transhipping ranges from 220 feet to 360 feet. Double-
decked cargo-sheds are required to accommodate the large quantities of freight
rapidly put ashore, and electric cranes, gantries, and other lifting gear are
being provided. The cost of these, adding the value of frontage-land, ranges
from 67,0007. to 77,0007. per berth, irrespective of dredging, which, particu-
larly in Sydney, is a small item, but in several other ports will be excessively
heavy. The requirements for inter-state shipping are scarcely less. Some of

510 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

the vessels now engaged in this traffic measure as much as 9,000 and 10,000 tons,
and no doubt larger ships will be built.

It seems evident, even after making allowance for the superior earning-
capacity of these modern berths, that increased harbour rates will have to be
charged to render such investment sound and self-supporting. This is a ques-
tion that requires special investigation. Judged from a purely economical point
of view, there is room for considerable doubt as to whether the advent of the
large vessel has operated towards lowering the cost of sea-borne freight, includ-
ing, of course, incidental charges, such as wharfage and tonnage dues, &c. The
question is greatly complicated by the upward tendency of wages and materials,
which not only increases the cost of ship construction, but also puts up the cost
of working expenses and maintenance, which are naturally passed on by the
shipowner.

There are, however, other very important considerations which must be
taken into account. Pressing as the economic question is, there are distinct
advantages in the employment of big ships. Higher speed can be obtained,
which, at this distance from Europe, is desirable for mails, passengers, and
cargo. The time-element is certainly of urgent importance to Australia.
Greater safety, seaworthiness, steadiness, and comfort are also secured.

The class of wharf-construction that will come into use in the future,
though important, is very uncertain at the present time. Timber has been used
almost entirely in Australia. Reinforced concrete has been dealt with very
charily, but it is safe to say that, if the local timbers had not proved so satis-
factory from every point of view, reinforced concrete would have been largely
used during the last fifteen years.

Where space is available, longshore wharves, served by low-level road and
belt railway, offer the greatest facilities for handling cargo. But as this is not
always possible, jetties will continue to be used to a large extent. To provide
shed accommodation and low-level road access to facilitate the removal of
goods, without traffic congestion, necessitates very great width of jetty. In
Sydney two plans are being tried to meet such cases. In one instance the jetty
is 210 feet wide, with a sunken road down the middle which brings the cart-body
to the level of the shed-floor. ‘

In another case, where the available water-frontage length is restricted, a
type of jetty is being built with a high and a low side, so that when a cart
is on the low side the body is at the floor-level of the higher side of the jetty.
The high side, which extends over about three-quarters of the width of the jetty,
will be used for inward cargo, which requires as much space as possible for
sorting and stacking. The low side will be used for traffic and outward cargo,
which goes aboard the ship as it arrives, and seldom accumulates on the wharf
to the extent of more than four or five hundred tons at a time. These jetties
will have an upper deck approached by a bridge from a high-level roadway.
The upper deck will be constructed with high and low levels, similar to the
lower deck, but disposed on the opposite sides. Thus, each side of the jetty
will have a separate loading and unloading deck. On this account it will be
possible to carry on the two operations together without confusion of outward
and inward cargo, and the cost of construction will be relatively low.

The position of the other Australian ports was reviewed in the same way,
for the purpose of considering how far the Port Authorities are justified in
accepting the challenge of the shipowner.

3. The Distribution of Phosphorus in Steel.
By Waurer Rosennain, B.A., D.Sc., V.R.S.

The injurious influence of phosphorus on the mechanical properties of steel
is very fully recognised, so much so that for a large class of important steel
articles, such as tyres, axles, springs, &c., it is usual to specify that the
phosphorus content shall not exceed 0-035 per cent. If phosphorus were
uniformly distributed throughout steel it would be difficult to believe that less
than four parts in ten thousand could exert a seriously injurious influence.
Observation of all ordinary commercial steels, however, serves to show at once
that phosphorus is not uniformly distributed. This matter has been studied,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 511

chiefly by J. E. Stead, by the method of heat-tinting which differentiates
between those portions of a polished steel surface rich in phosphorus and those
free from it by the difference in the rate of oxidation. The banded distribution
of the phosphorus thus reproduces itself as bands of different depths of tinting
on the surface after exposure to heat. More recently the author and J. L.
Haughton at the National Physical Laboratory have worked out a method of
tracing the phosphorus distribution in steel by means of a new reagent. This
is a solution of ferric chloride rendered acid by hydrochloric acid and containing
in solution small quantities of the chlorides of copper and tin. When a steel
surface is exposed to this reagent electro-chemical replacement occurs, a small
quantity of iron passes into solution, and a corresponding amount of copper is
deposited as a thin film on the surface of the steel. In an ideally pure steel
this deposit would be uniform over the entire area of the ferrite constituent,
but in a phosphoric steel the copper film is deposited first on those ferrite
regions which are most nearly pure, those regions richest in phosphorus being
left unaffected for a long time. Seen under the microscope, the surface thus
‘etched’ by the selective deposition of copper presents a well-defined appear-
ance which at one point reaches a development corresponding accurately to the
pattern produced by the older method of heat-tinting; at an earlier stage,
however, features are shown which escape detection by the older methods. A
study of these features leads the author to trace back the origin of the banded
structure of phosphoric steel to processes which are known to occur in the first
solidification of a ‘solid solution’ alloy, so that the coarser or finer banding
of the finished steel depends upon the scale of crystallisation which took place
in the original ingot, in spite of the fact that the crystalline structure may have
been entirely changed repeatedly as the result of thermal or mechanical treat-
ment. This great persistence of the ‘geographical’ distribution of phosphorus
is to be ascribed to the low velocity of diffusion of iron phosphide when present
in solid solution in iron. The paper was illustrated by numerous photographs
and diagrams.

4. Notes on some Tests of Petrol Motor Fire-Engines, and the
Frictional and other Resistances to the Flow of Water through
Canvas Fire-Hose. By Professor T. Hupson Bears, M.Inst.C.H.

The experiments described in this paper were carried out on two fire-engines.
The first engine, supplied by Messrs. Merryweather, was driven by a four-cylinder
‘Aster’ petrol engine, the cylinders being 53 inches diameter, with a 6}-inches
stroke, and the speed 1,000 revolutions per minute. The pump was of the ‘ Hat-
field’ reciprocating type, and had three single-acting plungers of 7-inches bore
and 5-inches stroke; the barrels were arranged radially round a common crank-pin
at an angle of 120° to one another. The pump was driven by a chain, 53 inches
wide, and was geared down 4:47 to 1; with this gearing 1,000 revolutions of the
motor would correspond to 224 revolutions of the pump.

The second engine, supplied by the Halley’s Industrial Motor Company, was
driven by a six-cylinder petrol engine, the cylinders being 5 inches in diameter
with a 5!-inches stroke, stated to be capable of developing 60 h.p. at 1,000 revolu-
tions per minute. The pump, made by Messrs. Mather & Platt, was of the
centrifugal type, and was driven direct from the engine by enclosed gearing run-
ning in oil; the pump was geared up about 3 to 2 that is to say, when the engine
was making 1,000 revolutions the pump would be making about 1,500 revolutions
per minute. The engine carried a reciprocating exhauster air-pump, driven by a
chain drive off the pump shaft, this mechanism being necessary in order that the
centrifugal pump might be charged when drawing its water supply from a dam,
or any other source in which the water was not under pressure.

Weight of Engines and Hquipment.

No. 1 No. 2
Tons cwt. Tons ewt.
Carnyrirnlinoades: Mieke i ors! Se OOS Aa 4 134
All equipment removed (except topladder) . 4 18 4 4
Horse-power of the Engines.
R.A.C. rating es. Eieteegoae 60°0

512 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

The main experiments were to determine the quantity of water pumped per
minute, and the pressure at the pump delivery side and at the nozzle. The
quantity of water pumped was measured either by passing it through a Venturi
meter on its way to the nozzle or by discharging the water from the nozzle into
a big swimming-bath which had been carefully calibrated beforehand. The
Venturi meter was tested for the accuracy of its records both before and after
the experiments were carried out.

In order to determine frictional and other resistances to the flow of water
through the canvas fire-hose, different lengths of hose were tested, all the other
conditions being kept practically constant, and it was thus possible to eliminate
the resistances at the point of entry into the hose, and in the meter when the
water was delivered through a meter, and at the entry to the nozzle. Experi-
ments were made with ordinary canvas hose and with rubber-lined canvas hose.
The hose experimented with was 2% inches in internal diameter, and various
diameters of nozzles were employed in the tests. The lengths of hose tested were
100 feet, 500 feet, and 1,000 feet, and some experiments were made with double
lines of hose, each delivering to a nozzle of the same diameter.

The results obtained as to quantities of water pumped, pressures at pump and
at nozzle, and speed of engine are given in the form of tables, and a final table
gives the coefficients of frictional and other resistances to the flow of water
through canvas fire-hose.

5. Australian Timbers. By Professor W. 1. Warren.

In Sub-Section G II. the following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Gaseous Haplosions.—See Reports, p. 177.
)

2. Temperature Cycles in Heat-Engines.
By Professor E. G. Coxer and W. A. ScoBux.

Experimental investigations of the cyclical variations of heat-engines and
heat-pumps have received much attention, and numerous methods and instru-
ments have been devised to give records of their cyclical changes, such as those
of pressure and volume of the working fluid, changes of angular velocity of
the crank-shaft, and the like. Temperature changes in the working fluid may
usually be inferred very accurately from the pressures recorded on an indicator
diagram, since there is usually a definite relation between pressure and tem-
perature of a vapour, as, for example, in heat-engines using steam direct from
a boiler without the intervention of a superheater. In other heat-engines, such
as those using superheated fluids, and also those of the internal-combustion
type, the temperature is more difficult to determine, and it becomes important
to measure it directly. Platinum resistance thermometers and thermo-electric
couples have been frequently employed for measuring cyclical changes of
temperature in heat-engines, and a complete record from point to point of a
cycle may be obtained if the engine is working with absolute uniformity. As
it is usually impossible to prevent some amount of variation in the working
of the engine while the measurements are in progress, the resulting curve is a
composite one, since each measurement corresponds to a different cycle.

The possibility of obtaining an instantaneous automatic record with an
Einthoven type of galvanometer was considered in our early experiments on the
cyclical variations of temperature of the working fluid of a gas-engine, and in
the walls of the cylinder, but the difficulties then appeared to be so great that
a potentiometer balance method was used instead. Recently, by the kindness
of the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, we have been able to make
experiments with their latest form of short-period Einthoven galvanometer,
and this has enabled us to obtain instantaneous records of the temperature-cycles
of the working fluid of steam- and gas-engines, and also the variations of
temperature in the walls. Some of these photographic records are shown, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 13

their detailed characteristics are considered in the paper. They confirm the
general accuracy of our former measurements on cyclical variations of tempera-
ture in a gas-engine cylinder, and also show some new features due to variations
from stroke to stroke caused by misfires and the like.

3. The Lost Pressure in Gaseous Explosions. By Professor W. M.
Tuornton, D.Sc., D.Eng.

When the maximum pressure of an explosion is calculated from the heat of
combustion of the elements of the gaseous mixture values are obtained which
are in all cases about twice those found by experiment. The mean of a large
number of ‘ efficiencies of explosion’ for different combustible gases approaches
one-half. To account for this four chief suggestions have been made: (1) that
there is dissociation of the products of combustion; (2) that the specific heats are
much higher at explosion temperatures; (3) that the products are rapidly cooled
by radiation to the walls of the vessel; (4) that the combustion is not complete
at the time of reaching the maximum pressure. None of these is in itself sufti-
cient to account for all the loss of pressure. ‘The suggestion is now made that
it may be caused by the forces of cohesion which come suddenly into play at
the moment of formation of a molecule, check the translational energy to which
alone pressure and temperature are due, and raise for the moment the rotational
energy of the combining bodies. It is shown that the ratio of the translational
energy of two colliding and cohering bodies before and after collision is one-half,
and this ratio is to be expected for the whole mixture.

The suggestion receives support from the form of the curve connecting
efficiency of explosion and changed percentage of gas in the mixture. This
efficiency can be shown to have the form »=1—BN, where B is a constant and
N is the number of combustible units in unit volume. A combustible unit is
defined as that group of one molecule of combustible gas and of oxygen atoms
just sufficient for its complete combustion. At the upper limit N is zero, and
the efficiency curve is triangular on a base coinciding with the limits of
inflammability. Its mean height is therefore one-half of the maximum, and this
agrees very fairly well with the observed values given by Clerk in the case of
coal-gas.

4. The Limiting Conditions for the Safe Use of Electricily in Coal
Mining. By Professor W. M. Tuorntron, D.Sc., D.Eng.

The paper was a summary of recent researches on the limits of electrical
ignition of inflammable mine-gases and coal-dust. The lower limit of inflam-
mability is 5°6 per cent. of methane in air by volume; a temperature of 200° C.
lowers this to 5:1 per cent. The most inflammable mixtures are at 8 per cent.
for continuous-current break-sparks, 10°2 per cent. for alternating-current
breaks. Excess of nitrogen appears to markedly increase the necessary igniting
current. With non-inductive circuits 1 ampere at 100 continuous volts is a
typical value ; the corresponding values with alternating current are 7 ampéres
at 40 periods a second, 16 at 60, 20 at 80, and 29 at 100. By varying the
inductance the energy of an igniting break-spark is found to be constant at
about 01 joule. Electric signalling bells have inductance up to 0-5 henry
and ignite gases at the trembler spark or signalling point. All electric lamps
and fuses, however small, must be enclosed. Oscillations on a cable sheath
caused by short circuits on the conductor will not ignite gas, but maintained
leakage arcs from armouring are only slightly more active than break-sparks.
Static discharges from 6-inch high-speed belting could not be made to ignite
gas, nor the blue brush discharge from high-pressure conductors. Movements
of clouds of dust have been shown to give electrification and to cause sparks,
but the energy must be much greater than can be obtained experimentally in
order that this should become dangerous. Wireless telegraphy operations on
the surface do not induce sparking potentials underground. Capacity sparks
in general from cables left insulated after being charged are very active, 0°002

1 Published in the lectrician, \xxiil., p. 822

1914. LL

514 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

to 0-005 joule causing ignition. The influence of gas in forwarding coal-dust
explosions begins to be felt when 4 per cent. of gas is present. At 2 per
cent. full ignitions are obtained at every trial. Coal-dust alone can be ignited
by both continuous-current or alternating-current break-flashes, the former
requiring 3°5 to 6 amperes at 480 volts in non-inductive circuits, the latter
14 amperes at 40 periods and on a power factor of 0°8. Continuous-current
faults on the negative cable develop rapidly in the presence of moisture and
the cable is disintegrated. Alternating-current faults are self-healing, and a
mechanical fault does not increase electrically on an alternating-current cable.

Armouring is necessary under modern power conditions; lighting and sig-
nalling circuits must be equally well protected to prevent open sparking. The
limits of safety are electrically low, but the risks of ignition are even now no
greater than those attending the use of flame safety lamps, and they can be
entirely prevented.

5. The Balsillie System of Wireless Telegraphy as employed in the
Radio-Telegraph Stations of the Commonwealth of Australia.+
By J. G. Bausiuuig.

6. The Capacity of Radio-Telegraphic Aerials.?
By Professor G. W. O. Hows, D.Sc.

The capacity considered in this paper is the actual static capacity, and not the
equivalent capacity of the antenna considered as part of an oscillatory circuit.
The accurate calculation of the capacity of a multiple-wire horizontal aerial
with its leading-down wires would be a difficult mathematical problem, quite
unwarrantel by the practical requirements of radio-telegraphy.

When raised to a potential above or below that of the earth, the charge is
distributed over the antenna in a way which is not easy to calculate, but which
must be such that all parts of the antenna are at the same potential. If the
antenna were made up of a great number of short pieces, placed end to end,
but insulated from each other, it would be possible to distribute the charge
uniformly, but the potential would then vary from point to point in a way which
is easily calculated. If now we assume that all the separate pieces of wire are
connected, electricity will flow from points of high to points of low potential
until the potential is everywhere the same. The assumption made in developing
the various formule is that this final uniform potential is equal to the average
value of the potential when the charge was uniformly distributed. ‘This is only
approximately correct, but the accuracy is more than sufticient for all practical
purposes. ‘This method has been applied to antenne of all the types usually
employed, and formule have been established for each type. A large number of
numerical examples have been worked out, and the results are given in tables and
curves, so that the capacity of any antenna can be read off directly from its
dimensions. ‘The corrections due to the leading down wires and to the proximity
of the earth are fully considered, and examples given showing the application of
the formule to antennz of any type.

Formule for the calculation of the capacity of antenne have recently been
published by Pedersen (‘Jahrbuch der Drahtlosen Telegraphie,’ vii. 4, p. 434)
and Louis Cohen (Hlectrician, February 14 and 21, 1913). When applied
to the experimental results quoted by Cohen, the formule developed in this
paper give closer agreement than do the formule given by Cohen, although some
of his results can hardly be reconciled with the given data.

7. Irrigation Dams and Hydro-Electric Power.*
By E. Krezurn Scorr.

1 Published in the Hlectrician, Ixxiv., p. 70.
2 Published in the Hlectrician, \xxili., p. 829.
° Published in Llectrical Review, \xxv., p 317.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 515

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—Sir EverarD mm TuurN, C.B., K.C.M.G.

The President delivered the following Address at Sydney, on Friday,
August 21 :—

A Study of Primitive Character.

CIVILISATION and ‘savagery ’—for unfortunately it seems now too late to substi-
tute any term of less misleading suggestion for that word ‘savagery ’—are the
labels which we civilised folk apply respectively to two forms of human culture
apparently so unlike that it is hard to conceive that they had a common origin
—our own culture and that other, the most primitive form of human culture,
from which, at some unknown and distant period, our own diverged. But,
assuming one common origin for the whole human race, we anthropologists can
but assume that at an early stage in the history of that race some new idea was
implanted in a part of these folk, that is in the ancestors of civilised folk, which
caused these thenceforth to advance continuously, doubtless by many again subse-
quently diverging and often intercrossing roads, some doubtless more rapidly
than others, but all mainly towards that which is called civilisation, while those
others, those whom we call ‘savages,’ were left behind at that first parting of
the ways, to stumble blindly, advancing indeed after a fashion of their own, but
comparatively slowly and in a quite different direction.

lt is easy enough for civilised folk, when after age-long separation they again
come across the ‘savages,’ to discern the existence of wide differences between
the two, in physical and mental characteristics, and in arts and crafts; it is not
so easy, it may even be that it is impossible, to detect the exact nature of these
differences, especially in the matter of mental characters.

As a rule the occupant of this presidential chair is one who, whether he
has seen much of ‘savages’ at close quarters or not, has had much ampler
opportunity than has fallen to my lot of comparative study of that great mass of
anthropological observations which, gathered from almost every part of the
world, has now been recorded at headquarters. I, on the other hand, happen to
have spent the better part of my active life in two different parts of the world,
remote from books and men of science, but in both of which folk of civilised and
of savage culture have been more or less intermixed, but as yet very imperfectly
combined, and in both of which I have been brought into rather unusually close
and sympathetic contact with folk who, whatever veneer of civilisation may have
been put upon them, are in the thoughts which lie at the back of their minds and
eee exacter still almost as when their ancestors were at the stage of savage
culture.

While trying to adjust the mutual relations of wild folk and of folk of
civilised stock, I have seen from close at hand the clash which is inevitable when
the two meet—a clash which is naturally all the greater when the meeting is
sudden. Moreover, having started with a strong taste for natural history, and
especially for the natural history of man, and having had much guidance from
many anthropological friends and from books, I have perhaps been especially
fortunate in opportunity for studying the more natural human animal at close
quarters and in his natural surroundings. I have tried, from as abstract and

LL2

516 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

unprejudiced a point of view as possible, to understand the character, the
mental and moral attitude, of the natural ‘savage’ as he must have been when
civilised folk first found him and, at first without much effort to understand
him, tried abruptly to impose an extremely different and alien form of culture
on this almost new kind of man.

I venture to claim, though with diffidence, that I may have begun to discern
more clearly, even though only a little more clearly than usual, what the primi-
tive man, the natural ‘savage’—or, as he might more accurately be described,
the wild man—was like; and it seemed possible that an attempt to bring
together a picture—it can hardly be more than a sketch—of the mentality and
character of some one group of people who had never passed out of the stage of
‘savagery ’ might be interesting and practically useful, especially if it proves
possible to disentangle the more primitive ideas of such people from those which
they subsequently absorbed by contact, at first with other wild, but less wild,
folk, and later with civilised folk; and that a further study of the retention
by these folk of some of their earlier habits of thought during later stages in
their mental development might suggest a probable explanation of certain of
their manners and customs for which it is otherwise hard to account.

The attainment of some such understanding is, or should be, one of the chief
objectives of the practical anthropologist, not merely for academic purposes, but
also for the practical guidance of those who in so many parts of our Empire are
brought into daily contact with so-called ‘savages.’

Perhaps hardly anywhere else in the world would it be possible to find better
opportunity and more suitable conditions for such a study as I now propose than
in the tropical islands of the South Seas. The ancestors of these islanders, while
still in purely ‘savage’ condition, must have drifted away from the rest of the
human race, and entered into the utter seclusion of that largest of oceans, the
Pacific, covering as it does more than a third of the surface of the globe, long
before the first man of civilised race, Balboa, in 1513, from the Peak in Darien,
set eyes on the edge of what he called ‘the Great South Sea,’ before Magellan, in
1520, forced his way into and across that same sea, which he called the Pacific,
and certainly long before civilised men settled on any part of the shore of that
ocean, i.e., in 1788, at the foundation of Australia. For when first studied
at close quarters by civilised folk from Europe, which was not till after the
last-named event, these South Sea ‘savages’ had been in seclusion during a
period sufficiently long—and certainly no short period would have sufficed for
such an effect—not only for them all to have assumed characters, cultural and
even physical, sufficient to distinguish them from all other folk outside the
Pacific, but also for them to have split up into many separate parties, probably
sometimes of but few individuals, many of which had drifted to some isolated
island or island-group, and had there in the course of time taken on further well-
marked secondary differences.

It will probably now never be discovered when, how often, and from what
different places the ancestors of these folk:reached the Pacific. It is quite
possible that they entered again and again, and were carried by winds and
currents, some from west to east and some in the reverse direction, many perish-
ing in that waste of waters, but some reaching land and finding shelter on some
of that great cloud of small islands which lie scattered on both sides of the
equator and nearly across that otherwise landless ocean.

Of the folk who in those old times thus drifted about and across the Pacific,
the most important, for the part which they played in the story which I am
endeavouring to tell, were the two hordes of ‘savages’ now known respectively
as Melanesians and Polynesians. Without entering deeply into the difficult sub-
ject of the earlier migrations of these two hordes, it will suffice here to note
that, towards the end of the eighteenth century, when European folk at last
began to frequent the South Sea Islands, and when consequently something
definite began to be known in Europe about the islanders, certain Melanesians,
who had probably long previously drifted down from north-westward, were
found to be, and probably had long been, in occupation of the exceptionally
remote and isolated Fiji Islands; also that, long after this Melanesian occupa-
tion of these islands, and only shortly before Europeans began to frequent them,
several bodies of Polynesians, who had long been in occupation of the Friendly

fed

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. D517

or Tongan Islands, lying away to the east of Fiji, had already forced or were
forcing their way into the Fijian Islands.

The meeting in Fiji of these two folk, both still in a state of ‘ savagery,’ but
the Polynesians much further advanced in culture than the Melanesians, at a
time before European influence had begun to strengthen in those islands, affords
an exceptionally good opportunity for the study of successive stages in the
development of primitive character, especially as the two sets of ‘savages’ were
not yet so closely intermingled as to be indistinguishable—at least in many parts
of Fiji. It is unfortunate that the earliest European visitors to Fiji were not
of the kind to observe and to leave proper records of their observations.

The earlier, Melanesian, occupants of Fiji had to some extent given way, but
by no means readily and completely, to the Polynesian invaders. The former, not
only in the mountain fastnesses difficult of access, but also in such of the islets
as the local wind and weather conditions made difficult of access, retained
their own distinct and simpler culture, their own thoughts, habits, and arts, long
after the Polynesians had seized the more important places accessible to the sea,
and had imposed much of their own more elaborate (but still ‘savage’) culture
on such of the Melanesians’ communities as they had there subjugated and
absorbed.

The social organisation throughout Fiji remained communistic; but in the
purely Melanesian communities the system was purely democratic (i.e., without
chiefs), while in the newer mixed Polynesian-Melanesian communities—as was
natural when there had been intermingling of two unequally cultured races—
there had been developed a sort of oligarchic system, in which the Melanesian
commoners worked contentedly, or at least with characteristic resignation, for
their new Polynesian chiefs.

Alike in all these communities custom enforced by club-law prevailed ; but in
the one case the administrative function rested with the community as a whole,
while in the other it was usurped by the chiefs.

Though we are here to consider mainly the ideas, the mentality, of these
people, it will be useful to say a few preliminary words as to their arts and
crafts. The Melanesians during their long undisturbed occupation of the islands
had undoubtedly made great progress, on lines peculiar to them, especially
in boat building, in which they excelled all other South Sea islanders, in the
making of clubs and other weapons, and in otherwise using the timber, which
grew more abundantly, and of better quality, in their islands than elsewhere.
Meanwhile the Polynesians, in their earlier homes and long before they reached
Fiji, had developed, in very high degree, corresponding but different and much
more elaborate arts (and ideas) of their own. But, as we know from Captain
Cook, the Polynesians, despite their own higher culture, from their Tongan
homes, greatly admired and appreciated the special craftsmanship of the Fijians,
and it was indeed this admiration which attracted the former from Tonga to Fiji;
and when the Polynesians had gained footing in the Fijis they—quite in accord-
ance with human nature—were inclined, for a time at least, to foster the foreign
Fijian arts—if not Fijian ideas—rather than replace these by their own arts; and
before the struggle, both physical and cultural, between the two sets of ‘ savages’
had gone far it was interrupted, and more or less definitely arrested, by the
arrival and gradual settlement of the still more powerful, because civilised, white
folk from the Western world.

In turning to the earlier (Melanesian) occupants of Fiji, and especially to
the less advanced of these, to find the traces of which we are in search of the
more primitive habit of thought, it must not be forgotten that even at the stage
at which we begin to know about them they had made considerable advance, in
their ideas as well as in their arts and crafts. They still used their most
primitive form of club, but also made others of much more elaborated form; so,
though the ideas which lay at the basis of their habit of thought were of very
primitive kind, they had acquired others of more complex character.

Before going further may I say—and I sincerely hope that the suggestion will
not be misunderstood—that in the difficult task of forming a clear conception of
the fundamental stock of thought which must have guided the conduct of the more
primitive folk we must constantly bear in mind the parallelism (I do not mean
necessary identity of origin) between the thoughts of the earliest human folk and

518 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

the corresponding instincts (as these are called) noticeable in the case of some of
the higher animals? I am particularly anxious not to be misunderstood; the
suggestion is not that even the most primitive human folk were mentally merely
on a par even with the higher animals, but that many, perhaps most, of the
ways of thought that guided the primitive man in his bearing towards the world
outside himself may be more easily understood if it is once realised, and after-
wards remembered, that the two mental habits, however different in origin and
in degree of development, were remarkably analogous in kind.

A similar analogy, in respect not of thoughts but of arts, may well illustrate
this correspondence between the elementary ideas of men and animals. The
higher apes occasionally arm themselves by tearing a young tree up by the
roots and using the ‘club’ thus provided as a weapon of offence and defence
against their enemies. Some of the primitive South Sea islanders did—nay, do—
exactly the same, or at any rate did so till very lately. The club—the so-called
malumu—which the Fijian, then and up to the much later time when he ceased to
use a club at all, greatly preferred to use for all serious fighting purposes was pro-
vided in exactly the same way, 7.e., by dragging a young tree from the ground, and
smoothing off the more rugged roots to form what the American might call the
business end of the club. But though the Fijian, throughout the period during
which he retained his own ways, used and even preferred this earliest form of
club, he meanwhile employed his leisure (which was abundant), his fancy, and his
ingenuity, in ornamenting this weapon, and also in gradually adapting it to more
and more special purposes, some of the later of which were not even warlike but
were ceremonial purposes, till in course of time each isolated island or group of
islands evolved clubs special to it in form, purpose, and ornament, and the very
numerous and puzzlingly varied series of elaborate and beautiful clubs and club-
shaped implements resulted. It seems to be in power of improvement and
elaboration that lies the difference between men-folk and animal-folk.

Something similar may be assumed to have broughtgabout the evolution of
the ideas of these islanders. Starting with a stock of thoughts similar in kind
to the instincts of the more advanced animals, the human-folk—by virtue of
some mysterious potentiality—gradually adapted these to meet the special
circumstances of their own surroundings, and in so doing ornamenting these
primitive thoughts further in accordance with fancy.

In the Fiji Islands this process of cultural development was probably slow
during the long period while the Melanesians, with perhaps the occasional
stimulus afforded by the drifting in of a little human flotsam and jetsam from
other still more primitive folk, were in sole occupation; yet it must have been
during this period and by these folk that the distinctively Fijian form of culture
was evolved. But the process must have been greatly accelerated, and at the
same time more or less changed in direction, by the incoming of the distinct and
higher Polynesian culture, at a time certainly before, but perhaps not very long
before, the encroachment of Europeans.

In order to realise as vividly as possible what were the earlier, most elemen-
tary, thoughts on which the whole detail of his subsequent ‘ savage’ mentality
was gradually imposed, it is essential for the time being to discard practically
all the ideas which, since the road to civilisation parted from that on which
savagery was left to linger, have built up the mentality of civilised folk; it is
essential to try to see as the most primitive Fijian saw and to conceive what these
islanders thought as to themselves and as to the world in which they found
themselves.

It seems safe to assume that the primitive man, absolutely self-centred, had
hardly begun to puzzle out any explanation even of his own nature, still less of
the real nature of all the other beings of which he must have been vaguely
conscious in the world outside himself. To put it bluntly, he took things very
much as they came, and had hardly begun to ask questions.

He was—he could not but be, as the lower animals are—in some vague way
conscious of himself, and from that one entirely self-centred position he could
not but perceive from time to time that other beings, more or less like himself,
were about him, and came more or less in contact with him.

The place in which he was conscious of being appeared to him limitless.
He did not realise that he could move about only in the islet which was his

* PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 519

home, or perhaps even only in-a part of a somewhat larger, but according to our
ideas still small, island; if other islets were in sight from that on which he
lived, these also would be part of his world, especially if—though such incidents
must have been rare—he had crossed to, or been visited by strangers from, those
islands—islands which lay between his own home and that which he spoke of as
wai-langi-lala (water-sky-emptiness) and we speak of as the horizon. To him
the world was not limited by any line, even the furthest which his sight dis-
closed to him. Rarely, but still sometimes, strangers had come from beyond
that line. Perhaps too he had some time heard that his ancestors had come
from the somewhere which seemed beyond. Again his ancestors of whom he had
heard, and even some of the contemporaries whom he had seen, though no longer
with him except occasionally during his dreams in bodily form, were somewhere,
somewhere beyond that line of sight. Even he himself (in what were his
dreams, as we say, but to him were part of his real life) habitually went beyond
the line, and, as far as his experience had gone, returned each time to the
island home.

Moreover, he did not doubt that this limitless region in which it vaguely
seemed to him that he, and innumerable other beings, moved, extended not
merely along what we speak of as the surface of the globe, but also, and
equally without any intervening obstacle, up into the infinite space above and
beyond the sky. In short, to this primitive man the world, though the part
of it to which he had actual access was so small, was limitless.

The thoughts of the dweller in this vague world, as to himself and as to the
other beings of which from time to time he became conscious, must have been
correspondingly indefinite.

He was, to a degree almost if not quite beyond our power of conception,
a spiritualist rather than a materialist; and it is essential to get some idea of
the extent and manner of his recognition of spiritual beings—and his correspond-
ing non-recognition of things material.

In passing I here disclaim, for myself at least, the use of the misleading
word ‘ belief ’ in speaking of the ideas of really primitive man—as, for instance,
in the phrase the ‘ belief in immortality.’ Possibly primitive men of somewhat
more advanced thought, though not yet beyond the stage of ‘savagery,’ may
have ‘ believed ’ in spirits, in immortality, and so on; but it seems to me that
at the earlier stage there can hardly have been more than recognition (admittedly
very strong recognition) of spiritual beings, and non-recognition of any beginning
or ending of these spirits.

To return from this digression, Sir E. B. Tylor long since gave currency to
the very useful word ‘animism’ as meaning ‘ the belief in spiritual beings,’ and
this has been taken to mean that animism was the initial stage, or at any rate
the earliest discoverable stage, of all religion. The primitive Fijian was cer-
tainly a thorough-going animist, if his extraordinarily strong but vague recog-
nition of spiritual beings suffices to make him that; but I do not think that the
ideas of that kind of the primitive ‘savage ’—or, say, of the most primitive Fijian
—before his ideas had been worked up into somewhat higher thought, during the
long period while he was secluded in his remote islands and before the advent
of the Polynesians, had developed far enough to constitute anything which
could be called ‘ religion,’ though doubtless they were the sort of stuff which,
had these folk been left to themselves, might, probably did, form the basis
of the ‘ religion’ towards which they were tending.

Practically all human beings—savage and civilised alike—and, though in
lower degree, even animal-folk, have in some degree recognised the existence
of some sort of spiritual beings. The point then seems to be to discover what
was the nature of the spiritual beings which the primitive Fijian recognised
but without understanding.

Anthropologists have recently defined, or at least described, several kinds of
spiritual beings as recognised (even here I will not use the word ‘ believed ’)
by more or less primitive folk. There is, first, the soul, or the separable
personality of the living man or other being; secondly, the ghost, or the same
thing after death; thirdly, the spirit, which is said to be a soul-like being which
has never been associated with a human or animal body; and, fourthly, there
is, it appears, to be taken into consideration yet another kind of spiritual being

520 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

(or something of that nature) which is the life of personality, not amounting to
a separable or apparitional soul, which, it has been supposed, some primitive
folk have attributed to what we call ‘inanimate things.’

It seems, though I say this with all due deference, that this identification
and naming of various kinds of spiritual beings, though it may hold good of
animism at a higher stage, does not fit the case of the more primitive animist
(say, that of the Melanesian in the very backward state in which, as far as we
know, he first reached Fiji), for presumably he had not as yet recognised nor
differentiated between the various kinds just enumerated. He recognised some-
thing which may be called the ‘soul,’ which was the separable personality of the
living man or other being. But he did not recognise—perhaps it would be
better to say that he had not yet attained to recognition of—the ghost, or the
same thing after death; for he had not even recognised any real break, involving
change, at death. Nor, as I think, did he recognise a spirit, i.e., a soul-like
being which had never been associated with a human or animal body; for he
had no idea of any spiritual being which did not, or could not, on occasion
associate itself with a human, animal, or other material body, nor seemingly
had he reached the stage, labelled animatism, in which he would have attributed
life and personality to things (which I take to mean things which are to us
inanimate).

All that the most primitive man would recognise would be that he himself—
the essential part of him—was a being (for convenience and for want of a better
name it may be called ‘soul’) temporarily separable at any time from the
material body in which it happened to be, and untrammelled—except to some
extent by the clog of the body—-by any such conditions as time and space; he
had found no reason to think that in these respects the many other beings of
which from time to time he became aware (whether these were what we should
class as men, other animals, or the things which we speak of as inanimate, such
as stocks and stones, or bodiless natural phenomena, such as winds) differed
from himself only in the comparatively unimportant matter of bodily form;
moreover, it seemed to him that, as he himself could to some extent do all
these, the other beings, and some perhaps even more easily, were able to pass
from one body to another.

He felt that these ‘souls’ were only temporarily and more or less loosely
attached to the particular material forms in which they happened to manifest
themselves at any moment, and that the material form in which the soul (and
noticeably this held good even of his own soul) happened at any moment to be
embodied was of little or no real importance to that soul, which could continue
to exist just as well without as with that body.

Another point which it is important to note is the egoism of the savage man
as distinguished from the altruism of the civilised man; for it was perhaps the
beginning of the idea of altruism, of duty to one’s neighbour, that gave the
start to civilisation, and it was because the ancestors of the savage had never
got hold of this fundamental principle of altruism that they were left behind.

The uncivilised man, complete egoist as he was, thought and acted only for his
own personal interests. It is true that he was to a certain extent kind (as we
might call it) to the people of his own small community, and possibly still more
kind to such of the community as seemed to him more immediately of his own
kindred. But this kindness was little more than instinctive—little more than a
way of attracting further service. It is also true that on the occasions, which
must have been very rare till a late period in the Melanesian occupation of Fiji,
when strangers—i.e., persons of whom he had not even dreamed—came, so sur-
prisingly, into his purview, he was sometimes civil or even hospitable to those
strangers (it should not be forgotten that to him these were souls embodied by
separable accident in material forms) ; but this would have been only on occasions
on which he knew, or suspected, that these visitors were stronger than himself
and able to injure or benefit him.

Another point of great significance in the character of this primitive man
was that he had no conception of ownership of property. To him all that we
should class as goods and chattels, his land, or even his own body, was his only
so long as he could retain it. He might if he could and would take any such
property from another entirely without impropriety ; nor would he resist, or even

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 521

wish to resist, the taking from himself of any such property by any one who
could and would take it.

Again, the primitive man must have been far less sensitive to pain, and far
less subject to fear, than the normal civilised man. I do not mean that the
primitive Fijian was without the ordinary animal shrinking from physical pain,
but that he cannot have been nearly as sensitive even to physical pain as is the
more sophisticated man; nor had he the same mental pain, the same anticipation
and fear of pain, that the civilised man has.

Having thus dealt with some of the more important points in the character
of the primitive Fijian, I propose next to consider how far these suffice to account
for some of the more ‘ savage’ conditions under which these islanders when first
seen were living.

Cannibalism claims the first mention, in that, though the practice has been
recorded from many other parts of the world, it is commonly supposed to have
been carried further in Fiji than elsewhere.

Here, however, it is at once necessary to point out that the outbreak of
cannibalism in Fiji in the first half of the last century was not due to any
innate and depraved taste on the part of the Fijians, and that the practice to the
degree and after the fashion of which the story-books tell was not natural to the
Fijian, whether of Melanesian or Polynesian stock.

It is probable, even perhaps certain, that all the Fiji islanders occasionally ate
human flesh before the coming of white men to the islands; but it was only after
the arrival of the new-comers that this practice, formerly only occasional and
hardly more than ceremonial, developed into the abominable orgies of the first
half of the last century. The first Europeans to set foot—about 1800—and to re-
main in the islands for any time were the so-called ‘ beachcombers.’ At first at
least, these renegades from civilisation, to secure their own precarious positior:
and safety, contrived to put themselves under the patronage of some one or other
of the great native chiefs, who would be Polynesians, and assisted and egged on
these chiefs in their then main occupation of fighting other great rival chiefs, also
Polynesians, and raiding the less advanced Melanesians of tne surrounding dis-
tricts. The guns and ammunition which the beachcombers, in some cases at
least, brought with them or managed to procure, and the superior craft which
they had imbibed from civilisation, greatly assisted them in this immoral pur-
pose. Consequently a habit of cruelty, new to the Fijian, was implanted and
developed, especially in the Polynesian chiefs. It became more and more a
fashion for the greatest native warriors, thus egged on, to vie with each other in
the number of their victims and in the reckless cruelty with which these were
killed. Doubtless at first the victims were opponents killed in fight, sometimes
great rival chiefs and sometimes mere /oi polloi who had been led out to fight,
probably not very reluctantly, for their chiefs. Incidentally more and more
people were killed; and the bodies of the slain were conveniently disposed of in
the ovens. A taste for this food was thus developed in the chiefs—though this
seems, for a time at least, to have been confined to the great chiefs, most of those
of lower status, and all women, refusing to partake, at any rate till a later
period. Before long, when the number of the killed ran short, the deficiency was
made up by clubbing more and more even of their own people, till eventually the
great native warrior took pride in the mere number of those he had killed and
eaten.

Tt seems probable that even the coming of the missionaries, who first reached
Fiji thirty or forty years after the earliest beachcombers, and at once began
almost heroic efforts to stop cannibalism, thereby to some extent temporarily even
aggravated the evil. For the chiefs, in their characteristic temper of gasconade,
killed and ate more and more unrestrainedly, in mockery of the missionaries and
to show what fine fellows they thought themselves to be.

To return from this digression into a somewhat distasteful subject, cannibalism
as practised by the Fijians before the coming of white men was very different,
and, from the Fijian point of view—if I may say so without fear of being mis-
understood—not altogether indefensible. It must be remembered that there was,
as it were, no killing in our sense of the word involved, merely a setting free
from the non-essential body of the essential soul, which soul survived just as well
without the body as with it.

22) TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H,

Note that the soul must have been considered as in some way and for a
time still associated with its late body if, as is commonly and perhaps rightly
held, the slayer sometimes ate some part of the body of the slain in order to
acquire some of the qualities of the slain. E

Again, there can be little doubt that men were sometimes killed for sacrificial
purposes, the material bodies of the victims being placed at some spot (perhaps
the tomb) considered to be frequented by the disembodied spirit of some
ancestor for whom it was desired to provide a spirit attendant. It may be
noted that this sacrificial use of the body might be combined with an eating
of the same body when once it had served its first purpose of attributing the
spirit which had been in it to the service of the honoured ancestor.

It has been laid to the charge of the Fijians (as to that of many other folk
of savage and even of civilised culture) that they habitually killed strangers,
especially such as had been washed or drifted to the islands by the sea—who,
in early times at least, must have been almost the only strangers to arrive.
The charge, like that of cannibalism, has been exaggerated, and the facts—
as far as there were any—on which this charge was founded have been mis-
understood.

Here, again, the attitude of the Fijian in this respect was hardly different
from that of the lower animals under similar circumstances. The Fijian knew of
no reason to be glad of the arrival of strangers, unless these could, in one way
or another, be useful to him; and, as has already been explained, he knew
of no reason why he should not make the best use possible of the stranger, of his
body or his spirit, separately or together.

While, as must have been the case in earlier times, the new-comers were
dark-skinned men like himself, the Fijian might without the slightest prick of
conscience separate their bodies from their spirits, and dispose of the body or
the spirit separately; or without effecting this separation, he might simply
enslave the new-comers; or, again, if he suspected that the new-comers were too
strong for him, he might yield himself to them as a slave.

And later, when Europeans began to arrive, sometimes as refugees from
passing ships and sometimes as survivors from ships wrecked on the surrounding
reefs, the bearing of the Fijian towards this new kind of stranger would have
been on the same principles, only that in this case the new-comers, being of far
less readily understood kind, would be regarded with more suspicion and also
more respect. I believe that very seldom, if ever, was an inoffensive white man,
wrecked sailor or other, killed, or treated with anything but kindliness and
courtesy, even though the wrecked man’s property might naturally be appro-
priated by the natives. It was only when white-skinned strangers became com-
moner, and frequently more offensive, and when familiarity had bred contempt,
that they were killed, as nuisances, and, especially during the great outbreak of
cannibalism, were eaten.

This point in the bearing of the islanders to white men might be further
illustrated by a circumstance which, to my surprise, I have never found men-
tioned, 7.e., that during the whole period while the missionaries were, with a
rashness only justified by the circumstances, testifying against the natives in
Fiji not one of these was killed, till at a much Jater period, when European
influence was all but predominant in Fiji, Baker was killed and eaten under very
special circumstances.

If it were possible to ascertain in each case the facts as to the reception by
‘savages’ of the first white men they saw, it would almost certainly be
found that the reception was apparently kindly, though this kindness may
really have been due to fear and not to charity. It was, however, quite probable
that at any moment the savage might find that his dread of the white man was
unfounded, and in that case he might kill him (i.e., separate his soul from his
body) without hesitation, and after doing this his fear—he probably never had
any affection for him—of the disembodied spirit of the white man might be as
great, or even greater, than before.

Incidentally it may here be noted, as a further curious point, that a Fijian
who thus quite remorselessly set free the soul of a stranger from its body would
probably not often and not for long in his dreams be revisited by his victim,
if a native; and perhaps not even if the victim were a white man, unless very

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 523

remarkable. In other words, the victim survives only just so long as he is
remembered. Captain Cook, we know, survived for very long, perhaps does
so still; few, if any, of such beachcombers as were later killed in Fiji survived
for any length of time; and the innumerable natives who were drifted or washed
to one or other of the islands must for the most part have passed from memory
soon after they were killed.

It has been suggested that the killing of strangers may have been for the
purpose of preventing the introduction of disease; and it is certain that,
perhaps even before the coming of white men, the islanders recognised that the
advent of strangers was curiously often and most disastrously followed by the
introduction of new diseases, either real diseases or at least some queer, unex-
plained influence which has so often made life not worth living for savages
where white strangers have been,

The Fijians were hardly more notorious for cannibalism than for theft—and
almost as undeservedly. ‘There is hardly an account of the visit of a European
ship in early times to any of the islands which does not mention that the islanders
who came aboard took whatever they fancied, either quite openly or if furtively
then without evincing anything like shame when discovered. This habit, which
the explorers naturally called theft, was but the manifestation of a South Sea
custom, due to the entire absence of any idea of personal property, which
in Fiji is called keri-keri. To keri-keri was to take whatever you wanted and
could take without the previous holder of the property preventing you. In old
days no Fijian doubted his own absolute right to keri-keri, nor did he feel the
very slightest shame in thus (as we should say) ‘depriving another of his
property’ or ‘stealing’; and even to this day the Fijian, provided that he is
not really Europeanised, will keri-keri without shame. In short the idea of
ownership and individual property never occurred to the natural Fijian. He
took what he wanted, and was strong enough to take. But, on the other hand,
he yielded up, practically without reluctance, whatever another stronger or
cleverer than himself wanted and was able to take from him.

Of the many other charges of ‘savagery ’ made against Fijians, I can, in the
time at my disposal, deal with but one more, that as to their strange and grue:
some habit of celebrating great occasions by killing their own folk. When a
Fijian chief died, as we should say, or, as it seemed to the surviving natives,
when his soul left the body which it had for a time used, his widows, and other
of his kindred and dependents, unwilling to be left behind, were strangled, often
indeed helped to strangle themselves, that their bodies might be put into the
graves, while their souls went gladly with that of the chief whom they had been
accustomed to follow.

Again, when a chief built a house, some of his dependents, whom the great
man told off for the purpose, willingly stepped down into the holes which had
been dug for the house-posts, and remained there while the earth was filled in
on to them, and continued thereafter as permanent supporters of the house.

Again, there is a tradition, which at least was not incredible to the natives,
that a great chief one day went a-fishing, and caught many fish. Two
brothers of humbler rank who happened to have come down to the same water-
side, also to fish, were less successful. The chief, in a characteristic freak of
generosity, presented his best fish to the elder of the two brothers, who, strictly
according to Fijian custom, accepted the gift, but felt bound to make an
immediate return, but he had nothing to give. Thereupon the younger brother,
at his own suggestion, was clubbed by the elder, and his body presented to the
chief in token that his soul would thereafter serve that chief.

It is even said that when yams and other vegetables were brought in as
food for the chiefs by the dependents who had grown them for that purpose,
the food-bearers, if there was a scarcity of fish or other suitable accompaniment
for the vegetable diet, were themselves clubbed and their bodies eaten. This
particular atrocity probably happened only after the habit of cannibalism had,
as already explained, been unnaturally intensified. But the story is note-
worthy in that the food-bearers are not represented as in any way dreading or
shirking the use to which their bodies were put.

In all these and similar cases it is to be noted that the victims (as we are
naturally inclined to call them) were more ov less indifferent, if indeed they

524. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

were not eagerly consenting parties, to the use (cruel as it seems to us) made
of their material bodies. Thus the widows were eager to be strangled, and
often even helped to do the deed, in order that they—all that was essential of
them, 7.e., their souls—should rejoin the deceased. Similarly those others who
were killed on the occasion of the funeral were quite willing to give their
bodies, which seemed of comparatively little importance, as ‘grass’ to be added
to the cut fern and other soft material on which the body of the deceased chief
was couched in the grave; and quite willingly the men told off for that purpose
stepped down into the holes in which the house-posts were grounded, that they,
or rather their bodies, might thereafter hold up the house, while their souls
enjoyed life much as before but without the encumbrance of the body. Others
again contentedly grew taro for the chiefs to eat, and carried it in when ripe,
thinking it of little importance that their mere bodies might be eaten with the
taro.

In conclusion, having endeavoured to realise for myself, and to show you a
glimpse, of the enormous, hardly conceivable difference in habit of thought, and
consequently in character, which separates the savage from the civilised man,
J will offer a suggestion which seems to me possibly the most important outcome
of my personal experience, now closed, as an anthropological administrator in
tropical places where Eastern and Western folk have met, and where the
inevitable clash between the two has occurred.

In such places and circumstances the result has too often been that sooner
or later the weaker folk—those whose ancestors have been age-long ‘savages ’—
have died out in the presence of those whose ancestors long ago turned from
‘savagery’ to civilisation. This dying out of the weaker folk has happened even
when the stronger people have done their best to avoid this extirpation.

The real ultimate cause of ‘the decrease of natives’ when in contact with
civilised folk lies, perhaps, in the difference in hereditary mentality—in the in-
capacity of the ‘savage’ to take on civilisation quickly enough. However
sedulously the missionary, the Government official, and others who take a real
interest in so doing, may teach civilised precepts to the essential savage, the
subject of this sedulous case—however advanced a savage culture he may have
attained—will, at least for many generations, remain a savage, i.¢c., for just so
long as he is under influence of the civilised teacher he may act on the utterly
strange precepts taught him, but away from that influence he will act on his
own hereditary instincts.

The manner in which the native dies out—even when well looked after—
varies. He may be killed out by some disease, perhaps trifling but new to him,
with which he does not know how to cope, and with which—if he can avoid so
doing—he simply will not cope in the ways which the civilised man would teach
him; or he may be killed out by the well-meant but injudicious enforcement on
him of some system of unaccustomed labour; or, again, he may die out because
deprived of his former occupations (e.g., fighting and the gathering of just so
much food as sufficed for him) and thus restricted to a merely vegetative exist-
ence; or in many other more or less similar forms his extermination may come
about.

But all such effective causes are reducible to one, which is that he is not
allowed to act on his own hereditary instincts, that he cannot at all times
have, and often would not use, judicious and disinterested guidance from civilised
folk, and that consequently he, the ‘savage,’ cannot and too often does not
care to keep alive when in the presence of civilised folk.

MELBOURNE.
; FRIDAY, AUGUST 14.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Origin and Spread of certain Customs and Inventions.
By Professor G. Exutor Surry, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

After dealing with the evidence from the resemblances in the physical charac
teristics of widely separated populations—such, for instance, as certain of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 525

ancient inhabitants of Western Asia on the one hand and certain Polynesians
on the other—suggesting far-reaching prehistoric migrations, the distribution
of certain peculiarly distinctive practices, such as mummification and the build-
ing of megalithic monuments, is made use of to confirm the reality of such
wanderings of peoples, the author said :—

‘TI have already (at the Portsmouth, Dundee, and Birmingham meetings) dealt
with the problem as it affects the Mediterranean littoral and Western Europe.
On the present occasion I propose to direct attention mainly to the question of
the spread of culture from the centres of the ancient civilisations along the
Southern Asiatic coast and from there out into the Pacific. From the examina-
tion of the evidence supplied by megalithic monuments and distinctive burial
customs, studied in the light of the historical information relating to the influence
exerted by Arabia and India in the Far East, one can argue by analogy as to
the nature of migrations in the even more remote past to explain the distribution
of the earliest peoples dwelling on the shores of the Pacific.

‘Practices such as mummification and megalith-building present so many
peculiar and distinctive features that no hypothesis of independent evolution can
seriously be entertained in explanation of their geographical distribution.
They must be regarded as evidence of the diffusion of information, and the
migrations of bearers of it, from somewhere in the neighbourhood of the Eastern
Mediterranean step by step out into Polynesia and even perhaps beyond the
Pacific to the American littoral.’

2. The Short Cists of the North-East of Scotland.
By AuExanveR Low, M.A., M.D.

The Short Cists of the North-East of Scotland are single interments found
mostly without any overground structure to indicate their site. The cists are
built of irregularly shaped flat stones set on edge, and roofed over by one large
flat covering stone. The internal dimensions vary, but an average cist measures
three feet long by two feet wide and one foot six inches deep. There is no
evidence of the cists being oriented in any particular direction. In the cists
examined burial was by inhumation. There is evidence to show that, while
burial by inhumation was the earlier practice, inhumation and incineration were
pantly contemporaneous ; and this is borne out by one cist, in which along with a
burial by inhumation were found calcined human bones.

Besides the skeletal remains there were associated with the interments clay
urns, flint scrapers, flint arrowheads, but no trace of metal. The urns were
all of the ‘ beaker’ type, except in one instance, where the urn was of the ‘ food-
vessel ’ type.

We have made a detailed examination of a series of fifteen somewhat complete,
short cist skeletons preserved in the Anatomy Department of the University of
Aberdeen. The skull form is very uniform in its characters. A skull, from a
short cist recovered at Parkhill, Aberdeenshire, may be taken as representative
of the type. The skull is that of a male, sutures partly closed, frontal and
parietal eminences well developed, cubic capacity 1,450 (of mustard seed), hori-
zontal circumference 524, glabello-occipital length 135, minimum frontal diameter
102, interzygomatic breadth 142, nasio-alveolar length 64, nasal height 48, nasal
width 23, orbital width 41, orbital height 33. With a length-breadth index of
85, the measurements are those of a brachycephalic skull with low broad face,
microseme and almost mesorhine. The norma lateralis shows an orthognathous
face with well-formed chin, depressed nasion, well-marked superciliary ridges,
frontal arc ascending with a uniform steep curve to bregma, behind this there is
flattening, and then the postero-parietal passes down sharply to the lambda and
is associated with occipital flattening. :

Altogether the series of skeletal remains gives evidence of a people of some-
what under medium stature, well-built and athletic, with very broad skulls, low
straight faces, narrow orbits and somewhat broadish noses.

As to the affinities of these short cist builders, the characters of their
skeletons are very similar to those of the broad-headed Alpine race that occupied
Central Europe about the end of the Stone Age and which are supposed to be

526 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

descendants of the Paleolithic broad-headed Grenille race; in fact, the short
cist skull approximates closely to the Grenille type af skull. The ceramic found
in the interments supports this view, for the Hon. John Abercromby has demon-
strated that the ‘ beaker’ type of sepulchral urn is the oldest Bronze Age ceramic,
and that it is an imported type having its centre of dispersion in Central Europe
at the end of the Stone Age.

3. The Stone Implements of the Australian Aborigine: the Types and
their Occurrence. By A. 8. Kenyon and D. J. Manony.

(1) Distribution.—Implements are found all over the land surface; mainly
at ‘camps,’ but fortuitously more or less everywhere. ‘ Camps ’"—which embrace
kitchen-middens, over-mounds, myrniong-heaps, cave-shelters, &c.—are of several
classes. The first and most important comprises those which may practically
be termed permanent, near unfailing water and reliable food supply. Others
are, in a varying degree, of a temporary nature. These differences are reflected
in the implements found at them. Temporary occupation, with surroundings
calling for little or no use of stone implements, produces ‘camps’ like those
on the Coorong Ocean Beach, South Australia, where there is no local stone
or timber, and the food supply is limited to the mollusc, Donax sp. There
are there thousands of acres of camp exposed; masses of Donaz shells without,
on the whole surface, more than a dozen shapeless fragments of flint : nothing
else to show man’s presence. The stone remains to be found at camps range
from such rudimentary, almost unrecognisable, implements to series embracing
every class to the highest, varying with the district and its available supplies
of stone and with the situation.

(2) Period.—The whole of the implements dealt with are of recent age, and
were fashioned by the race still existing. They occur on the surface or nearly
so in positions where rapid accumulation is still in progress. No separation
into layers of varying degrees of workmanship has yet been observed, while a
mixture of all types is found on top of formations whose age cannot exceed
a few hundred years. Certainly some stone occurrences which may imply
antiquity have been reported, but they are not dealt with here.

(3) Material.—The material used varies with requirements and accessibility,
but for cutting implements it may be readily divided into two classes, brittle
and hard stone, such as flints, quartzites, cherts, &c., and the tougher but softer
diabasic, metamorphic, and like rocks. Barter is almost wholly confined to the
latter class, and in it to the better sorts. The brittle stones produce implements
of palolithic, and lower, types; the tough stones’ mainly those of a neolithic
character.

(4) Zype.—There is no doubt that the class of stone available governs the
degree of finish and method of manipulation, with use and opportunity playing
a secondary part. At Portland, where flints abound along the coast line and
no other suitable stones occur, the implements of fiint, forming the great
majority, are of a marked paleolithic type; most, if not all, of the types so
classed in Europe being obtainable. Were these the only indications, it might
be claimed that a race but little higher than the Tasmanian had existed on the
mainland. On the Upper Goulburn River, where there are no flints and no
quartzitic rocks of a tractable nature, a completely distinct group of implements
is met with. The river pebbles, flattened ovals in form, are made implements
by simply chipping around one edge. In the remote interior of the Mallee Scrub,
where good brittle stone is obtainable only from great distances, each fragment
is used and re-used until a complete series of minute implements of ‘ pygmy’
type is found. Even with such crude and cumbersome implements as stone-mills,
the same law holds. In proximity to suitable sandstone, large roughly broken
masses of stone are used, while at a distance the smaller quarried types prevail.

(5) Classification—The first requirement is one system capable of including
all forms, from the most primitive eolithic to a well-differentiated and fashioned
neolithic implement. No existing European or American system is applicable,
as all postulate a relationship between the workmanship and the cultural stage of
the artificer: this is not justified by Australian evidence. Consequently the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 527

classification adopted is that of Kenyon and Stirling (Royal Society of Victoria,
vol. xiii, n.s. 1901), with such modifications as later discoveries have rendered
necessary. This system is founded primarily on use, though form has to be
relied upon in instances where use is merely conjectural.

(6) Conclusion.—In Australia at least the type of implement prevailing is no
reliable index to the type of man who fashioned it, or to his stage of culture,
or to his period of existence. But for the undeniable evidence as to the con-
temporary nature of the various camps, the conclusion would be justified that
they are the remains of former inhabitants of neolithic, paleolithic, and, to
coin a term, protolithic ages.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 18.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Some Halensions of Eurly Slone Age Cullure.
By H. Baurour, M.A.

2. Recent Excavation of a Paleolithic Cave in Jersey.
By R. R. Marert, M.A., D.Sc.

During the past three years fruitful exploration of the cave known as La
Cotte de St. Brelade, on the south coast of Jersey, has taken place, and the
results were laid by me before the British Association at the Portsmouth,
Dundee, and Birmingham Meetings. This year for the first time the British
Association has taken an active share in the work by making a grant of 50/., and
appointing a Committee of control. This latest chapter in the history of the
excavation may fairly claim to have broken all previous records.

Hitherto the Mousterian floor had been cleared only along the west side of the
cave, where about twenty-five feet of superincumbent débris had to be removed.
It was now resolved to carry the clearing across the mouth to the east side,
though this involved the demolition of an overlying mass of no less than forty
feet, weighing approximately a ton to every square foot of floor exposed. Con-
siderable risk from falling stones had to be faced, but only one accident
occurred, and that fortunately not very serious.

As the east limit was approached, the floor of ancient occupation increased in
thickness; so that near the wall, which was found to be undercut by a con-
siderable cavity forming a sort of side-chamber, as much as twelve feet of hearth-
deposits, rich in bones and implements, were encountered.

Among the bones a rough preliminary survey reveals the presence of mam-
moth, woolly rhinoceros, the great Irish elk, reindeer, red deer, roe deer, wild
ox, wild horse, wild goat, cave-hyzena, fox, arctic lemming, and a species of
grouse. We have here, then, a thoroughly representative pleistocene fauna of the
cold, or tundra, type.

_ The number of implements obtained may be gathered from the fact that they
exceeded three cwt. in sheer weight. It will take months of study to do justice
to the wealth of types which they embody. As far as can be made out at
present, the Mousterian facies prevails throughout, though it remains to be
seen whether it will prove possible to differentiate in regard to style of workman-
ship the products of the various levels of the floor. In the meantime it may
be pointed out that the characteristic ‘point’ was found at all levels; though
one of these, gathered at the lowest level, was worked on both sides, thus
suggesting the technique of an earlier period. Among the smaller implements a
certain number appeared to be notched towards the base, as if they had once
been provided with a handle or shaft. There was a great variety of hammer-
stones, mostly of granite, and of split pebbles, mostly of diabase, some of which
had clearly been used as polishers. Altogether, this site is so rich that it may
well come to be treated as the locus classicus for the determination of the leading
forms of the Mousterian culture; more especially as, to judge from the thickness
of the implementiferous bed, and the occurrence of double patination upon

528 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

certain implements, the occupation must have extended over an immense period
of time.

There is still a great deal of work to be done on this site, and, what is more,
it promises to be immediately fruitful on both sides of the recent cutting. It
is to be hoped that the British Association will not hesitate to provide a fresh
grant, and thus identify itself still further with discoveries that cannot fail to
make for the advancement of archxological science.

3. The Brain of Primitive Man. By Professor G. Euuior Sirs, F.R.S,

4. On the Relations of the Inner Surface of the Cranial Wall to the
Brain, with special reference to the Reconstruction of the Brain from
Cranial Casts. By Professor J. Symineron, M.D., F.R.S.

This paper contained the results of a series of observations on the relations of
the brain and skull with the object of ascertaining the extent to which casts of
the cranial cavity enable us to estimate the form of the brain and especially the
position of the cerebral fissures and the degree of development of the cerebral
convolutions. As is well known to anatomists, the bony wall of the cranium ‘is
separated from the brain by three membranes called the dura mater, the arach-
noid, and the pia mater. As a rule these membranes are thin, but in certain
situations they may be thickened, or separated from one another; thus, meningeal
vessels ramify on the outer surface of the dura mater, and certain venous
channels, some of considerable size, are situated in the dura mater, while be-
tween the arachnoid and the pia mater is the cerebrospinal fluid, and the larger
cerebral vessels lie in the subarachnoid space and the smaller ones in the pia
mater. 5

In a series of specimens in which the brain had been carefully hardened
in situ the cranial cavity was opened and the brain divided in a horizontal,
transverse vertical, or median direction. Plaster of Paris or gelatine casts were
taken of part of the cranial cavity, first with the dura mater in situ and secondly
after removal of this membrane. Moulds were also made of the part of the
brain which occupied the portion of the cranial cavity from which casts had
been taken. These moulds of the brain were made with the arachnoid and pia
mater in position and also after their removal, and from them casts were pre-
pared. One complete set of such casts consisted of (1) the inner surface of the
bony wall of the skull, (2) the inner surface of the dura mater, (3) the outer
surface of the arachnoid, and (4) the outer surface of the brain.

In thirteen adult subjects the vault of the skull and its contents, and in two
the parts behind the foramen magnum, were examined, and in three the head
was divided in the median plane and the lateral halves cast. With the aid of
this material not only could the form of the brain and of the cranial cavity be
compared, but the structures to which were due any differences between them
could easily be demonstrated.

The results of this investigation showed that only the general form and size
of the brain and the position of but few of its fissures and convolutions could be
ascertained from the bony cranial casts, and that the simplicity or complexity of
the cerebral convolutions could not be inferred from the feeble or marked
development of the digital impressions on the inner surface of the cranial wall.
These observations tend to throw grave doubts on the reliability of certain state-
ments with reference to the peculiarities of the Piltdown brain based upon casts
of the Piltdown cranium.

5. Bori Exorcism, Forlune-telling, and Invocation,
By Major A. J. N. Tremearne, M.A., LL.M.

A woman in Tunis had been ill for seven months, her body so lax that she
could do nothing. After four and a half months she had given one franc, to be
wrapped in a handkerchief and hung in the bori temple as an offering to Kuri.
She got a little better, and at the end of the seventh month gave a dance. Her

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, 529

illness was transferred to two fowls, which were then killed, and various bori
came and entered the dancers. The patient was so much benefited that she was
able to dance herself by midnight, and was walking about next day.

The godiya (‘mare’) having become affected by the inhalation of incense
gave oracles and answered the questions asked. Several spirits mounted. During
the inhalation the priestesses rubbed the ground, and during the possession of
the godiya they knelt and received albaraka, An‘ incantation was sung to each
spirit on arrival by a special songstress.

When a person is going on a journey, fowls may be sacrificed after an invoca-
tion to the bori, and the blood flowing between the traveller’s legs brings the bori,
who give their albaraka. By the manner in which the blood flows and by its
appearance the success of the venture may be foretold.

6. Culiure and Degeneration. By Professor I’. von Luscuan.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST’ 19.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Is Australian Culture Simple or Complex ?
By Dr. W. H. BR. Rivers, F.R.S.

The question whether Australian culture is simple or complex is one of
great theoretical importance. If this culture does not represent a stage in,
or an offshoot from, a direct line of social development, but is the result
of the fusion of a number of elements which reached Australia at long
intervals, the first step towards any sound knowledge must be the analysis
of this culture. If such features of Australian culture as its totemism, its
belief in the reincarnation of the dead, and its practices of mutilation are
not independent developments, but the results of influences brought to Australia
from elsewhere, perhaps in relatively recent times and by people whose culture
was of a higher order than that now found in Australia, the foundation on
which many recent anthropological speculations have been reared is swept away.

In considering this question, the first point to be noted is that it is
impossible to decide whether any culture is simple or complex by a study
of that culture alone. It is only by comparison with neighbouring and allied
cultures that the problem can be settled. The first question, therefore, which
must be asked is whether any culture allied to that of Australia exists in its
neighbourhood, and there can be no question that Melanesia possesses such a
culture. Superficially the two are very different, but the more one studies
those aspects of culture which do not lie on the surface, such as social
structure and religion, the more apparent does the close relation between
the two become. The complexity of Melanesian culture is evident, and the
results of an attempt! to analyse this complexity leave little doubt that some
of the elements which resemble those of Australia most closely have been
brought from elsewhere or have arisen out of the interaction between the
indigenous and immigrant peoples.

Further, it is almost, if not quite, certain that the cultures which have
reached Melanesia from without have come from the west, the immediate centre
of dispersion having been the Malay Archipelago, and it is evident that the
same influences have reached the remotest parts of Polynesia, as well as
Madagascar. It seems hardly possible that migrant peoples setting out
from the Malay Archipelago and reaching such remote islands as Hawaii,
Easter Island, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and Madagascar, can have
failed to reach and influence a vast continent which lies quite near their
home. It is probable that the main path of movements eastward from Malaysia
lies north of New Guinea, and Australia might thus have escaped, but even if
it be conceded that all the movements so passed, and this is most unlikely, the

1 Rivers, History of Melanesian Society, Cambridge, 1914.
1914. ' M M

530 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

advocates of unity would be in no better case, for it is certain that the
migrants turned the south-eastern corner of New Guinea and passed west-
wards. Culture-movements which passed in this direction as far as the Fly
River of New Guinea are not likely to have escaped Australia.

It is a most important point that these migrants must have been seafarers
and would have reached Australia by sea. Seafarers so enterprising that they
reached Easter Island and Madagascar are not likely to have been content
to invade Australia at one point; they would have coasted far in search
of favourable settling-places. One reason why so many students have been
blind to the possibility of external influence in Australia is that they have
pictured the process as the sweeping of an invading host across the continent.
The history of Australian culture and its present nature become far easier
to understand if there has been a gradual infiltration of seafaring peoples,
starting from many points on the coast; if immigrants, few in number, first
formed small settlements on the coast and passed on their culture to the
interior of the continent by gradual secondary movements.”

One difficulty which confronts this view is the apparently primitive charac-
ter of the seafaring vessels of Australia. The view I put forward can only
stand if there has taken place in this region that degeneration and even loss
of so useful an object as the canoe of which we have definite evidence in
Melanesia and Polynesia.

The complexity of Australian culture will only be established when the

facts of Melanesian, Papuan, and Australian culture have been fitted into a
common scheme, and I may consider here one feature of culture to illustrate
the kind of process by which this object may be attained. The analysis of
Melanesian culture has shown‘ that certain main varieties of the modes of
treating the bodies of the dead can be ascribed to immigrant peoples. This
ascription rests partly on the distribution of these modes of disposal; partly
on the association of these modes with other elements of culture; partly on
. the use of different modes by chiefs and commoners. The chief modes of
disposal of the dead which occur in Melanesia are also found in Australia.
In order to prove that the two sets of customs have had a common origin, it
will be necessary to show that the Australian modes of treating the dead
are associated with those elements of culture with which they occur in
Melanesia.

The object of this introduction is to state a problem and to put forward
certain facts and principles which must be taken into account in attempting
its solution. The history of Australian culture can only be learnt by a study
of the distribution of its elements of culture in which far more attention
is paid to the details of social structure and religious practice than has hitherto
been given by advocates of Australian complexity.

SYDNEY.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.

After the President had delivered his Address (see p. 515) the following
Papers were read :—

1. The Roman Advance into South Italy. By Tuomas Asuey, D.Litt.

One of the greatest factors in the Roman conquest of Italy and of the Roman
world was the excellence of the system of military roads which she constructed.
The earliest beginnings of this system may be traced in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Rome itself, from which roads radiated in all directions. As the Roman
power increased the military highways were pushed forward, each important

*See Lssays and Studies presented to William Ridgeway, Cambridge, 1913,
p. 479.

’ Pestshrift t. Edvard Westermarck, Helsingfors, 1912, p. 109.

* History of Melanesian Society.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 531

adyance into hostile country being secured by the plantation of a Roman or Latin
colony (i.e., the construction of a fortress, peopled by soldiers) and united by a
road to the base. The study of the Roman road system is thus very important
from an historical and a military point of view. An account was given in 1913
at the Birmingham Meeting of researches along the Via Appia and the Via
Traiana, and in continuance of it the remainder of the road system of South
Italy is now described, as the result of actual exploration on the spot, the
line of the ancient roads being traced and followed as far as possible—an enter-
prise not always by any means easy.

2. Preliminary Communication on an Australian Cranium of probable
Pleistocene Age. By Professors T. W. Eparworrn Davi,
© MC. FA.S., and J. T. Wiuson, F\B.S:

Professor T. W. Edgeworth David stated that the skull exhibited belonged to
Mr. E. C. Crawford, of Greenthorpe, New South Wales, who obtained it from
a stockman, who found it in the bed of Talgai Creek, near Clifton, on the
Darling Downs of Queensland. It appears to have been washed out of the
black soils of the Darling Downs. A few miles from the spot where the skull
was picked up bones of many types of extinct mammalia of Pleistocene Age
have been discovered, and as the present skull is in at least as advanced a stage
of fossilisation as the bones of Diprotodon, Nototherium, etc., in adjacent
regions, it may provisionally be assumed that this human skull is also of Pleisto-
cene Age. The distortion caused by steady pressure due to the weight of an
original thick overburden of clay is in harmony with the evidence as to the
high antiquity of the skull. i

While there is a strong probability of this fossil skull being of Pleistocene
Age, perhaps early Pleistocene, its exact age obviously cannot be determined
until further evidence can be adduced which may directly connect it with the
mammalian bone-bearing clays of the Darling Downs. Certainly it is far older
than any aboriginal skulls that have ever been obtained in Australasia, and it
proves that in Australia man attained to geological antiquity.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.

Discussion on the Study of Native Culture in relation to Administra-
tion, opened by Dr, A. C. Happon, F.R.S.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Gerontocracy and. Marriage in Australia.
By Dr. W, H. R, Rivers, F.R.S.

Certain peculiar forms of marriage which occur in Melanesia, such as
marriage with the granddaughter of the brother, with the wife of the mother’s
brother, and with the wife of the father’s father, are capable of explanation
as the result of a state of dominance of the old men, which allowed them to
monopolise all the young women of the community.? Since Australia furnishes
an example of a gerontocracy in which the old men are known to monopolise
the young women, we should expect to find these peculiar marriages in
Australia, Until now, however, only one has been recorded, the Dieri marrying
the granddaughter of the brother,? but Baldwin Spencer has recently recorded
others in the Northern Territory... Wives are transferred to the sisters’ sons
(as well as to the sons) in the Kakadu tribe, while nearly all the systems of
relationship collected in the Northern Territory show the presence of marriage
with the wife of the father’s father, sometimes combined, as in Melanesia, with

* Rivers, History of Melanesian Society, Cambridge, 1914.
* Howitt, Native Tribes of South-Hast Australia, pp. 164, 177.
* Native Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia, 1914.
M M 2

32 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION TL.

the cross-cousin marriage. All the forms of marriage which would be the
natural result of monopoly of the young women by the old men are thus now
known to accompany the gerontocracy of Australia.

2. Varieties of Totemism in Australia. By A. R. Brown.

For the purposes of this paper totemism is defined as a special magico-religious
relation between an individual or a social group, on the one hand, and a class
of natural objects, generally a species of animal or plant, on the other.

Considering first of all the nature of the totemic group we can distinguish the
following different kinds of totemism in Australia :—

(1) Clan totemism with female descent. The totemic group is a body of rela-
tives who form a clan. Every child belongs to the same totemic group as his
mother. This form of totemism is found in many tribes in the eastern part of
Australia, such as the Kamilaroi.

(2) Clan totemism with male descent. The totemic group is a body of rela:
tives. A child belongs to the same group as his father. This form of totemism
seems to exist in widely scattered regions of Australia; for example, in the
Kariera tribe of Western Australia, in some of the tribes of the Northern
Territory, in the Narinyeri tribe of South Australia, and perhaps in some tribes
of Victoria and the southern part of New South Wales.

(3) Local group totemism. The totemic group is a body of persons living in
the same place and collectively owning and occupying a definite portion of the
tribal territory. The group is not a clan and is not exogamous. A child belongs
to the same local and totemic group as his father. This form of totemism is
found in the Burduna tribe of Western Australia, and in a number of neighbour-
ing tribes.

(4) Cult society totemism. The totemic group is a body of persons who are
all qualified to take part in a certain cult. The best known example of such
totemism is that found in the Aranda tribe of Central Australia.

(5) Totemism of the dual division. The tribe is divided into two parts or
moieties, and each part is associated with some species of natural object, as
eaglehawk and crow in some tribes.

(6) Lotemism of relationship divisions. The totemic groups are the four
sections or the eight sub-sections into which the tribe is divided by the system
of relationship. One variety of this form of totemism is found in the Pita-pita
and other tribes of Western Queensland. Another variety is found in the
Mungarai and Punaba and other tribes of the Northern Territory and Western
Australia. A third variety is found in the tribes at the head of the Gascoyne
and Ashburton Rivers in Western Australia.

(7) Sex totemism. The tribe is divided into two parts, males and females,
all the males having’ a special relation to one species of bird or plant, while all the
females have a similar relation to a different species.

(8) Personal totemism. The individual has a special and purely personal
relation to some one or more species of natural objects. In the best-known form,
that of the Yualai tribe of New South Wales, only medicine-men and women
with special magical powers have personal totems.

Considering now the nature of the relation between the group or the person
and its or his totem, we may distinguish three main kinds of totemism according
as we find (1) a definite positive ritual associated with the totem, (2) a negative
ritual, or (3) no organised ritual at all.

Two main types of positive ritual have so far been described. One of these I
propose to speak of as the Talu cult, from the name of the ceremonies in a
number of tribes of Western Australia. Each totem has a special spot sacred to
it, which we may call the ‘totem centre.’ At this spot members of the totemic
group perform ceremonies that are believed to result in an increase in the
numbers of the totemic species. A totemic cult of this type is found over a
large part of Western Australia, over a part of the Northern Territory, and in
South Australia in the Arabana and Dieri tribes. It is found associated with
clan totemism with male descent, with local group totemism, and with cult
society totemism.

Another type of totemic cult I propose to speak of by the name Thuthu, by

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, 5de

which it is known in the Waramunga tribe. The ceremonies of this cult are not
localised, but may be performed anywhere. Lach ceremony consists of a repre-
sentation of the totemic ancestors of the group and of some of their actions. This
cult has so far only been recorded from the Northern Territory and South
Australia. It exists side by side with the Talu cult in the Aranda tribe, and
also in the Waramunga tribe, where, it would seem, the Talu cult is unknown.

There are hints of the former existence of a cult perhaps similar to the
Thuthu cult in some of the tribes of New South Wales, as, for instance, the
Yualai.

As regards negative ritual this usually takes the form of a prohibition against
killing or eating the totem. In the Aranda tribe a man may not eat his own
totem, i.c. the totem of the cult society to which he belongs, except on certain
ritual occasions. In Western Australia, in the tribes with clan totemism and
local group totemism (Kariera and Burduna) a man may freely kill and eat his
vwn totem. In the tribes of the east of Australia with totemic clans, with female
descent the general rute would seem to be that a man may eat his own totem, but
he must respect it. For instance, he would only eat it if there were nothing
else and he was hungry, and he would express sorrow at having to eat it.

In Western Queensland a member of a relationship section may not eat any
of the animals that are the totems of his section, though he may eat those
belonging to the section of his father or his mother or his wife. In the Yualai
tribe a man may not eat his own personal totem.

In the case of sex totemism there is a sort of reversed negative ritual. A
woman may not kill the totem of the men, or the meu will be angry, and
vice versa,

In the case of the totems of the dual division it would seem that in general
there is no ritual, positive or negative.

Taking these distinctions as the basis of a classification we may consider
briefly a few of the types of totemic organisation about which we have most
information. .

Kariera T'ype.—Totemic clans with male descent. Each clan has a number
of totems (multiple totems). Cult of the Talu type. No prohibition against
killing or eating the totem.

Burduna T'ype.—Local group totemism. Each local group has one or more
totems. Cult of the Talu type. No prohibition against killing and eating the
totem. The local groups are united into inter-tribal totemic divisions, all groups
having the same totem being included in the same division.

Punaba or Mungarai Type.—Kach of the eight sub-sections into which the
tribe is divided has one or more totems.

Anula Type.—Totemic clans with male descent. Totemic cult of the Talu
type. A man may not eat his own totem, and may only eat sparingly of his
mother’s totem.

Waramunga Type.—Totemic clans with male descent. Thuthu cult, but no
Talu cult. A man may not eat his own totem.

Aranda Type.—Totemism of cult societies, membership of the totemic group
being determined by the locality near which the individual was conceived by his
mother. Cult of the Talu type. A man may not eat his totem.

Pita-pita T’'ype.—Wach of the four sections of the tribe has a number of
totems. No positive cult recorded. A man may not eat his own totem.

Yualai T'ype.—Clan totemism with female descent. Each clan has one chief
totem and a number of subsidiary totems. Probably there is a cult of the
Thuthu type. A person may eat his clan totem. Personal totems of men and
women with magical powers. A person may not eat his personal totem.

Dieri Type.—Clan totemism with female descent. No cult of these totems
(madu) recorded. Also clan totemism with male descent, in connection with
which there are ceremonies of the Talu type.

3. Some Nalure Myths from Samoa. By Rey. Georcr Brown, D.D.

As regards the manner in which these myths were collected, it was stated
that they were written about fifty years ago by a Samoan poet, in his own hand-
writing and without any communication with white men.

53b4 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

The myths selected were those dealing with the war between birds and fishes.
These were supplemented by the native account of the Palolo (Palolo viridis),
showing the way in which the Samoans calculate the time when that annelid
appears. The paper was intended to show the development of the mind of men,
in primitive conditions of life, from ‘animatism’ to ‘animism,’ and onwards
again to ‘natural science,’ after many years of close observation of natural
phenomena.

4. The Ancient Inhabitants of Egypt and the Sudan. By Professor
G. Exuiot Suiru, M.A., M.D., F.B.S.

This communication dealt with new material bearing upon the racial charac-
teristics of two groups of the earliest people, the most northern and the most
southern, whose remains have yet come to light in the Nile Valley—(a) one a
series of Protodynastic skeletons obtained from various sources within forty
miles of Cairo, and (b) another set recovered by Dr. Reisner near Merowe, many
hundreds of miles further south, in the Sudan.

(a2) The evidence of the first series supplements the information which the
author has laid before the Association from time to time during recent years, and
seems to indicate that the alien element in the Protodynastic population of Lower
Egypt can be recognised as early as the time of the First Dynasty. It raises
the possibility that from an even more remote period the people of the Delta
may have been intermingling with a foreign population not belonging to the
Brown Race. Moreover, the general diffusion of alien traits in the people of
Memphis by the time of the Second Dynasty and the complete gradation of
types intermediate between the typical Proto-Egyptian of Upper Egypt and the
Syrian of Western Asia suggests a long process of intermingling of these two
peoples in Lower Egypt before that time.

(b) The interesting material from the Sudan was obtained last year by Dr.
Reisner at the southern end of the Kerma basin. It belongs to the Hyksos
period, when large numbers of Egyptians emigrated into the Sudan. The
skeletons obtained from the better tombs closely resemble those of typical
Egyptians of the upper class, such as commonly occur in Upper Egypt from
about the time of the VIth Dynasty onwards. But many of the other skeletons
conform to the Proto-Egyptian and Middle Nubian (C group) types. Although
none of the skeletons exhibit pronounced negroid traits, the majority of them
bear indubitable evidence of some negro admixture, though in all cases it has
affected the Egyptian or Nubian features only to a very slight degree.

5. A Plea for Systematic Hthnological Research in Australia.
By W. D, Camper.

6. A Fundamental Problem of Religious Sociology.
By B. Mauinowskx1, Ph.D.

There are certain questions of principle in every branch of science which
cannot be passed over in any comprehensive and thorough treatment of the
subject, and upon the answer of which the further course of inquiry essentially
depends.

Such questions are, as a rule, the most difficult to settle, because only an
overwhelming amount of evidence gathered with the very problem in view
allows of an unequivocal answer. In anthropology the mutual co-operation of
the theorist and of the field-worker is essential in all such cases.

A question of this type presents itself at the outset in anthropological investi-
gations of religion. Is there a sharp and deep cleavage between religious and
profane matters among primitive peoples? Or, in other words: Is there a
pronounced dualism in the social and mental life of the savage, or, on the
contrary, do the religious and non-religious ideas and activities pass and shade
into each other in a continuous manner? ‘

This question is of utmost importance for the general theory of religion.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. BaD

Professor Durkheim postulates the existence of a perfectly sharp and deep
cleavage between the two domains of the saeré and profane, and his entire
theoretical construction stands and falls with this assumption.' Again, Dr.
Marett is of opinion that, generally speaking, ‘the savage is very far from
having any fairly definite system of ideas of a magico-religious kind, with a
somewhat specialised department of conduct corresponding thereto.’ ?

This view, although expressed in a somewhat different connection, un-
doubtedly implies the negation of Durkheim’s dogmatic standpoint. Again,
Mr. Crawley thinks, that for the savage everything has got a religious dimen-
sion,* a view which also excludes the existence of any irreducible dualism of
magico-religious on the one hand and secular on the other.

These examples show that the above question, fundamental as it is, is still
ansettled and controversial. What answer does it receive from the ethnographic
evidence? The great Australian ethnographers, Spencer and Gillen, whose
researches have contributed to the advancement of our knowledge of primitive
religion more than any other investigations, answer the question in the affirma-
tive. The life of an aborigine of Central Australia is sharply divided into two
periods : the one comprising his everyday life, and the other his magico-religious
activities. It is evident throughout Messrs. Spencer and Gillen’s two volumes
that the properly religious and magical practices and beliefs are strictly esoteric ;
that they are fenced off from everyday life by a wall of taboos, rules, and
observances. Yet reading another standard work of modern anthropology, Dr.
and Mrs. Seligman’s monograph on the Veddas, one gets the impression that
among these natives there does not exist anything like a radical bipartition of
things and ideas into religious and profane.

Again, the views held by another recent investigator, Dr. Thurnwald, with
regard to the magic of the natives of the Bismarck Archipelago and of the
Solomon Islands, imply beyond doubt the absence of a clear-cut division between
magico-religious and secular ideas,’ the two classes merging into and blending
with each other.

One conclusion seems to be inevitable: namely, that pending new evidence
it would be rash to dogmatise on the subject under consideration. I venture to
say more. The above-mentioned statements (which could easily be multiplied)
point not merely to different personal equations, which, however, would be pos-
sible in such an enormously complex and general problem, but they point to
real differences in the matter discussed. The consolidation of the religious life
can be different amongst various peoples, depending as it does upon various
social conditions. Thus religion seems to be best developed and possessing the
highest relative social importance among the Central Australians, to a smaller
degree among the Papuans studied by Thurnwald, still less among the Veddas.
Where it is strongest the bipartition postulated by Durkheim seems to be most
prominent. Wherever it is less pronounced the two domains shade into each
other and begin to fuse.

Thus probably the division into religious and profane is not an essential and
fundamental feature of religion, suitable to be considered as its very distinctive
characteristic. It is an accidental feature, dependent chiefly upon the social
part played by religion and connected possibly with some other factors, to deter-
mine the influence of which it is, however, necessary to have more ample
evidence, gathered with the problem in view.

7. The Dislribution of the Cylindro-conical Stones of Western New
South Wales. By R. Erneripcer.

1 Les formes élémentaires de la vie réligieuse, Paris, 1912.

2 Notes and Queries on Anthropology, 4th edition, London, 1912. Article
on Religion.

* Article on Religion in Sociological Papers, iii., London, 1910.

4 Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 33.

5 « Bthno-psychologische Studien an Siidseevélkern,’ in Beihefte zur Zeitsch-
rift fiir angew. Psychologie, Leipzig, 1913, Paragraph on Magic.

536 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

jal

14.

ee
on

16.

ive

The Ethnological Collections of the Australian Museum, with Special
Reference to the Bismarck Archipelago and New Guinea, By
R. Erurripvce.

9. Craniological Observations on a Series of Solomon Island Skulls.
By 8. A. Surrn.

10. Observations on the Australian Aboriginal Humerus.
By 8. A. Smrru.

Notes on New South Wales Aboriginal Arborglyphs. By KE. Miune.

. On Symmetrical Exostoses in the Acoustic Meatus in the Austrahan
Aboriginal Skull, together with Demonstration of other Skeletal
Characters. By Professor J. T. Wiuson, F.R.S.

13. Polynesian Fish-hooks. By C. Hepury.

Australian Aboriginal Brains (with Exhibits). By J. F. FuasHMan.

. Exhibition of (a) Facsimile Coloured Drawings from Rock Shelters
of South African Bushmen; (b) Illustration of Three Varieties of
Rock Carving ; (c) Reproduction in Natural Size of some Australian
Aboriginal Paintings; (d) Photographs of South African Bushmen,
their Occupations and Modes of Life. By J. L. Enmore.

Exhibition of Teeth of the Dingo from the Breccia of the Wellington
Caves, New South Wales. By R. Erurrince.

Exhibition of (a) Australian Aboriginal Stone Tomahawk found al
a depth of Ten Feet of Alluvium; (b) Drawings by an Aboriginal
named ‘ Micky,’ done in 1875. By W. G. Ewxriant.

a |
oo
ba |

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. H

Section I1.—PHYSIOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—Professor BensAMIN Moore, M.A.,
iD Senele Rss:

MELBOURNE.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 14.
The President delivered the following Address :—

The Value of Research in the Development of National Health.

Tun history of medical science presents to the curious student a remarkable
development commencing in the latter half of the nineteenth century, and one
worthy of special study, both on account of the light that it sheds on the
present position and the illumination it affords for future progress.

If any text-book of medicine or treatise on any branch of medical science
written before 1850 be taken up at random its pages will reveal that it differs but
little from one written a full century earlier. If such a volume be compared
with one written thirty-five years later, it will be found that the whole outlook
and aspect of medicine have changed within a generation.

Erroneous introspective dreams as to the nature of diseases, as ‘idiopathic’
as the many strange maladies which their authors are so fond of describing have
been replaced by fast-proven facts, and medicine has passed from an occult craft
into an exact science based upon experimental inquiry and logical deduction from
observation.

What caused this rapid spring of growth, after the long latent period ot
centuries, and are we now reaching the end of the new era in medicine, or do
fresh discoveries still await the patient experimentalist with a trained imagina-
tion who knows both how to dream and how to test his dreams?

Tt is but a crude comparison that represents the earlier age as one of
empiricism and imagination, and the later period as one of induction and experi-
ment. Empiricism has always been of high value in science, it will ever remain
so, and some of the richest discoveries in science have arisen empirically.

Imagination also is as essential to the highest scientific work to-day as it was
a century ago, and throughout all time the work of the genius is characterised
in all spheres of human endeavour by the breadth and flight of the imagination
which it shows. The great scientist, whether he be a mathematician, a physicist,
a chemist, or a physiologist, requires imagination to pierce forward into the
unknown, just as truly as does the great poet or artist. Also, the inspired
work of poet or painter must be concordant with a system of facts or conven-
tions, and not outrage certain canons of his art, as certainly as the true and
lasting work of the scientist must accurately accord with natural laws.

The scientist is as little able to prove the fundamental truth or existence
of the groundwork upon which modern physical, chemical, and physiological
theories are built, as the artist is to prove the ethics, or perfect truth, or perfect
beauty, of those conventions upon which poetry, painting, or that great group
of studies termed the ‘humanities’ find their basis. But the artist or
philosopher knows that, using these conventions as the best at present discovered,

538 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1.

he can produce works of which the beauty and consistency appeal to all
educated human minds capable of appreciation. Similarly, the conventions of
natural science, properly understood, appeal to the imagination of the scientist,
call forth new ideas to his mind, and suggest fresh experiments to test those
ideas; or, a chance empirical observation of an experimental nature, which
without theory and scientific imagination would remain isolated and _ sterile,
placed in relationship to the rest of the scheme of science, awakens thought,
and may lead to a fresh departure and a long train of important discoveries.

It was this correlation of the imagination with experimentation and the
tracing out of relationship from point to point so as to develop the evolution
of phenomena that characterised the science of medicine when new-born about
seventy years ago, and differentiated it from the older nosological medicine in
which imagination and experimentation, while both existing, seemed to possess
independent existences and pay little regard the one to the other.

It seems well-nigh forgotten nowadays by the majority of people that
science and religion originally began together from a common thirst for know-
ledge, and usually in the same type of mind endowed with a divine curiosity
to know more of the origin and nature of things.

Every great religion worthy of the name contains some account of the natural
history and creation of the world, in addition to its metaphysical aspects, and
reflects the degree of knowledge of natural science possessed by the nation in
which it arose at the time of its birth.

The fundamental error throughout the ages of human conceptions both in
science and religion was that of a non-progressive world to which a stereotyped
religion, or science, could be adapted for all time. Perfection was imaged
where perfection, we are now happy to realise, was impossible, and, believing in
this imaginary perfection and that all things new deviating from it were damn-
able, men were prepared to burn one another at the stake rather than allow error
to creep into the world in either science or religion. Thus there have been
martyrs for the scientific conscience just as for religious belief, and at this
distance in time we can perhaps better understand both inquisitor and martyr
and realise that both were fighting for great ideals.

Evolution has taught us that as knowledge broadens we must be prepared
to have wider vision and abandon old theories and beliefs in the new-born light
that makes the world better to-day than it was yesterday, and that also will
show things up to our mental vision more clearly to-morrow than they stand
out to-day. To the members of any great craft, or profession, or religious order,
this scientific outlook, which accepts as fundamental a progressive world and
insists that its votaries should adapt their lives to such a doctrine, is peculiarly
difficult of assimilation. Routine fixes all men, and so when any new discovery
appears to demand change from that order to which the mind has become
accustomed, it is immediately looked upon with suspicion, and there being little
plasticity of mind remaining, it is rejected as heretical or revolutionary after
but scanty critical examination. The cry of the craft in danger has been used
efficaciously on many occasions since the days of the Ephesian silversmiths,
nor is such a cry at once to be set down to pure selfishness. A craft is often
worth preserving long after the forces which have called it into being have
commenced to slumber, and conservatism of this type is at times an important
factor in social progress. However, there are certain limits which must not
be surpassed, room must be made by adaptation for the new knowledge, or it will
establish a craft of its own iconoclastic to much worth preserving in the older
system.

: It is important to insist upon these limitations, because a too reactionary
spirit abroad in medicine between 1860 and 1880 prevented the world from
benefiting from those remarkable discoveries by Pasteur and their proposed
applications by Lister, which laid the foundations of modern medicine and
modern surgery. These pioneers of the new age in medical science had to wage
for many years a stern and bitter fight against the strong forces of ignorance
and prejudice. But for this illogical resistance by men who would not even
test the new discoveries, and instead spent their time in sneering at the new
geniuses who had leadership to give the world, France and Germany would
have been saved many thousands of brave lives in the great war of 1870-71.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 539

Even thereafter, the slow struggle continued of the few who knew against the
many who refused to be taught, and a perusal of any orthodox text-book of
medicine published between 1875-80—that is, more than a decade after Pasteur’s
great discovery—will show that the etiology of scarcely a single infectious disease
had become known, and that medical science was, for example, as ignorant
of the nature of tuberculosis as we are to-day of the nature of carcinoma.
Take, as an example, the following quotation from a well-known text-book of
the theory and practice of medicine published in 1876: ‘It is now, however,
generally admitted that tubercle is no mere deposit, but, on the contrary, a
living growth as much as sarcoma and carcinoma are living growths.’ The
tubercles were the only initial lesion observed, the infecting organism was
entirely unknown, and the pathologists of this comparatively recent date argued
at length as to whether tubercles were to be classed as ‘adenomata’ or were
something sui generis.

There is a gleam of sunlight for the future in this retrospect at the ignor-

ance of the past, for, if men were as ignorant regarding tuberculosis thirty-eight
years ago as to-day they are about cancer, then it may be argued that a genera-
a hence as much may be known about cancer as is known now about tubercu-
Osis.
_ It is particularly important at the present moment, when so much interest
is being taken in national health, to point out the urgent necessity of allowing
as little lagging behind as possible to ensue between the making of discoveries
and the practical application of the results by organised national effort for the
well-being of the whole community.

It must sadly be admitted that it is craftsmanship in imaginary danger
fighting hard for the old methods unchanged which were in vogue fifty years
ago, that stands most prominently in the way of advance. As great a harvest
as that which followed the application of the principle of antisepsis in surgery
awaits the application of the self-same principle in national sanitation to-day,
but the very profession which ought to be urging forward the new era
apparently stands in dread of it, and seems to prefer to reap its harvest from
disease rather than to seize the noble heritage won for it by the research of
pioneers and so stand forth to the world as the ministry of health. Fortunately
it cannot be, the bourne has been passed, and there is no going backward. The
advances that have already been made have awakened statesmen and people
alike to the needs of the situation, and all have resolved to be disease-ridden
no longer. The laws of health must be made known to the people at large, and
schemes laid before them for a national organisation for the elimination of
disease, Disease is no longer an affair of the medical profession, it is a national
concern of vital importance. The problem is not a class question, all humanity
stands face to face with it now in the light of modern research as it never has
faced it before. It has been realised that disease never can be conquered by
private bargains for fees between individual patient and individual doctor.
Research into diseases of unknown causation cannot be subsidised upon such
individualistic lines, and in the case of diseases of known etiology and modes
of propagation the passage of disease from individual to individual cannot be
controlled by such private methods as that of the afflicted individual subsidising
the doctor for his own protection. Cost what it may, a healthy environment
must be produced for the whole mass of the population, and the laws of
physiology and hygiene must be taught not only to medical students, but to
every child in every school in the country. People cannot live healthy lives in
ignorance of the fundamental Jaws of health merely by paying casual visits to
physicians, and no one class in the community can be healthy until all classes
are healthy.

The problem of national health is one of peculiar interest to physiologists,
and to the exponents of those experimental branches of medical science which
have sprung from the loins of physiology, for it was with them that the new
science of medicine of the last fifty years arose, and they ought to be the leaders
of the world in this most important of all mundane problems.

It is well worth while to consider our opportunities and responsibilities and
raise the question whether our present system and organisation are the most
suitable for attaining one of the most sublime ambitions that ever appealed to

540 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1.

any profession. By definition, our science studies the laws of health and the
functions of the healthy body, therefore it is ours to lead in the quest for health.
Is this object best achieved if we confine ourselves to research in our labora-
tories, and to the teaching of the principles of physiology to medical students,
while we leave the community as a whole uninstructed as to the objects of our
research and its value to every man, and trust the medical students whom we
turn out to communicate, or not communicate as they choose, the results
of their training and our research to the world at large?

There is little question that much of the ignorance abroad in the world,
and much of the fatuous opposition to our experimental work and research, arise
from this aloofness of ours. Here also lies the cause of much of the latent
period in the application of acquired knowledge to great sociological problems,
and the presence of untold sickness and death which could be easily prevented
if only a scientific system of dealing with disease could be evolved.

The position occupied by scientists in medicine at the present day is largely
that of schoolmasters to a medical guild, and even at that, one constructed upon
lines which have grown antiquated by the progress of medical science. It ought
now to become the function of the scientist to re-model the whole system so as
to fight disease at its source. The whole situation at the moment calls out
for such a movement. On the one hand, there exists a widespread interest on
the part of an awakened community in health questions, evidenced by recent
legislation dealing with the health of school-children, with the health of the
worker, with the sanitary condition of workshops, with the questions of
maternity and infant mortality, and with the communication of infectious
diseases. On the other hand, there is chaos in the medical organisation to meet
all these new demands, and the ample means recently placed at the command of
the nation and of municipal authorities are being largely wasted by overlapping
and misdirection for lack of skilled leadership. Surely it is a time when those
who have laid the scientific foundations for the new advances should take
counsel together, assume some generalship, and show how the combat is to be
waged, not as a guerilla warfare, but as an organised and co-ordinated campaign.

There are two essentials in the inception of this organised campaign against
disease on a scientific basis. The first is to demonstrate clearly to the public
mind that modern scientific medicine arose from the experimental or research
method, that it was only when experimental observation of the laws of health
and disease, in animals and man, commenced on an organised and broadcast
basis that medicine and surgery leaped forward and the remarkable achieve-
ments of the past fifty years began. Also that it is only by the organisation
and endowment of medical research that future discovery and advancement
are possible. ‘The second essential is to convince the public that a national
system must be evolved placing medical science and medical practice in co-
ordination, so that the discoveries of science may be adequately applied in an
organised scheme for the prevention and treatment of disease. The method in
which discoveries have been made in the past suggests an amplification and
organisation along similar lines for the future, and the banishment of many
diseases by public health work in the past suggests that it is more efficiently
organised and wide-spread public health work in the future, extended from the
physical environment to the infecting individual, that will be most fruitful in
banishing other diseases.

If it be queried by anyone here, what has physiology to do with disease, it
may be replied that the question comes at least fifty years too late. The
methods evolved first by physiologists in experimentation upon animals have
become the methods of all the exact sciences in medicine. Bacteriology is the
physiology of the bacterium, and the study of protozoan diseases the physiology
of certain groups of protozoa. Ongano-therapy had its origin in physiology, and
many of its most brilliant discoveries were made by physiologists, and all by
scientists who used physiological methods. Serum therapy, experimental
pharmacology, and the great problems of immunity all arose from the labonrs
of men with expert training in physiology who branched out into practical
applications achieved by the extension of the experimental, or research, method.
The modern methods of medical diagnosis and the brilliant technique of con-
temporary surgery, what has opened the door to these but the experimental

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. D4]

method? From the days of the first successful abdominal operation to the
present day, research in laboratory or in the operating theatre has pioneered
the way, and the sooner this simple truth is known to all men the better for
medical science. Every time any surgeon first tries a mew operation there is in
it an element of experiment and research of which the ethical limits are well-
known and definable, and any person who logically thinks the matter out must
see that it is the research method which has placed the science and art of
surgery where it stands to-day. Exactly the same thesis holds for medicine.
How could any physician predict for the first time, before he had tried it
experimentally on animal or man, the action of any new drug, the effect of any
variation in dosage, the result of any dietary, of the employment of any course
of physical or chemical treatment, or of anything in the whole of his armamen-
tarium? Yet the public are rarely told any of these wholesale truths, but are
rather left to speculate that each medical and surgical fact sprang forth as a
kind of revelation in the inner consciousness of some past genius in medicine
or surgery, who, in some occult way, knew of his own certain foreknowledge
what would be the definite effect of some remedy or course of treatment before
he tried it for the first time on a patient, or perhaps had the ethical conscience
and genuine humanity to test it on a lower animal before he administered it to
man. :

It may, in short, be taken as an axiom of medical science that everything
of value in medicine and surgery has arisen from the applications of experimental
research. Nor can future advance be made by any other method than the
research method. It is true that accident may teach occasionally, as it did, for
example, in the dreadful burns unwittingly inflicted on themselves and patients
by the early experimenters in X-ray therapy and diagnosis. But accident is
only the most blundering type of experimentation, and results obtained by its
chance agency do not really invalidate the universal law that man only learns
by experience or, in other words, by research. Research is, after all, only the
acquisition of fresh experience by the trained expert, usually led on to his
experiment by inductance from other known facts.

It has been said above that all that is valuable in medical science has been
acquired by research ; the converse may now be pointed out, that much that was
valueless, dangerous, and even disgusting in medicine in earlier days was
incorporated into the medical lore of the time, and often remained there for
generations stealing lives by thousands, because physicians had not yet adopted
the research method, and so based their practice upon ignorant and unfounded
convention. It is noticeable in literature that up to somewhere in the beginning
of the nineteenth century physicians and surgeons were often as a class looked
upon by scholars and educated people with a certain amount of contempt.
There were notable and fine exceptions in all ages, but, taken as a whole, the
profession of medicine was not held in that high esteem and admiration that
it is amongst all classes to-day. Take, for example, Burns’s picture of Dr.
Hornbook or Sterne’s account of Dr. Slop in ‘ Tristram Shandy,’ and similar
examples in plenty are to be found in the Continental literature. The reason
for the change is to be found in the comparative growth of medical science
as a result of the research method. The physicians of those days were very
often ignorant quacks employing the most disgusting and dangerous remedies,
or methods of treatment, based upon no experimental knowledge and handed
down in false tradition from ignorant master to ignorant and often almost
illiterate apprentice. It is only necessary to peruse the volumes written on
materia medica of this period to shudder at the nature of the remedies ap-
parently in common use; the details are unfit for modern publication.

Even in the first half of the nineteenth century patients were extensively bled
almost to exhaustion in a vast variety of diseases in which we now know with
certainty that life would be endangered by such treatment and chance of recovery
diminished. Thus, in a text-book published in 1844 by the Professor of
Medicine in the most famous University in medicine of our country, and a
physician in ordinary to her Majesty Queen Victoria, it is said that in the
treatment of pneumonia ‘the utmost confidence may be placed in general Blood-
letting which should always be large and must almost always be repeated some-
times four or six times or even oftener. Blistering and purging, under the

542 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

same cautions as in the Bronchitis, are to be employed ; and two other remedies
have been much recommended—Opium, especially combined with Calomel, and
the Solution of Tartar Emetic.’ It seems scarcely credible to us nowadays that
about this same period a low diet, blood-letting, emetics, and purgatives were
employed as a treatment in phthisis, yet such is the case. It is in keeping with
the above, and in strange contrast to modern treatment, to find it recommended
that if the patient cannot winter abroad he is ordered ‘strict confinement within
doors in an artificial climate, as near as possible to 60° Fahr., during at least
six months of the year in Britain.’ From the text-books of medicine of this
period, only seventy years back, instances of wrongful and even dangerous
treatment in most of the important diseases might be produced. There is no
basis of accurate scientific knowledge of physiology, bio-chemistry, or bacteriology
underlying the visionary notions about disease. The real causes of the diseases
being obscure, they are commonly set down to so-called diatheses or habits such
as the ‘hemorrhagic diathesis’ or the ‘scrophulous habit.’ Also, the action of
infective organisms and the intimate relationships in regard to infection of
members of the same family being unknown or forgotten, such ‘habits’ are
erroneously set down as hereditary. When there is no other channel of escape
the word ‘ idiopathic’ is coined to cover the ignorance of the learned.

If now we pass onwards about thirty years in time, halving the distance be-
tween the above period and our own time, and consult an important text-book of
medicine published in 1876 by a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, a
physician and lecturer at a aa London Medical School, and a lecturer on
pathology and physiology, we find that the progress attained by research in
physiology, and physiological chemistry, and a growing belief in the possibility
of infection in many diseases by the micro-organisms, now demonstrated so clearly
in certain cases by Pasteur and his followers, have commenced to do their bene-
ficent work in medical practice. The heroic bleedings and leechings and the
scarcely less violent druggings with strong drugs have disappeared. The patient
is less harassed by his doctor, who is more content to assist the natural processes
of recuperation as his knowledge of applied physiology and hygiene teach him,
rather than to thwart them and to lessen resistance as his predecessor often did
a generation ago when he knew no physiology and less hygiene. Still, the com-
parison between the text-book of even forty years ago and one of the present
day shows a wonderful advance, all flowing from the use of the research method
in the intervening years, both in knowledge of the origins and in the treatments
of the diseases.

Time and space forbid going into details, but the whole of serum-, vaccine-,
and organo-therapy were unknown, with the single exception of vaccination for
variola. Enteric fever has been separated from typhus, but its etiology is still
obscure, and, to a large extent as a consequence, the mortality from it is fifteen
to sixteen per cent., or quadruple present-day figures, and it is one of the
commonest of diseases. The cause of diphtheria is unknown, although it is
now recognised as a ‘ contagious’ disease, and as yet research in bacteriology
has supplied no cure for it. The unity of the various forms of tuberculosis is
unsuspected, the infecting organism is unknown, and, as a result, it is not
even recognised as an infectious disease and heredity figures most strongly in
a dubious etiology leading up to a vacillating treatment. Pneumonia is not
recognised as due to a micro-organism, and is described as one of the ‘ idiopathic ’
diseases. The cause of syphilis, and its relationship to tabes dorsalis, and
general paralysis are unknown, and generally it may be said that the causes of
disease are either entirely unknown or erroneously given in at least three-quarters
of the very incomplete list of diseases that are classified and described.

This, after all the centuries, was the doleful position of medical science in
the year 1876, when suddenly light began to shine upon it, brought not by the
agency of any member of the medical profession, but by a physiological chemist,
and he was led to his great discovery, not in an attempt to solve some problem
of practical medicine, but by scientific observations devoted to an apparently
purely philosophical critical research into the supposed origin of life in a
particular way.

It was the experimental or research method in bio-chemistry supported by
physiological experiments on animals which in the hands of Louis Pasteur

ibd ae

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 543

laid the foundations of true knowledge, and transformed medicine from what
has been described above into the glorious, living, evolving science that we
possess to-day.

The men who fought side by side with Pasteur in his famous struggle
against orthodoxy in medicine as represented by the leading physicians and
surgeons of the period between 1860 and 1880 were mainly chemists, biologists, and
physiologists, such as Claude Bernard, Paul Bert, J. B. Dumas, Biot, Belard, and
Sainte-Claire Deville in his own country, and Tyndall and Huxley in ours. A
few physiciafis and surgeons of scientific training in France and England recog-
nised the importance of his discoveries, such as Alphonse Guérin, Villemin, and
Vulpian in his own country, while Lister in ours was already at work, had
experimented widely and wrote his memorable letter of congratulation to
Pasteur in 1874, informing him of the work he had been doing in introducing
antiseptic surgery in England during the preceding nine years. Against this
intrepid little band of experimental scientists were massed all the batteries of
orthodox medical nescience served by the distinguished physicians and surgeons
of the time; but truth is mighty and must prevail. Davaine applying Pasteur’s
principles in a medical direction had found out the bacterial origin of anthrax,
and although he was violently attacked by oratorical arguments in opposition to
experimental proofs, and accused, as many physiologists are to-day, of having
‘destroyed very many animals and saved very few human beings,’ his facts
held fast, and combined with the later experiments of Koch and of Pasteur,
not merely established the etiology of anthrax as we know it to-day, but gave a
support and forward growth to that new-born babe, Bacteriology, which without
such animal experiments could never have grown into the beneficent giant that
it is to-day in all its glorious strength for the weal of humanity.

Pasteur himself meanwhile was hard at work in the small ill-equipped
laboratory of Physiological Chemistry of the Ecole Normale at Paris, from
which the fame of his discoveries began rapidly to spread, and shed a new light
forth on the medical world. Pasteur at this stage had already largely re-
habilitated the national prosperity of his own country by his successful
researches on silk-worm disease and on fermentation maladies and the diseases
of wines. All this effect upon national industries, it is to be noted, followed on
from an inquiry of apparently no practical importance on spontaneous generation,
He now turned his genius towards disease, there also utilising the same dis-
covery arising from a research that contained at first sight no possible appli-
cations to disease, and the remainder of his life was devoted to the extension
of these studies. The subsequent history of this discovery is the science of
Bacteriology with all its ramifications and manifold applications in industry,
in agriculture, in medicine, and in public health, investigated by the experi-
mental method by thousands of willing workers all over the civilised world.
Who but the ignorant Philistine, who knows not what he prates about, can
deny the profound influence of animal experimentation, and the philosophic
application of the principle of research upon the history of the world?

Let us now, from the vantage-point of the present, look back at the past and
glean from the study of the manner in which this science took origin some
knowledge to guide us, first, as to how research may be fostered and encouraged
in the future, and secondly, as to how the results of research may be applied
for social advantage.

The first and perhaps the finest thought of all is that research must be
pursued with the highest ideals of the imaginative mind apart from all desired
applications or all wished for material advantages. If we might personify
Nature, it would seem that she does not love that researcher who only seeks
her cupboard, and never shows her finest treasures to him. She must be loved
for her own beauty and not for her fortune, or she will ne’er be wooed and won,
Not even the altruistic appeal of love for suffering mankind would seem to
reach her ears; she seems to say: ‘ Love me, be intimate with me, search me
out in my secret ways, and in addition to the rapture that will fill your soul at
some new beauty of mine that you have discovered and known first of all men,
all these other material things will be added, and then I may take compassion
on your purblind brothers and allow you to show them these secret charms
of mine also, so that their eyes may perchance grow strong, and they, too, led

544 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

hither by you, may worship at the shrine of my matchless beauty.’ By all
the master discoveries in all the paths of science, Nature is ever teaching us this
great doctrine to which we have closed our ears so long. She tells us the
creation of the world is not finished, the creation of the world is going on,
and I am calling upon you to take a part in this creation. Never mind that you
cannot see the whole, love that you see, work at it, and be thankful that I have
given you a part to play with so much pleasure in it, and so doing you will
rise to the highest ideal. :

This is religion with thirst for knowledge as its central spring; does it differ
much from those aspirations which have made men of all nations worship
throughout all the ages? Anthropology teaches us that the religious system
of a race of men gives a key to their advancement in civilisation. If this be so,
growth in natural knowledge must elevate our highest conceptions, furnish purer
ideals, and give us more of that real religion that is to be found running so
strongly in the minds of great individuals such as Isaac Newton, Michael
Faraday, Louis Pasteur, Auguste Comte. A great man may be strongly
opposed to the orthodox creeds of his day, he may even sneer at them, he
may be burnt at the stake by their votaries, and yet be a man of strong religious
feelings and emotions which have furnished the unseen motive power, perhaps
unsuspected even by himself, that leads to a whole life of scientific heroism
and enthusiasm.

The practical lesson for us to learn from all this is that we must consider
research as sacred and leave it untrammelled by fetters of utilitarianism. The
researcher in functional biology, for example, must be left free to pursue
investigations as inspiration leads him on any living structure from a unicellular
plant to a man, and must not be expected to devise a cure for tuberculosis or
cancer. In his research he must think of something higher even than saving
life or promoting health, or he is likely to prove a failure at the lower level also.

As an example of the wrong attitude of mind towards science, there may
be taken the point of view of those utilitarians who complain of the amount
of time and discussion at present being given to the problem of the origin of
life. These wiseacres with limitations to their brains say ‘that is an insoluble
problem, we shall never get to the bottom of it, let us simply assume, since it is
here, that life did originate somehow, and, taking this as an axiom, proceed
to some practical experimental problem; the origination of life does not lend
itself to experimental inquiry.’

Now it is, strange to say, just those problems that appear most insoluble
upon which the inquiring type of mind loves to linger and spend its energies,
and, although the problems never may be solved, the misty solitudes to which
they lead are glorious and the fitful gleams of half-sunshine that come through
are more kindling to the senses of such men, than the brightest sunshine on the
barest of hills. It is here, and in such quests, that the biggest of human
discoveries are made, and not all of them are in natural science alone.

The search after the mystery and origin of life had profound influence in
raising man from a savage to a civilised human being, and is found as an
integral part in all religions above a certain level of savagery. Much of the
system of morals and ethics of civilised nations is unconsciously grouped round
this problem, and we owe the existence of that social conscience which
makes each of us our race’s keeper to our interest in the nature of life, and
our ties with other lives. Leave such a problem alone and attend to routine
researches! Why, the human intellect cannot do it, such problems compel
attention! What, it may be asked, was it that started all this routine research
in biology, in favour of which we are asked to abandon the search after the
origin of life? The routine research would not exist, but for a discovery made
in investigating whether life originated in a certain alleged way.

If the whole science of bacteriology emerged from a proof that a certain alley
did not lead to the origin of life, how much more glorious may that knowledge
become that finally leads us to this goal, or even one step onward in our true
path towards it. The search after the origin of life is an experimental inquiry,
it leads straight to research, that is all the physicist or chemist demands of a
theory, it should be enough for the biologist. We who search for this are not
occultists whatever may be said of those who oppose.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 545

Let us then learn to have a catholic spirit about research, and try to convince
the world that it commands devotion not merely because of material advantages
which it may bring, but because it is the most lovely and most holy thing that
has been given to man. So may we clear the fair name of Science of the false
charge of materialism that is so often brought against it by those who do not
know and judge Science purely by mechanical inventions.

Next let us consider the applications of scientific discovery and see if we
cherish aright the gifts of the fairy godmother, for her gifts are dangerous if
wrongly used. Consider, if this be doubted, the enormous advantages given
by mechanical and chemical contrivances in producing the material comforts
necessary to civilised human existence, and then turn your eyes to the reeking
slums of our great cities. It is clear that natural science cannot go on success-
fully alone, it must take sociology with it if our world is to be a better world
to live in because of the gifts brought by scientific discovery.

Nor is the ideal and the outlook different in the least from that given above
for pure research, when we come to consider its applications, the same high
spirit must prevail in all our endeavours, or we shall defeat our own ends and
miserably fail. Selfishness here, as everywhere, must recoil on the culprit, who
only deadens his own soul. Health is needed not to grow wealthy or to prolong
to greater length a ‘lingering death’ as Plato puts it, but to fill life with
happiness, and beckon the bold and adventurous forward to higher things.
Here we must copy Nature’s own plan and take care of the race as a whole
instead of spending our energies upon single individuals or favoured classes.
Nor need anyone fear that any individual or any particular class in the com-
munity is going to suffer from the adoption of the true scientific attitude towards
disease. The penalty taken by Nature on the more comfortable classes, who have
hitherto enjoyed the greater share in government for allowing the existence of
poverty, disease, and slumdom, is to utilise this neglected area as a culture-
ground for diseases, which invade the classes above. Nature is still at work
creating, still conducting evolution at the highest level, and disease is at
present the tool with which she is working. So long as those poverty-stricken
slums are allowed to remain, just so long is she grimly prepared to take her
toll of death and suffering from those who ought to know how to lead on and do
it not. The disease and the crime below are to the social community what
pain is to the individual, and just as the special senses become more highly
organised and sensitive as the nervous system becomes more highly developed,
so as the civilisation of the community intensifies does the public conscience
awaken to forms of mischief and crime in one generation that were unsuspected
in a previous one. So social evils become intolerable and finally are removed.
How then are we employing our knowledge as to the causation of disease to the
public problem of its removal or abatement?

In regard to the physical environment much has been done during the past
generation towards applying the laws of hygiene, as is shown in the sanitation
of our great cities, and especially in regard to the question of water-supply. It
is good, for example, that Glasgow goes to Loch Katrine for her water-supply,
Manchester to the English Lakes, and Liverpool to the Welsh hills. Each of
these great cities carries for many miles the pure distillate of the hills to its
million of inhabitants. It has cost much in pounds sterling, though not more
than if each family had a pump in its back-yard. On the other hand, think
of the disease and suffering and death prevented, enteric fever almost gone
where thousands would have died of it, and tens of thousands been debilitated,
and these of the best of the citizens, for disease is no eliminator of the unfit.
Think of all this, and then say, Did it not pay these great cities to bring the pure
water from the lakes in the hills?

But why do these good cities content themselves to allow their little children
ab a most susceptible age to be supplied still with milk which contains the
bacillus of tuberculosis in so large a percentage as five to ten per cent.? And
why does the law of the land prevent these Corporations from searching out
tubercular cows in all the areas supplying them with milk? If it is part of
the business of a municipality to see that its citizens have a pure water-supply,
why should it not also be allowed to see that they have a clean milk-supply ?

Loug ago the power to make the lame to walk was regarded as a divine cift,

1914. NN

546 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

When is mankind going to awake to the fact that Science has placed this gift
in its hands? Much more than half of the lame and spinally-deformed children
in our midst are in that condition because of infection of joints or spine with
the bacillus of tuberculosis. By open-air hospitals and open-air schools we seek
and succeed in curing a percentage of them, but how much better it would be
if we took the fundamental problem of tubercular infection in hand and
prevented them from becoming lame and deformed?

There is at present on foot in England a great scheme to enable the blind
to read, and it deserves our support because it is our fault that these people are
blind. The sad fate of the man born blind appeals to all kind hearts; but men
are not born blind, they become blind within a week or two of birth because of
an infectious disease contracted from the mother at birth. Science knows and
has taught the world how this blindness can be quite prevented, and it is
because of our faulty organisation for attending to maternities amongst the
poor that these people are blind. By proper organisation practically all blind-
ness arising at the time of birth can be prevented. Why is it not done? Thus
our modern Science can make the blind to see and the lame to walk, but it is
so manacled by ancient ways and customs that it is left powerless, and so there
are these maimed and darkened lives of innocent people, and they are left
partially burdening the community which has only its own folly to blame for
the whole stupid position.

Let us consider lastly a disease which collects the last toll from one-seventh
of humanity, and debilitates and enfeebles the lives of many whom it does not
entirely destroy. At all ages, in infancy, in the prime of life, and in life’s
decline, it snatches away the best of our fellow-men. How are we organising
our campaign against tuberculosis? Bacteriology has taught us that it is an
infectious disease and has isolated the organism. It is an undoubted fact, proven
to the hilt by many inquiries and observations, that infection passes from
individual to individual. How is this knowledge being applied, and how are
we attempting to stem the tide of infection? In the United Kingdom alone
about 70,000 persons die annually of the disease, and all over the civilised world
the total death-roll of human kind annually from tuberculosis ‘probably does
not fall short of a million souls. This tide of infection is kept up, year in, year
out, and every 70,000 dying annually in Britain must have infected 70,000 fresh
victims before they themselves are carried away. Can it not be stopped, this
foul tide of infection? What is being done to stop it? Sanatoria are being
provided for the early cases, the bad and most infectious cases are largely being
left alone to sow infection broadcast and then die. This is the chief means
being used at present to stop the tide. The early non-infectious case is deemed
the more important to look after, and the well-advanced, open, thoroughly
infectious case is left to itself to infect others and then to die. This is the
condition of our public health attitude in regard to tuberculosis. It is a travesty
on the application of all biological laws, and in direct opposition to all laws of
racial preservation. Industrial conditions have produced an artificial environ-
ment and enhanced the chances of infection by the organism of this disease;
it should be our plan to copy Nature’s method and safeguard the interests of
the community, and to do this we must proceed on the plan of separating the
source of infection—that is to say, the infectious individual from the sound
individual. This is done with success in the case of small-pox and cholera,
and this plan has eradicated hydrophobia; why should it not be carried out in
the case of tuberculosis? Under present conditions men, women, and children
are going on unwittingly infecting one another by the thousand with tuberculosis
in school, workshop, and home, and we who know it take no public action and
raise no clamant outcry against it. It is of more value to the community to
isolate one pauper far advanced in tuberculosis than to send ten early cases to
sanatoria. ‘This disease must be stopped at its source as well as dealt with on
its course. No disease has ever been eradicated from a community by dis-
covering cures for it, and none ever will; many diseases have disappeared
because their sources have been cut off.

Let us be scientific, let us search out the truth; having found it, let us act
upon it, and let us conceal nothing that is true.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 547

The foliowing Papers and Reports were then read :—

1. The Mammary Gland. By Professor Sir Epwarp Souirer, F.R.S.

2. The Physiology of Cerebro-Spinal Fluid. By Professor W. BE.
Dixon, F.R.S., and Professor W. D. Hatuipurton, F.R.S.

3. Pseudo-Motor Action and Recurrent Sensibility.
By Professor W. A. OsBorne.

(1) If the hypoglossal nerve is cut and some days afterwards stimulation
is applied to the distal end of the freshly cut lingual, a motor response in the
tongue muscles is obtained. This frequently described pseudo-motor action can
be readily demonstrated. Attempts have been made in the present research
to obtain this response in other regions such as the facial muscles innervated by
branches of V. and VII., but without success. Occasionally in man there is a
moderately thick connecting loop between the lingual and hypoglossal. This
is described as normal in the anatomy of the horse and dog, but numerous dis-
sections have failed to give one instance, so that histological examination is
unfortunately lacking. :

(2) Stimulation of the distal faciai nerve may give rise to reflex responses
including rise of blood-pressure. This effect is obtained only very seldom.
When given it can be shown to be due to sensory impulses arising in the tense
fibres of the contracting facial muscles. It vanishes on very light curarisation,
and cannot, therefore, be due to a definite union between facial and trigeminal
fibres.

4. Ceniral Neurai Response to Peripheral Neural Distortion.
By Professor W. A. Osporne and Basm Kinvincton, M.S.

When two nerve-trunks such as the popliteals are crossed the co-ordination
is rapidly learned after regeneration has set in. We’ haye shown that the
central changes required in the new conducting mechanism are well established
even in the lowest levels of the central nervous system. We have also shown
that if there is considerable axon bifurcation in the peripheral nerve-trunks, and
if fibres of the same neuron traverse antagonistic routes (e.g., flexor and
extensor), good co-ordination is not acquired. In our latest experiments the
central phrenic on one side was sutured to a distal cord of the brachial plexus.
When regeneration occurred a restricted portion of the scapular muscles was
seen to be rhythmically excited in synchronism with the diaphragm. The action
of the contracting fibres on the limb was very slight, producing in the
anesthetised animal a just detectable abduction.

In eleven months’ time no change could be observed in the amount of move-
ment of the affected muscular fibres. Support and progression had never been
interfered with, and presumably for this reason co-ordination was not acquired.
The operation gave an interesting method for observing inhibition in a restricted
number of muscular fibres. During expiration the exposed surface of the
affected portion of the deltoid was seen to bulge slightly through pressure of
adjacent tonic fibres. During asphyxia the visible contracting area enlarged,
encroaching upon portions of muscle surface not previously affected.

5. Evidence of Co-ordinate Action in the Circulatory System.
By EB. H. Emsrey, M.D.

Firstly, the results of experiment upon venous pressures appear to indicate

a nervous mechanism controlling venous tension. Secondly, with certain

exceptions cardiac and venous innervations seem to be co-ordinated—the cardiac

vagi with the venous constrictors, and the cardiac accelerators with the venous
NN2

548 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

dilators. Thirdly, with certain exceptions, cardiac and arterial innervations
appear co-ordinated—the vagi with the dilator, and the accelerators with the
vaso-constrictor mechanisms.

Hyidence of venous innervation :—

(1) Venous pressure in asphyxia-rises either simultaneously with, or subse-
quent to, the rise, and after the fall to zero of arterial blood-pressure.

(2) Venous pressure rises either simultaneously with, independently of, or
it fails to rise with, the rise of arterial blood-pressure upon the intravenous
injection of adrenalin, epinine, or pituitary. Moreover, it may rise and fall
and rise again during the period of raised arterial pressure upon intravenous
injection mentioned.

(3) During syncopal fall of arterial blood-pressure the bowel volume markedly
diminishes. This occurs whether the animal be prore or supine, and whether
the heart’s rate be greatly or slightly retarded. Such fall in arterial blood-
pressure is accompanied by a rise in venous blood-pressure and arterial vaso-
dilation, as is well shown in the syncope induced by clamping the brain
arteries, in which case the heart’s rate is practically constant. The only inter-
pretation which seems possible is that of venous constriction.

The possibility of interpreting these results as due to varying intra-
abdominal tension from muscular action, or to alterations in cardiac output, or
to blood displacements or changes in arterial tension, was found to be inade-
quate to explain the phenomena. Venous innervation seems to be the only
interpretation possible.

The frequent association of vagus inhibition of the heart—as represented
by a retardation of rate ranging from moderate slowing to actual heart-stop—
with a rise of venous pressure, cannot be ascribed to dislocation of blood as
a result of diminution in the heart’s output, because it occurs whether the
arterial blood-pressure be falling or rising. Similarly the fall of venous
pressure constantly associated with accelerator action cannot be ascribed to
dislocation of blood by arterio-constrictor retention, since it occurs whether
the arterial blood-pressure be low or rising. Moreover, the venous blood-
pressure may be found both high and low in a single tracing, in which, through-
out, the arterial blood-pressure is high, but in which vagal action is temporarily
replaced by accelerator, during which temporary period the venous pressure
falls and remains low till vagal action is restored. It points to co-ordinate
innervation, and further to reciprocal relations between the vagi and venous
dilators on the one hand, and the accelerators and venous constrictors on the
other.

Examination of a larger number of blood-pressure tracings shows a constancy
of co-ordinate innervation of the cardiac accelerator with vaso-constrictor, and
again of the cardiac vagus with vaso-dilator mechanisms. They furthermore
indicate a reciprocal relation between these groups. There are accountable
exceptions in asphyxia, adrenalin and other intoxications, depressor nerve
excitation, a depression of the vagi, &c. Syncopal fall of arterial blood-pressure
with cardiac slowing is constantly associated with vaso-dilation, whilst sudden
rises in arterial blood-pressure show more or less the incidence of accelerator
rhythm, which may or may not be due to increased secretion of the suprarenals.

6. Artificial Collateralisation as applied to the Abdominal Aorta.
By Bast, Kinvineton, M.S.

Cases have been found post-mortem where the abdominal aorta has been
completely occluded, yet life has been possible, This has been caused by certain
pathological conditions which act gradually.

An attempt was made to imitate this gradual occlusion by ligaturing the
abdominal aorta in two stages. The first operation consisted in partly obstruct-
ing the aorta by a silk ligature applied a short distance above the bifurcation
into the two iliac vessels. It was impossible to gauge accurately the narrow-
ing, but, as a rough test, the ligature on the aorta was tightened till the
pulsation was just, though definitely, perceptible to the finger applied where

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 549

the common femoral crosses the ramus of the pubes. The animal recovered
from this with few symptoms, and two or three weeks later the aorta was
completely blocked by a second ligature applied just central to the first. In
every instance the animal survived this, and after recovering from the operation
ran about as usual.

In the deep epigastric the flow was reversed, i.e., the blood moved from
the umbilicus through the superior epigastric downwards. The main collateral
supply came, however, from the anastomoses between the two circumflex
vessels (branches of the femorals) with the sciatic and lumbar arteries about
the upper end of the thigh. Blood-pressure tracings from the femoral artery
displayed typical damped oscillations similar to those obtained from a normal
artery when the connecting tube to the manometer is partly clamped. Obstruc-
tion of the aorta above the iliacs, produced immediately by a single ligature,
is practically always fatal.

It is intended to utilise this method in ligature of vessels which is attended
by grave complications owing to poor collateral blood-supply. An ideal instance
would be in the case of the abdominal aorta for an aneurism situated below the
renal vessels. Other less critical examples would be in the case of the common
femoral or popliteal arteries. This method might prove more suitable than
plastic operation on the aneurism itself.

7. Sixth Interim Report on Anesthetics.

8. Report on the Binocular Combination of Kinematograph Pictures.

9. Report on Calorimetric Observations on Man.
See Reports, p. 238.

10. Report on the Ductless Glands.—See Reports, p. 237.

11. Report on the Effect of Low Temperature on Cold-blooded
Animals.—See Reports, p. 241.

12. Report on the Physiological and Psychological Factors in the
Production of Miner’s Nystagmus.—See Reports, p. 241.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 18.
Discussion on Anesthetics.

(i) Opening Remarks. By Professor A. D. Water, ’.R.S.

Professor Waller, after a complimentary reference to the epoch-making
work on chloroform anesthesia by Professor Martin and Dr. Embley in Mel-
bourne, discussed some of the outstanding features in connection with the
dangers of the administration of chloroform. He emphasised the rule that the
amount of chloroform administered must not be above 2 per cent. nor below
1 per cent. to be effective. Any apparatus used must be contrived with the above
object in view.

550 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

Professor Waller considered that the fear of chloroform is excessive at the
present day, but that the danger is very small if not more than 2 per cent.
is administered. Idiosyncrasy is of some importance, but most cases of acci-
dents arise from the giving of too much chloroform, and not from the use of
too little. He demonstrated a portable chloroform apparatus which admirably
fulfils the conditions desired.

(i) Remarks by Dr. E. H. Empuey.

The employment of the regulating inhaler is certainly a progressive step in
the administration of chloroform. Anesthesia so induced is not attended by the
great nervous excitation which so frequently accompanies the administration of
chloroform by the drop method. This with the attendant exaggeration of
respiratory intake, so raising the tension of the chloroform in the arterial blood
for the time, constitutes an important contributing factor to the causation of
primary syncope. Moreover, the uniformity of the resulting anesthesia by
the regulating inhaler is quite remarkable. It is free from the oscillations in
depth of narcosis so often observed in the drop method.

Yet it has not been adopted in Melbourne. This appears to be due to the
frequent necessity of transgressing the 2 per cent. boundary line of safety and
of employing 2'5 or 3 per cent. concentration to induce anesthesia in reasonable
time ; also because in the light degree of narcosis maintained, depressor reflexes
appear to occur much more readily than in the deeper narcosis of the older
method; but more especially has it been abandoned on the grounds of the
toxicity of chloroform, however administered. Professor Waller has stated
that the relative pharmacological potency of chloroform and ether is as 10 to 1.
(I have found that 2°2 per cent. chloroform vapour is nine times as depressing
to the myocardium as is 19°1 per cent. ether, and 40 times as depressing as is
10 per cent. ether.) This is the relative toxicity, and the actual reason for the
abandonment of chloroform. More especially is this the case since the adoption
of the method of mixed ether narcosis, that is, the preliminary use of morphine
and other alkaloids. One practically never hears of reflex, or the other form
of syncope, in mixed ether narcosis.

I cannot recall statistics of mortality from chloroform syncope, but I think
Leonard Hill found, some years ago, that it represented about 90 per cent. of
the total mortality. I have several experimental records of this form of death
from chloroform. I find the mechanism of chloroform syncope to be the com-
bined exaltation of the cardio-inhibitory and arterio-dilator nervous mechanisms
—the heart is arrested and the arteries dilated. Whether the heart will free
itself from the inhibition depends upon the degree of responsivity remaining in
the heart when the inhibition occurred; also probably upon the extent of the
compensatory rise of venous blood-pressure. If the vagus terminals give out
early the heart frees itself. Venous pressure always rises in syncope. In
chloroform syncope the rise is proportional to the degree of general intoxication.
A high venous pressure in the cavities of the right side of the heart and in the
great veins adjacent seems to exert a stimulus towards the restoration of the
heart’s rhythm. Artificial respiration appears to exert a similar stimulus, it
also exerts a stimulus towards restarting the respiratory rhythm. The rise of
venous pressure in the right heart cavities may be augmented by gravity—that
is, by turning the patient so that the head is on the fioor and the feet up, and
by aspirating the splanchnic bed in doing artificial respiration.

Deaths from excessive intoxication by chloroform, apart from cardiac inhibi-
tion—that is, deaths from general paralysis of the cardio-vascular musculature
and depression of the nervous mechanism of the circulation—must be very rare.
Such cases are thought to occur during the course of anesthesia—that is, after
the more dangerous period of induction. In most instances the respiration fails
first, and then any further accession to the tension of chloroform in the blood is
arrested. Artificial respiration then suffices to restore the blood-pressure. When
such deaths do appear to occur the final stroke is probably always cardiac
inhibition. The excitability of the vagi, which had become depressed by the
chloroform after the initial period of excitation, is again exalted by the bulbar
anemia consequent upon the low blood-pressure. It is extremely difficult to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 551

kill an animal with chloroform after the vagi are cut. The protective use of
atropine with the same object as vagotomy is sound in principle, but it has
not been availed of by anesthetists chiefly on account of its disturbing effect
on the pupil of the eye, thereby misleading them as to the depth of narcosis.

(iii) Resuscitation in Threatened Fatalities during the Administration
of General Anesthetic Agents. By HE. H. Empuey, M.D.

Deaths under anesthetics by no means occur from a common cause nor
under the same pathological conditions. They may be arranged in four
groups :—I. Syncopal. Il. From excessive tension of anesthetic in the body.
III. Shock or exhaustion. IV. Pre-existing pathological states and various
accidental conditions.

I. Syncopal.—Such cases occur early in the administration. Respiration
ceases either just before, at the same time as, or just after the heart—mainly
in consequence of the low or absent arterial blood-pressure. The cessation of
pulse and the loss of colour from the face are sudden. The heart is arrested
and the arterioles relaxed by inhibition, not by paralysis. The venous blood-
pressure is high. Reflex syncope may happen at a later period in the administra-
tion, but it occurs mostly under light narcosis.

II. Excessive narcosis.—Respiration invariably ceases before the circulation.
The loss of colour of face and the progressive diminution in pulse volume and
tension are relatively much slower than in syncope. In chloroform narcosis the
respiration has been progressively diminishing up to the time of stoppage. The
cardio-vascular neuro-muscular mechanism is paralysed, and both the venous
and the arterial blood-pressures are low.

III. Shock or exhaustion, whether previously existing or incurred in the
operation, is indicated by a progressively increasing heart-rate (generally except-
ing that of old people), with diminution in pulse tension and volume. Loss of
face-colour and diminishing efficiency of lung-ventilation progress similarly.
The vaso-motor system is chiefly concerned in the circulatory failure. The
experimental evidence available up to the present indicates exhaustion of the
vaso-motor central mechanism, and of the secretory function of the adrenals, as
the causative factors of the circulatory depression in shock. The venous and
arterial blood-pressures being low, the heart cavities are imperfectly filled and
the coronary blood-supply inadequate for the heart’s needs. Respiration is
defective and the temperature low.

IV. Drowning by blood, pathological fluids, vomit, &c. Laryngeal obstruc-
tion by spasm, foreign bodies,- vomit or blood. Respiratory paralysis in cases
of cerebral pressure. Cidema of the glottis. Retropharyngeal abscess. Ludwig’s
angina. Septic degenerations. Reflex syncope from surgical afferents, &c.

I. Syncope.—The aim in treatment is that of cutting short the inhibition.
Three methods are of value for this purpose :—(a) Raising the blood-pressure
in the right cavities of the heart and in the great veins adjacent. (b) Artificial
respiration. (c) Rhythmic manual compression of the heart.

(a) Raising the venous blood-pressure in the heart and adjacent veins. Some
evidence seems to indicate that heightening venous tension in these parts is the
cause of the normal cardiac rhythm. This pressure is high in syncope, but in
the syncope of anzsthetics the rise of pressure is more or less impaired. It
may, however, be supplemented by gravity when the patient is inverted head
down, and by the aspirating effect of artificial respiration. A good head of
pressure, at the right side of the heart, furthermore affords the requisite blood
for filling the arterial system when inhibition ceases.

(6) Although artificial respiration cannot oxygenate the blood with the circu-
lation arrested, it exercises the afferent impulses whereby reflexly the respiratory
rhythm is regulated by alternately inflating and compressing the pulmonary
alveoli, and it assists in helping to restart the heart by the precordial pressure
of the expiration movements, hesides assisting to raise the venous pressure in
the great veins adjacent to the right heart.

(c) Rhythmic manual compression of the heart through the diaphragm.—
When the above measures fail this should not be neglected, though it entails
opening the abdomen. Experimentally it invariably succeeded in restarting a

552 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

heart arrested by inhibition, but it always failed in cases where the heart was
irresponsive to stimuli, from excessive narcosis. In such cases as these, and
in those in which the heart was pathologically impaired beforehand, was syncope
fatal.

The use of strychnine, atropine, ether, amyl nitrite, &c., is irrational.

II. Excessive narcosis.—When the heart has ceased from this cause no
remedy wili ‘restart it. Experimentally the tension of the anesthetic in the
myocardium may be rapidly reduced, so as to admit of restoration of function,
by the perfusion of isotonic salt solution through the coronary arteries; but
this has no clinical value in consequence of the pulmonary cedema which ensues
and the difficult surgical technique entailed. The indications for treatment
are :—(1) Elimination of the anesthetic as rapidly as possible. (2) Raising the
blood-pressure in the right cavities of the heart and in the adjacent veins.

(1) Elimination.—In less severe intoxication, with respiration still continuing,
it is only necessary to withdraw the anesthetic mask. Where respiration is
feeble or has ceased, artificial respiration is demanded. This not only eliminates
the anesthetic, but it oxygenates the blood and assists in raising the venous
blood-pressure in the great veins at the right side of the heart.

(2) Raising the venous pressure at the heart.—Inversion into the head-down
position and artificial respiration, as for syncope. If the heart has not ceased,
recovery is relatively rapid. Strychnine is not harmful, but it is not indicated.
Amyl nitrite and ether are both harmful. Fatal excessive narcosis is often
finally accompanied by cardiac inhibition.

III. Shock.—The same indications exist for raising the blood-pressure in
the right cavities of the heart and the veins adjacent as for I. and II. This
is attained by inversion into the head-down position. The body-heat must be
maintained and warm oxygen inhalations used. The employment of warm
saline injections or infusions is not indicated unless in collapse from great loss
of blood. Otherwise the rise of arterial and venous blood-pressure is soon lost
in consequence of its rapid exudation into the surrounding tissues. Ergot and
pituitary are of use in the mild forms, but where help is urgent they fail.
Adrenalin and epinine, however, always raise both venous and arterial blood-
pressure, but only temporarily unless it be given by continuous flow into the
vein and not of greater concentration than one in 500,000, with the pulse used
as a guide. The flow should be reduced if the pulse-rate falls to 60 per
minute. The more severe the shock the greater is the care necessary to guard
against vagus inhibition of the heart or against ventricular fibrillation from
excess of adrenalin.

TV.—In cases of drowning the patient should be inverted head-down, and,
if the fluids have entered the bronchus from below, the sound side should be
preserved from flooding by promptly turning it uppermost. When both sides
are flooded a tube should be inserted through a laryngotomy opening and the
blood or fluid aspirated by the mouth or other ready means. Laryngeal spasm
or obstruction may be relieved by the finger or sponge cleaning out the glottis.
An artificial cough, induced by sudden bilateral compression of the thorax,
will often expel material or open a Jarynx closed by spasm. Respiratory failure
in operations in cases of cerebral compression may be obviated by a preliminary
injection of atropine, otherwise artificial respiration must be performed through
the operation. Light narcosis is used throughout these operations. Cases of
cedema of the glottis, retropharyngeal abscess, and Ludwig’s angina are very
dangerous for general anesthesia, and should be operated under local anesthesia
only. Reflex syncope cases are treated as syncope. Cases known to be liable
to depressor reflexes should receive a preliminary injection of morphine and
atropine, and be given ether

(iv) Observations on a Case of Delayed Chloroform Poisoning.
By Professor R. F. C. Lerrn.

This form of poisoning denotes a persistent and generally fatal intoxication
which comes on at varying intervals (from a few hours to many days) after the
chloroform narcosis has passed off, and closely resembles the pyogenic forms.
It is a rare condition, the number of cases recorded since its first recognition

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 553

by Caspar in 1850 hardly exceeding fifty. The present case occurred in the
General Hospital, Birmingham, in October 1913, in a boy aged eight, admitted
under the care of Mr. Woodman. He was a healthy lad who had been run over
by a light motor van. Laparotomy disclosed a rupture of the liver about two
inches long and one and a half inch deep close to the fissure of the gall bladder.
The abdominal cavity contained about two pints of blood-stained fluid. There
was no other lesion. Neither the shock nor the amount of blood lost was serious.
The operation lasted half an hour, anesthesia having been initiated by chloroform
and ether mixture for four minutes, and maintained thereafter by ether alone.
The total amount of chloroform administered did not exceed two drachms. He
recovered completely from the narcosis and did well for a time, but symptoms
suggestive of septic poisoning supervened, and he died in about forty hours.
On post-mortem examination no peritonitis or other inflammatory condition was
found, nothing, in short, beyond the rupture and a markedly fatty state of
the liver, to which the fatal toxemia could be ascribed. Microscopically an
intense degree of fatty degeneration combined with a peripheral fatty infiltration
existed in every lobule throughout the organ, but somewhat more severe in the
neighbourhood of the rupture. Though there was no actual cell necrosis, the
nuclei mostly staining well, the cytoplasm was markedly degenerated and had
lost its power of retaining fat within its intimate structure. Its ‘masked’ fat
had become visible in the form of numerous fine granules and globules within
the hepatic cells, particularly those in the inner parts of the lobules—a condition
of true fatty degeneration. ‘Towards the peripheral parts, on the other hand,
the fat globules were fewer and larger—an infiltration instead of a degeneration.
The peripheral cells had retained their normal function of infiltrating fat, and a
larger supply being available, had produced a high degree of fatty infiltration.
All the fat present readily absorbed the ordinary stains for fat, and, by giving
the typical red-colour with Nile blue, was shown to be neutral fat. In short,
the condition of the liver, while resembling phosphorus poisoning most closely,
presented appearances similar to those resulting from the action of other
poisons, notably those of the pyogenic organisms and of acute yellow atrophy.
All these poisons damage the liver cells, producing granular and fatty degenera-
tion often combined with fatty infiltration, if their intensity be not too great.
But they all differ from delayed chloroform in that their results are certain,
provided that the dose be sufficient, whereas in the case of chloroform the
results are extremely capricious, hardly arising even in one case for every
thousand in which they do not appear. That is, if the chloroform be inhaled,
but if given by the mouth or subcutaneously, they follow as certainly as after
the other poisons. This anomaly is not at present capable of explanation,
except on the assumption of an individual idiosyncrasy, and, though individual
susceptibility to certain drugs is an admitted phenomenon, it can hardly be
regarded as satisfactory. A better explanation may be forthcoming with an
increase in our knowledge of the physiological action of chloroform. The severe
and persistent vomiting which is such a characteristic symptom of the disease,
and the hemorrhagic inflammation of the gastric mucosa sometimes found, sug-
gest that either chloroform or a toxic derivative thereof is secreted into the
stomach and absorbed by the portal vein, but, even if true, it does not explain
the capricious incidence of the disease. Ina considerable number of the recorded
cases, the liver has already been damaged by pre-existing abdominal or other
disease, and the chloroform may be held to act as the last straw, but in others,
as in the present case, it has been healthy. But it is not difficult, as experi-
ments show, to produce, and that rapidly, an extreme degree of fatty change
within the liver under a variety of conditions, and it is possible that some
other factor than the chloroform, not yet recognised, may be the cause of the
disease. On experimental grounds alone it seems certain that ether cannot cause
it. Though as yet unexplained, it seems probable that delayed chloroform
poisoning does exist as a separate entity, and, though rare and fatal in its
severer forms, may be not uncommon and transient in milder forms.

Professors OSBORNE and Mitroy also took part in the Discussion.

554 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. The Problem of the Visual Requirements of the Sailor and the
Railway Employee. By Dr. James W. Barrett, C.M.G.
See Reports, p. 256.

2. The Mechanism of Micturition Control in Human Beings.
' By Dr. 8. SEwetu.

A number of cases of lesions of the spinal cord above the lumbar enlarge-
ment, in the lower lumbar region, and in the sacral region were described,
illustrating the various effects upon the control of the function of micturition
produced by lesions at these various levels. In lesions of the sacral cord,
or cauda equina, reflex micturition is not established even after fifteen years,
patients still maintaining absolute retention and requiring regular catheterisa-
tion, possibly as a result of the still active lumbar innervation of the sphincter.
Cases of supra-sacral lesion develop reflex incontinence of urine of which they
are unconscious, thus suggesting that the spinal arc is sufficiently well laid
down in human beings for the maintenance of this primitive function.

3. The Biochemical Significance of Phosphorus.
By Miss Hinpa Kincaip, D.Sc.

The research can be divided into two parts :—

I. The general zoological significance of phosphorus.
IT. Its peculiar biochemical significance in Victoria.

I. The fact that the framework of the lower animals is largely CaCO,
and that of the higher animals Ca,(PO,), suggested that there might be a very
gradually increasing use of Ca,(PO,), for framework purposes as we ascend
the animal kingdom. Analysis of the exoskeleton of each class of invertebrates
showed the very interesting fact that the phosphorus content increases steadily
as we ascend the evolutionary scale, though never at any time large in the
Invertebrata.

When we come to the endoskeleton of the vertebrates, however, there is a
sudden jump in phosphorus content, which remains practically constant through-
out the vertebrate group.

On the other hand, analyses showed that the phosphorus content of nerve
tissue and muscle has a surprising uniformity throughout the whole animal
kingdom.

II. It has been realised for some time that Australian soils are lamentably
poor in phosphorus, some even as low as 47 parts of phosphoric acid in
100,000 parts of soil. Experiments were made with a view to determining
whether the deficiency in phosphorus is also a feature of the products of the
soil, viz., cereals, fodders, woods, &c.

‘Analyses showed that Australian native grasses have a markedly lower
phosphorus content than European; that acclimatised European grasses have a
higher phosphorus content than native Australian, but lower than the same
kinds of grasses grown in Europe; that the wood of the Australian trees has a
lower phosphorus content than that of European trees, and also that the
phosphorus content of Victorian wheat-flour is low.

Lastly, it was urged that as the yearly loss of phosphorus from Victorian
grazing lands by export of their products is considerable, it is a matter of
economic importance that such phosphorus should be restored.

4. An Experimental Investigation on Concussion of the Spinal Cord
and Allied Conditions. By Auan Newton, M.S.

In this investigation an attempt has been made to determine the effect upon
the spinal cord of varying degrees of concussion and compression.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 555

Methods.—The animals employed were dogs, cats, and monkeys. The
momentum of a glass rod 8 mm. in diameter weighing 50 grammes falling upon
the exposed cord, or upon the superficial surface of the laminze of the upper
lumbar vertebr, caused the concussion. Motor and sensory conduction in the
cord was tested at varying intervals after the production of the concussion.
It was found that very slight injuries of the exposed cord produced marked
alteration in the conduction, although the anatomical changes demonstrable in
the cord after such injuries were very slight. Alteration of conduction in the
spinal cord can be produced by a concussing force directed upon the superficial
surface of the spinal column, although no macroscopic change in vertebral
structure is produced. After the abolition of motor efferent conduction afferent
conduction can still be demonstrated.

SYDNEY.
FRIDAY, AUGUS?' 21.

Demonstrations by Professor Sir T. P. ANDERSON SruaRT.

The Cyclograph, an Instrument for quickly marking Microscopical Slides.
The Action of the Stapedius Muscle.

)
b) An Apparatus for illustrating the Nature of Sound Waves in Air.
) The Effect of Simultaneous Contraction of the Intercostal Muscles.

is}

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Climate from the Physiological Point of View.
By Professor W. A. OsBorRNE.

The theory of wet-bulb temperatures in their relation to body temperature we
owe to Haldane. Harrington had already surmised their importance, and had
mapped the United States with wet-bulb isotherms for the month of July. In
estimating climatic conditions in Australia, in so far as they affect the body,
the wet-bulb isotherms are extremely useful. There are, however, certain
limitations in the use of this method. I have found that the wet bulb is not
nearly so responsive to change in wind velocity as the human body. A typical
instance of this is seen when a hot dry north wind in Victoria gives place to a
cool southerly breeze with or without electrical disturbance and rain. The
wind drops, the sky becomes overcast, and a feeling of oppression is experienced,
whilst visible sweating may be more readily provoked. Owing to the over-
clouding the shade dry-bulb temperature has fallen, and in nearly every
instance the wet bulb has fallen too. If, however, a wet-bulb thermometer
is employed, the bulb of which is surrounded by a cage covered with some
closely woven fabric, it is found to be much more sensitive to wind velocity
than the naked wet-bulb thermometer. Such a thermometer, too, shows in a
‘change’ an increase in the height of the mercury column during the oppressive
period before the cool breeze. ‘These ‘ jacketed’ wet-bulb thermometers I have
made with a cylindrical cage of copper-gauze covered with fine-mesh bolting-
cloth. Unfortunately the cloth soon becomes greased and clogged. Two or
three ply of fine copper-gauze will act fairly well instead of the bolting-cloth,
but here, too, the apertures become filled and readings lack constancy. I have
been compelled to fall back on quite impervious material in the form of a hollow
cylinder, open below, but having a perforated stopper of cork above, through
which the thermometer stem passes. The bulb with its usual cotton covering is
placed in the centre of the cylinder. In this instrument a considerable degree of
sensitiveness to change of air velocity can be demonstrated. It will frequently
show a rise at the onset of a thunderstorm when the ordinary wet bulb gives a
fall.

556 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION J.

2. Forms of Precipitation of Inorganic Colloids.
By Professor B. Moors, F.R.S.

3. The Action of Ultra-violet Light on Solutions of Organic
Substances. By Professor B. Moors, F.R.S.

4. The Presence of Iron Salts * thie Colourless Portion of the
Chloroplast, and the Mechanism of Photo-Synthesis by Iron
Salts. By Professor B. Moors, F.R.S.

(oa

Note on the Deposit Sbubien ain “Milk by Spinning in a Centri-
fuge. By H. 8. Haucro Warpnaw.

When milk is spun in a centrifuge a white deposit accumulates in the con-
taining vessels. The first portion of this deposit consists of cellular material,
the remainder is composed of minute granules, less than 0:00] mm. in diameter.
The removal of this material from milk does not raise its freezing-point. The
composition of this deposit is not constant, but the figures given below show its
nature :—

100 at of dry ee contain—

Ash . Pee ayes cet te) dea age ORD EOS
(P?O°> . gt ata ae : a ee: . 36)
(CaO . : $ ; : : 7 ond
Combustible Substance ; , : ; : 3 OZ! iss
(Caseinogen “ : : 5 5 Ds)
(Lactose . : ‘ : : . 19)
(Remainder : ; : : ; . 16)

The sixteen parts of combustible substance not accounted for contain 2°5 parts of
nitrogen, and consist, in part at any rate, of protein coagulated by boiling.

A considerable portion of the deposit (up to 60 per cent.) is soluble in a
volume of water equal to that of the milk from which it was removed, and the
soluble portion contains the bulk of the ash (up to 90 per cent.).

The percentages of ash in the deposits obtained from the sami2 sample of milk
after various periods of spinning are not the same, but first increase and then
decrease as the spinning is continued. With an initial percentage of ash of
7-0 the maximum percentage was reached after about two hours’ spinning and
amounted to 8:0.

The rate of accumulation of this deposit also varies with the time of spinning,
but approximately inversely to the percentage of ash, first decreasing to a
minimum, then increasing. The average rate of deposition under the conditions
of the experiments was about 70 mg. per hour per 100 c.c. of milk. This subse-
quent increase in the rate of deposition is peculiar.

6. Some Notes on the Symbiotic Activities of Coliform and other
Organisms on Media containing Carbohydrates and Allied Sub-
stances. By Burron BRraDLey.

(1) Consideration of the effect of coliform aérogene organisms in company
with coliform anaérogene-oxygene organisms on media containing a carbohydrate
(or allied substance) not affected by the former organisms, and from which
acid, without gas, is produced by the latter.

(2) Consideration of the effect of coliform aérogene organisms on the sterilised
acid or sterilised neutralised products of the action of coliform anaérogene-
oxygene organisms, other conditions being as in (1).

(3) Considerations of various factors concerned in the results produced.

(4) Consideration of the symbiotic activity of other organisms.

(5) General conclusions.

—.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. YD)

TUESDAY, AUGUST 23.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Changes in the Reaction of Milk under Different Conditions.
By Professor T. H. Mizroy, M.D.

The reaction of the milk was determined by estimating the hydrogen-ion
concentration by the electrometric method. ‘When hydrogen is passed through
fresh milk the H concentration is lowered by a removal of carbonic acid. This
may be avoided either by passing the milk into an electrode already charged with
hydrogen and then shaking the milk in the vessel until it is saturated with the
gas, or better by passing the hydrogen through a series of tubes containing milk
before passing into the electrode containing the same milk. When this is done
the H concentration of fresh milk is found to vary from about 1:58 x 10-7 N
normal to 2:°24x10-’ N. Greater acidities than the latter are due to commencing
acid fermentation of the milk. When milk is heated for about an hour at a
temperature a little below boiling-point, evaporation being prevented, the milk
when cooled to room temperature shows a slightly higher H concentration than
the same milk examined fresh. There is also a greater constancy in the concen-
tration when one compares a large number of specimens. Such heated milk does
not undergo coagulation with rennin unless its acidity is raised by the addition
of weak acid or by the addition of calcium chloride. The addition of calcium
chloride raises the H concentration and produces coagulability of the milk more
readily, that is at a lower H concentration, than when weak acids have been
added. When potassium oxalate is added to milk, in just sufficient quantity to
prevent coagulation, the H concentration is lowered below the level of that
observed in ordinary coagulable milk. If one now estimates the H_ concen-
tration after the addition of just sufficient CaCl, to produce clotting, it is found
to be within the H concentration limits of ordinary coagulable milk. The
addition of oxalic acid to oxalate milk does not produce true coagulation,

2. Variations in the Hydrogen-Ton Concentrations of the Blood.
By Professor T. H. Minroy, M.D.

The.concentration of the hydrogen-ions in the blood can be most satisfactorily
determined by the electrometric method. There are certain difficulties entailed
in the method as employed for blood, owing to the fact that the blood is rich in
oxygen and in carbonic acid. The former gas leads to a depolarisation of the
hydrogen plate, and so the estimation can only be made after complete reduction
of the blood, while the latter gas must be prevented from leaving the blood, as
the variations in the hydrogen-ion concentration are mainly due to changes in
the carbonic acid content of the blood.

When the necessary precautions are taken to avoid these fallacies the method
is sufficiently accurate to enable one to determine the variations due to altera-

“tions in respiration if these alterations be of a sufficiently marked character.

It may readily be shown that the concentration falls after a period of pro-
longed pulmonary ventilation and rises again during the period of apnea. If
the period of ventilation with air be succeeded by a short period with 10 per
cent. carbonic acid in air, then the usual fall in concentration does not occur,
and so there is no resultant apnoea.

The fall that is produced after ventilation with rich oxygen-holding mixtures
is of the same degree as that observed after inflation with air. To show the
degree of the changes in H concentration an example may be given.

Before ventilation the hydrogen-ion concentration of the blood was
3715 x 10-7 N, while after fifteen minutes’ ventilation with air, followed by two
minutes and fifteen seconds with oxygen, the concentration was *1995 x 10-7N.
An apneic pause of three minutes ten seconds’ duration followed the ventilation
period, and at the close of this the concentration had risen to °3548 x 10-7 N.
Ten minutes later when breathing was again of normal character the concen-
tration had risen to -3890 x 10-7N.

In certain rare cases ventilation does not produce the usual fall, and when

558 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

this is the case no apneeic pause is to be observed. The probable reason for this
departure from the normal is that, although the ventilation has produced a
removal of carbonic acid from the blood, the fall in hydrogen-ion concentration
is prevented by a formation of acid products of incomplete combustion.

3. The Action of the Venom of some Australian Snakes on the
Corpuscles of some Bloods. By Professor D. A. Wsusu, M.D.,
and Dr. H. G. CHAPMAN.

4. A Comparison of the Activity of Hatracls of the Pars Intermedia
and Pars Nervosa of the Ox Pituitary. By Professor P. T.
Herrine, M.D., f.R.C.P.H.

It is possible to remove from the posterior lobe of the fresh ox pituitary with
the aid of a fine pair of curved scissors small quantities of the epithelium of the pars
intermedia. The material thus obtained from a number of pituitaries was dried,
powdered in a mortar, and made up by boiling in Ringer’s solution into extracts of
definite percentages of the dried epithelium. Pars nervosa was similarly isolated
and prepared.

The extracts were tested upon the virgin rat’s uterus, the method employed being
a modification of Kehrer’s and Dale’s procedures. The extracts were also tested
upon the mammary secretion of lactating rats, and upon the blood-pressure, kidney
volume, and secretion of urine in cats.

The extracts of both pars intermedia and pars nervosa exercise a powerful stimu-
lating effect upon the uterus and the secretion of milk, but the pars nervosa gives
the stronger action in each case. By a comparison of the action of different strengths
of extracts it is found that the pars nervosa is from two to five times as powerful in its
effects as pars intermedia. Very minute doses are active ; immersion of the uterus
for 15 sec. in ‘0005 per cent. of the dried pars nervosa results in a well-marked con-
traction. The skate pituitary, in which there is no pars nervosa, also yields a material
which acts on the uterus and mammary secretion in a similar manner. The pure
pars glandularis of the anterior lobe of the ox pituitary has no such action. It is
probable, therefore, that the active material has its origin in the epithelial cells of
the pars intermedia. Many of these cells invade the pars nervosa, undergoing an
alteration there into hyaline bodies, which are very numerous in the pars nervosa
of the ox pituitary.

Extracts of the pars intermedia show no specific action upon the blood-pressure,
kidney volume, and urinary secretion of cats, even in doses of a ‘5 per cent. extract
of the dried epithelium. Extracts of skate’s pituitary are similarly inactive. Ex-
tracts of the pars nervosa on the other hand give marked effects even in very minute
doses. The injection into the jugular vein of 2 c.c. of a ‘01 per cent. extract of dried
pars nervosa gives a typical prolonged rise of blood-pressure, great dilatation of the
kidney, and increase of the secretion of urine. A similar dose of a *001 per tents
extract shows a slight action of the same nature.

The evidence points to there being at least two separate active principles in the ©
posterior lobe of the pituitary body. The one, derived from the pars intermedia,
acts upon the uterus and mammary gland, the other, found only in the pars nervosa,
brings about the rise of blood-pressure, and acts specifically upon the kidney dilating
its blood-vessels, and causing increased secretion of urine.

The principle which acts specifically on the kidney may be derived from the
ependyma cells of the pars nervosa, but this is unlikely. Extracts of no other part
of the central nervous system, e.g., the filum terminale of the spinal cord, have any
such action. Jt is more likely that the material is derived in some manner from a
further breaking down of the hyaline bodies, and has, therefore, its ultimate source
also from the epithelial cells of the pars intermedia.

The expenses of this research have been borne by a grant from the Carnegie Trust.

5. The Influence of the Thyroid upon the Activity of the Suprarenals
and Pituitary Body. By . Professor P. T. Herrina, M.D.,

1s cad OR ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 559

6. On lhe Freezing-point of the Laked Red Blood Corpuscles of Man
and some Domesticated Animals. By Dr. H. G. Cuapman.

If a mixture of blood and 0-9 per cent. NaCl be subjected to immediate
microscopical examination the red corpuscles are seen to be crenated. When
less concentrated solutions of salt are used, crenated corpuscles are numerous
until the concentration of salt falls below 0-55 per cent. Laking of the
corpuscles commences when the concentration of the salt falls below 0-65 per
cent.

Measurements of the freezing-point of laked solutions of the red corpuscles,
separated in the centrifuge, have been made by Beckmann’s apparatus. These
freezing-points have been invariably higher than those of the serum of the same
sample of blood. When the corpuscles have been washed with salt solutions
of different concentrations, the freezing-points of the solutions of the laked
corpuscles have risen after each washing. After three washings with an equal
amount of salt solution, the freezing-points of the solutions of the washed
corpuscles have risen about 0°2° C. When, however, the red corpuscles are
washed with salt solution saturated with tri-basic calcium phosphate, the
freezing-points of the solutions of red corpuscles remain constant after each
washing.

The concentration of the contents of the corpuscles is diminished by washing
with salt solution, but not by washing with salt solution saturated with calcium
phosphate.

7. Precipitin Reactions in Pathological Human Urines.
By Cyrit SHELLSHEAR.
Demonstration of precipitin reactions to human serum :—

(a) Albuminous urine . . . 1. Containing high percentage albumin.

: pe ” low ” 2”?
(b) Eclamptic urine . . Ls F high 2 9
2. = low » ”

8. A Contribulion to the Psychology of Written Errors.
By Dr. H. Tasman Loven.

9. Analysis of Conation. By Dr. H. Tasman Lovett.

10. The Relation of the Feeling of Familiarity to Belief.
By Dr. H. Muscic.

11. Mind and Matter. By Dr. Law.

560 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS,

Secrion K.—BOTANY.

Presipent or tue Section.—Professor F. O. Bowmr, D.Sc., F.R.S.

The President delivered the following Address at Sydney, on Friday,
August 21 :—

To preside over the Botanical Section on the occasion of its first Meeting in
Australia is no slight honour, though it also imposes no small responsibility.
We Members from Great Britain have a deep sense of the advantage which we
derive from visiting these distant shores. I am doubtful whether any scientific
profit we can confer by our coming here can balance that which we receive; while
over and aboye this is the personal kindliness of the Australian welcome, which
on behalf of the visitors of this Section from the Old Country I take this oppor-
tunity of gratefully acknowledging. Of the Members of the British Association,
those who pursue the Natural Sciences may expect to gain most by their experi-
ences here; and perhaps it is the Botanists who stand to come off best of all.
Living as most of us do in a country of old cultivation, the vegetation of which
has been controlled, transformed, and from the natural floristic point of view
almost ruined by the hand of man, it is with delight and expectation that we
visit a land not yet spoilt. To those who study Ecology, that branch of the
science which regards vegetation collectively as the natural resultant of its
external circumstances, the antithesis will come home with special strength, and
the opportunity now before them of seeing Nature in her pristine state will not,
I am sure, be thrown away.

I may be allowed here to express to the Australian Members of the Section
my regret that the Presidency for this occasion should not have fallen to one who
could with unusual weight and knowledge have addressed them from the
floristic and geographical point of view. I mean, to Professor Bayley Balfour,
of Edinburgh, who was actually invited by the Council to preside. He could
have handled the subject of your rich and peculiar Flora with detailed know-
ledge; and, with the true Hookerian touch, he would have pictured to you in bold
outlines its relation to present problems. Failing such equipment, I may at least
claim to have made some of your rare and peculiar forms the subject of special
study at intervals spread over thirty years : for it was in 1884 that I was supplied
with living plants of Phylloglossum by Baron Ferdinand von Miller, while a
paper to be published this year contains details of a number of Ferns kindly
sent to me by various collectors from New Zealand. I have been personally
interested more especially in your rare Pteridophytes, isolated survivals as they
surely are of very ancient vegetation. I propose to indicate later in this Address
some points of interest which they present. But first I shall offer some more
general remarks on the history of the investigation of the Australian Flora, as
a reminder of the recent death of Sir Joseph Hooker, whose work helped so
greatly to promote a philosophical knowledge of the Flora of this quarter of the
clobe.
< Few, if any, of the large areas of the Earth’s surface have developed their
coat of vegetation under such interesting conditions as that which bears the
Australasian Flora. In its comparative isolation, and in its freedom from the
disturbing influence of man, it may be held as unique. We may picture to our-
selves the field as having been open to evolutionary tendencies, unusually free

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 561

from the incursion of competitive foreign types, and with its Flora shaped and
determined through long ages in the main by climatic influences. Naturally the
controlling effect of animal life had been present throughout, as well as that of
parasitic and fungal attack; but that potent artificial influence, the hand of man,
was less effective here than in almost any other area. ‘The aborigines were not
tillers of the soil: in their digging for roots and such-like actions they might
rank with the herbivorous animals, so far as they affected the vegetation.
Probably the most powerful influence they exercised was through fire. And so
the conditions remained, the native Flora being practically untouched, till the
visit of Captain Cook in 1770: for little account need be taken of the handful of
specimens collected by Dampier in the seventeenth century.

Captain Cook shipped with him in the Hndeavour a very remarkable man,
viz., Joseph Banks, whom Dr. Maiden has described as ‘the Father of Australia.’
He not only acted as the scientific director of the expedition, but he was also its
financier. Educated at Eton and Oxford, he found himself as a young man
possessed-of an ample fortune. Though devoted to field sports, he did not, like
so many others, spend his life upon them. Following the dictates of a taste early
awakened in him, he turned his attention to travel for scientific ends. His
opportunity came when Cook was fitting out the Yndeavour for his first voyage
to the Southern Seas. Banks asked leave of the Admiralty to join the expedi-
tion, which was granted, and he furnished all the scientific stores and a staff of
nine persons at his own expense.

The story of that great expedition of 1768 to 1771 is given in ‘ Cook’s Voyages,’
compiled by Dr. Hawkesworth, a book that may be found in every library.
Though it is evident throughout that Banks took a leading part in the observa-
tional work of the expedition, it has not been generally known how deeply
indebted Hawkesworth was to Banks for the scientific content of his story. This
became apparent only on the publication of Banks’ own Journal 125 years after
the completion of the voyage. The circumstances of this have a local interest, so
I may be excused for briefly relating them.

Banks’ papers, including the MS. Journal, passed with his library and
Herbarium on his death to his librarian, Robert Brown. On the death of the
latter they remained in the British Museum. But after lying there for a long
period they were claimed and removed by a member of Banks’ family, and were
put up for auction. The Journal was sold for 77. 2s. 6d., and the last that has
been heard of it is that it came into the possession of a gentleman in Sydney.
Perhaps it may be lying within a short distance of the spot where we are
now met. This valuable record, fit to rank with Darwin’s “Voyage of the
Beagle,’ or Moseley’s account of the ‘ Voyage of the Challenger,’ might thus have
been wholly lost to the public had it not been for the care of Dawson-Turner,
who had the original transcribed by his daughters, helped by his grandson,
Joseph Dalton Hooker. The boy was fascinated by it, and doubtless it helped to
stimulate to like enterprises that botanist to whom Australia owes so much. The
copy thus made remained in the British Museum. Finally, from it in 1896 Sir
Joseph Hooker himself edited the Journal, in a slightly abridged form. It is now
apparent how very large’ a share Banks actually took in the observation and
recording, and how deeply indebted to him was the compiler of the account of
the voyage published more than a century earlier, not only for facts, but even for
lengthy excerpts.

The piants collected in Australia by this expedition amounted to some 1,000
species, and with Banks’ Herbarium they found, after his death, a home in the
British Museum. Several minor collections were subsequently made in Australia,
but the next expedition of prime importance was that of Flinders in 1801 to
1805. What made it botanically notable was the presence of Robert Brown.
Hooker speaks of this voyage as being, ‘as far as Botany is concerned, the most
important in its results ever taken.’ The collections came from areas so widely
apart as King George’s Sound, Southern Tasmania, and the Gulf of Carpentaria.
These, together with Banks’ plants and other minor collections, formed the
foundation for Brown’s ‘ Prodromus Flore Nove Hollandie,’ a work which was
described in 1860 by Sir Joseph Hooker as being ‘though a fragment . . . the
greatest botanical work that has ever appeared.’ It was published in 1810. I
must pass over without detailed remark the notable pioneer work of Allan
Cunningham, and of some others. The next outstanding fact in the history of

1914. 00

562 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

Australian Botany was the voyage of Ross, with the Hrebus and the “error ; for
with him was Joseph Hooker, whose botanical work gave an added distinction to
an otherwise remarkable expedition.

The prime object of the voyage was a magnetic survey, and this determined
its course. But in the intervals of sailing the Antarctic Seas the two ships
visited Ascension Island, St, Helena, the Cape, New Zealand, Australia, Tas-
mania, Kerguelen Island, Tierra del Fuego, and the Falkland Islands. Thus
Hooker had the opportunity of collecting and observing upon all the great cir-
cumpolar areas of the Southern Hemisphere. He welded together the results into
his great work ‘The Antarctic Flora.’ It was published in six large quarto
volumes. In them about 3,000 species are described, while on 530 plates 1,095
species are depicted, usually with detailed analytical drawings. But these mag-
nificent volumes did not merely contain reports of explorations, or descriptions
of the many new species collected. There was much more than this in them.
All the known facts that could be gathered were incorporated, so that they
became systematically elaborated and complete Floras of the several countries.
Moreover, in the last of them, the ‘Flora Tasmanie,’ there is an Introductory
Essay, in which the Australasian Flora was for the first time treated as a whole,
and its probable origin and its relation to other Floras discussed. Further, ques-
tions of the mutability and origin of species were also raised in it. The air was
full of such questions in 1859; the essay was completed in November of that year,
less than twelve months after the joint communications of Darwin and Wallace
had been made to the Linnean Society, and before the ‘ Origin of Species’ was
published. It was to this essay that Darwin referred when he wrote that
‘ Hooker has come round, and will publish his belief soon.’ But this publication
of his belief in the mutability of species was not merely an echo of assent to
Darwin’s own opinion. It was a reasoned statement, advanced upon the basis
of his ‘ own self-thought,’ and his own wide systematic and geographical experi-
ence. Irom these sources he drew support for ‘ the hypothesis that species are
derivative and mutable.’ He points cut how the natural history of Australia
seemed specially suited to test such a theory, on account of the comparative
uniformity of the physical features being accompanied by a great variety in its
Flora, and the peculiarity of both its Fauna and Flora, as compared with other
countries. After the test had been made on the basis of the study of some
8,000 species of plants, their characters, their spread, and their relations to those
of other lands, Hooker concluded decisively in favour of mutability, and a
doctrine of progression. After reading this essay, Darwin wrote that it was to
his judgment ‘by far the grandest and most interesting essay on subjects of the
nature discussed I have ever read.’

But beyond its historical interest in relation to the ‘Origin of Species,’
Hooker’s essay contained what was up to its time the most scientific treatment
of a large area from the point of view of the Plant-Geographer. He found that
the Antarctic, like the Arctic Flora, is very uniform round the Globe. The same
species in many cases occur on every island, though thousands of miles of ocean
may intervene. Many of these species reappear in the mountains of Southern
Chili, Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. The Southern Temperate Floras,
on the other hand, of South America, South Africa, Australia, and New Zea-
land differ more among themselves than do the Floras of Europe, Northern
Asia, and North America. To explain these facts Hooker suggested the probable
former existence, during a warmer period than the present, of a centre of
creation of new species in the Southern Ocean, in the form of either a con-
tinent or an archipelago, from which the Antarctic Flora radiated. From the
zoological side a similar difficulty arises, and the hypothesis of a land-connec-
tion has been widely upheld, and that it existed as late as Mid-Tertiary
times. The theory took a more definite form in the hands of Osborn (1900),
who pictured relatively narrow strips of land connecting respectively South
America on the one side and Tasmania and New Zealand on the other with
the existing Antarctic land-area. This would accord well enough with the
suggestion of Lowthian Green, that the plan of land-elevations on the Harth is
approximately tetrahedral; and it is, I believe, in line with the views of those
who are best informed on Antarctic Geography and Geology, as studied from
the land itself. It may be hoped that further Antarctic discovery may bring
fresh facts to bear upon this question, for it is to the positive data acquired from

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 563

study of the Earth’s crust that we must look, rather than to the exigencies of
botanists and zoologists, for its final solution.

But the hypothesis of an Antarctic Land-Connection has been held open to
doubt in various quarters. As Sir Wm. Thiselton Dyer has recently pointed out,
Darwin himself dissented, though regretfully, from the sinking of imaginary
continents in a quite reckless manner, and from the construction of land-bridges
in every convenient direction. From the geological side Dana laid down the
positive proposition that the Continents and Oceans had their general outline and
form defined in earliest time, Sir John Murray, whose recent death we so deeply
deplore, was an undeniable authority as to the Ocean-floor. He wrote quite
recently with regard to Gondwana-land, that ‘the study of Ocean-depths and
Ocean-deposits does not seem in any way to support the view that continental
land has disappeared beneath the floor of the Ocean in the manner indicated.’
He suggested that the present distribution of organisms is better interpreted
by the North Polar theory of origin. The ‘continuous current of vegetation ’
southward at the present time was recognised by Hooker himself, and definite
streams of northern forms have been traced by him extending even to Australia
and Tasmania. This might account for much in present-day distribution ; though

“it seems doubtful whether it would fully explain the extraordinary distribution
of Antarctic Plants. The problem must for the present remain an open one.

This whole question, however, has a connection with the still wider difficulty
of the existence within the Polar area of ancient Floras. In the north the
fossils are even of sub-tropical character. Coal has been found in lands with a
five months’ night. How did such plants fare if the seasonal conditions were at
all like the present? To explain this it would be a physiological necessity to
assume either an entirely different climatal condition in those regions from that
of the present time; or, as has been suggested, some shifting or creeping of the
Earth’s crust itself. These are, however, questions which we cannot undertake
to discuss with effect in the Botanical Section. We must not do more than
recognise that an unsolved difficulty exists.

We pass now from Hooker’s great work to the last of the classical series, viz.,
the ‘Flora Australiensis’ of Bentham and Baron Ferdinand von Miller. It is
embodied in seven volumes, and was completed in 1878. Bentham, while assent-
ing in his ‘concluding preface’ to the principles laid down by Hooker in the
Tasmanian Flora, recognised as the chief component part of the present Flora
of Australia the indigenous genera and species, originated or differentiated in
Australia, which never spread far out of it. Secondly, an Indo-Australian Flora
showing an ancient connection between Australia and the lands lying to the
north. It is represented especially in tropical and sub-tropical East Queens-
land. Then there is the Mountain Flora common to New Zealand, and extend-
ing generally to the southern extra-tropical and mountain regions, while other
constituents are ubiquitous maritime plants, and those which have been intro-
duced since the European colonisation. But the most remarkable, as they are
the least easily explained, are some few plants identical with species from North
and West America, and from the Mediterranean. They are stated to be chiefly
annuals, or herbaceous or shrubby plants; free-seeders; while their seeds long
retain the power of germination. This may perhaps give the clue to this curious
conundrum of distribution.

It has been fortunate that the duty of working out this remarkable Flora
should have fallen into the hands of such masters as Robert Brown, Sir Joseph
Hooker, and Bentham. The foundations were thus surely laid. The further
progress of knowledge has been carried on by the late Baron Ferdinand von
Miller, and it may be confidently left in the hands of others who are still with
us. The completion of the task of observing and recording may still be far
ahead. But I may be pardoned if I utter a word of anticipatory warning.
There is at the present time a risk that the mere work of tabulating and defining
the species in a given country may be regarded as the only duty of a Government
Botanist ; that, whenever this is completed, his occupation will be gone. Some
such erroneous idea, together with a short-sighted economy, is the probable
explanation of the fact that certain positions hitherto held by professional
botanists have recently been converted into positions to be held by agriculturists.
Tn the countries where this has happened (and I refer to no part of Australasia)
the vegetation had been very adequately, though not yet exhaustively, worked, as

002

564 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

regards the Flowering Plants and Ferns. But who that knows anything about
plants would imagine that the ascription to a genus or order, or the designation
by a couple of Latin names with a brief specific description, exhausts what it
is important to know about a species? In most cases it is after this has been
done that the real importance of its study begins. Such possibilities as these
do not appear to have been appreciated by those who advised or controlled
these official changes. I have no desire to undervalue the agriculturist or the
important work which he does. But he is engaged in the special application
of various pure sciences, rather than in pure science itself. Advance in the
prosperity of any country which has progressed beyond the initial stages of
settlement follows on the advance of such knowledge as the devotee of Pure
Science not only creates, but is also able to inculcate in his pupils. It is then
imperative that, in any state which actively progresses, provision shall be made
for the pursuit of pure as well as of applied science. In my view an essential
mistake has been made in changing the character of the appointments in question
from that of botanists to that of agriculturists. For the change marks the
abandonment of Pure Science in favour of its specialised and local application.

The head of such an institution should always be a representative of Pure
Science, thoroughly versed in the nascent developments of his subject. He could
then delegate to specialists the work of following out into detail such various
lines of special application as Agriculture, Acclimatisation, Plant-Breeding,
Forestry, or Economics. Or, if the organisation were a large one, as we may
anticipate that it would become in the Capital of a great State, separate
Institutes might develop to serve the several applied branches, while to a
central Institute, in touch with them all, might be reserved the duty of advanc-
ing the Pure Science from which all should draw assistance and inspiration.

It matters little how this principle works out in detail, if only the principle
itself be accepted, viz., that Pure Science is the fount from which the practical
applications spring. Sydney, as the Capital of a great State, has already laid
her course, as regards Botanical Science, in accordance with it. Her Botanic
Garden and the recently developed Botanical Department in the University
(which, I understand, may find its home ultimately in the Botanic Garden) will
serve as centres of study of the Pure Science of Botany. This will readily
find its application to Agriculture, to Forestry, to Economics, and in various
other lines present and future. I am convinced that it is in the best interest
of any State that can possibly afford to do so to encourage and liberally endow
the central establishment where the Pure Science of Botany is pursued, and to
continue that encouragement and endowment, even though results of immediate
practical use do not appear to be flowing from it at any given moment. For in
these matters it is impossible to forecast what will and what will not be
eventually of practical use. And in any case as educational centres the purely
botanical establishments will always retain their important function of supplying
that exact instruction, without which none can pursue with full effect a calling
in the applied branches.

We may now turn from generalities to certain special points of interest in
your peculiar Flora which happen to have engaged my personal attention. They
centre round a few rare and isolated plants belonging to the Pteridophyta, a
division of the Vegetable Kingdom which there is every reason to believe to
have appeared relatively early in the history of Evolution. But though the type
may be an ancient one, it does not follow that every representative of it preserves
the pristine features intact. Throughout the ages members of these early
families may themselves have progressed. And so among them to-day we may
expect to find some which preserve the ancient characters more fully than others.
The former have stood still, and may be found to compare with curious exacti-
tude with fossils even of very early date. The latter have advanced, and though
still belonging to the ancient family, are by their modifications become essentially
modern representatives of it. For instance, the Fern Angiopteris has a sorus
which very exactly matches sori from the Paleozoic period, and it may accord-
ingly be held to be a very ancient type of Fern. On the other hand, the genera
Asplenium, or Polypodium, include Ferns of a type which has not been recognised
from early fossil-bearing rocks, and they may be held to be essentially modern.
But still all of them clearly belong to the family of the Ferns.

In the Australian Flora only three of the four divisions of the Pteridophyta

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 565

are represented. For, curiously enough, there does not appear to be any species
on your Continent of the widely spread genus Equisetum, the only living genus
of that great phylum of the Equisetales, which figured so largely in the Paleozoic
Period; and this notwithstanding that one species (H. debile) is present among
the Polynesian Islands. But all the three other divisions of the Pteridophyta
are included, and are represented in each case by plants which show peculiar
and probably for the most part archaic characters. I propose to sketch before
you very briefly the points of interest which the more notable of these archaic
types present. Some justification may be found for my doing so because
nearly all of them have been submitted to detailed study in my laboratory in
Glasgow, and much of the work has been done upon material supplied to me
by your own Botanists. I take this opportunity of offering to them collectively
my hearty thanks.

The tenure by Dr. Treub of the office of Director of the Botanic Gardens of
Buitenzorg was rendered famous by his personal investigations, and chiefly by
his classical researches on the Lycopods. These were followed up by other
workers, and notably by Bruchmann; so that we now possess a reasonable basis
for comparison of the different types of the family as regards the prothallus and
embryology, as well as of the sporophyte plant; and all these characters must be
brought together as a basis for a sound conclusion as to their phyletic seriation.
The most peculiar living Lycopods are certainly Zsoétes and Phylloglossum, both
of which are found in Australia. The former need not be specially discussed
here, as it is a practically world-wide genus. It must suffice to say that it is
probably the nearest living thing to the fossils Zepidodendron and Sigillaria,
and may be described as consisting of an abbreviated and partially differentiated
Lepidostrobus seated upon a contracted stigmarian base.

But Phylloglossum, which is peculiar to the Australasian region, naturally
claims special attention. The plant is well known to botanists as regards its
external features, its annual storage tuber, its leafy shoot with protophylls and
roots, and its simple shaft bearing the short strobilus of characteristic Lycopod
type. But its prothallus has never been properly delineated, though it was
verbally described by Dr. A. P. W. Thomas in 1901 (Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 69,
p- 285). Perhaps the completed statement may have been reserved as a pleasant
surprise for this Meeting. But the description of thirteen years ago clearly
shows its similarity to the type of Lycopodium cernuum. The sporophyte com-
pares rather with Z. inundatum. Both of these are species which, though
probably not the most primitive of the genus, are far from being the most
advanced. As all botanists know, the question of the position of Phylloglossum
chiefly turns upon the view we take of the annual tuber and its protophylls.
Treub, finding similar conditions in certain embryos of Lycopods, called it a
‘protocorm,’ and believed that he recognised in it an organ of archaic nature,
which had played an important part in the early establishment of the sporo-
phyte in the soil, physiologically independent of the prothallus. I must not
trouble you here with the whole argument in regard to this view. Facts which
profoundly affect the conclusion are those showing the inconstancy of occurrence
of the organ. Mr. Holloway has recently described it as of unusual size in your
native Z. laterale, as it is also in Z. cernuum. But it is virtually absent in those
species which have a large intraprothallial foot, such as Z. clavatum, as well as
in the genus Selaginella and in Isoétes. In DL. Selago, which on other grounds
appears to be primitive, there is no ‘ protocorm.’ Such facts appear to me
to indicate caution. They suggest that the ‘ protocorm’ is an opportunist local
swelling of inconstant occurrence, which, though biologically important in some
cases, is not really primitive.

If this is the comparative conclusion, then our view will be that Phylloglossum
is a type of Lycopod which has assumed, perhaps relatively recently, a very
practical mode of annual growth. Related, as it appears to be on other points,
with the Z. inundatum group of species, it has bettered their mode of life.
ZL. inundatum dies off each year to the very tip of its shoot, so that only the
bud remains to the following season. It is notable that Goebel has described
long ago how the young adventitious buds of this species start with small
‘protocorms,’ quite like those of Phylloglossum itself, or like the embryo of
L. cernuum. And so we may conclude that in Phylloglossum a tuberous develop-
ment, containing a store to start the plant in the spring, has been added to what

566 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

is already seen normally each year in Z. inundatum. And this mode of life of
Phylloglossum begins, as Thomas has shown, with its embryo. This appears
to me to be a rational explanation of the ‘protocorm’ of Phylloglossum; ‘but it
robs the plant of much of its theoretical interest as an archaic form.

The phylum of the Sphenophyllales was originally based on certain slender
straggling plants of the genus Sphenophyllum found in the Paleozoic Rocks;
but they apparently died out in the Permian Period. Your native genera
T'mesipteris and Psilatum were ranked by earlier botanists with the
Lycopods, but a better acquaintance with their details, and especially the
examination of numerous specimens on the spot, indicated a nearer affinity for
them with the Sphenophyllales. It was Professor Thomas who in 1902 first
suggested that the Psilotaceee might be included with the Sphenophylle in the
phylum of the Sphenophyllales, and I personally agree with him. Dr. Scott,
however, dissents, on the ground that the leaves are persistently whorled in the
sphenophylls, while they are alternate in the Psilotacew; and while the former
branch monopodially the latter dichotomise. But since both of these characters
are seen to be variable within the not far distant genus Lycopodium, the differ-
ences do not seem to me to be a sufficient ground for keeping them apart as the
separate phyla of Sphenophyllales and Psilotales. Whatever degree of actual
relation we trace, such plants as Z'’mesipteris and Psilotum are certainly the
nearest living representatives of the Sphenophyllee, a fact which gives them a
special distinction. The Psilotaceze also stand alone in the fact that they are
the only family of the Pteridophytes in which the gametophyte is still unknown.
They produce spores freely, but there the story stops. Any young Australian
who hits upon the way to induce these recalcitrant spores to germinate, and to
produce prothalli and embryos, or who found their prothalli and embryos in the
open, would have before him a piece of work as sensational as anything that
could be suggested. Further, I am told that Z'’mesipteris grows here on the
matted stumps of Z'odea barbara. I shall be alluding shortly to the fossil
Osmundacee. May we not venture to fancy the possibility of some fossil
Osmunda being found which has embalmed for us among its roots a Mesozoic
or even a Tertiary Sphenophyll? And thus a link might be found between the
Paleozoic types and the modern Psilotacez, not only in time, but even in
character.

We pass now to the last phylum of the Pteridophyta, the Filicales. I am
bound to say that for me its interest far outweighs that of the others, and for
this reason. That it is represented by far the largest number of genera and
species at the present day, while there is a sufficiently continuous and rich
succession of fossil forms to serve as an efficient check upon our comparative
conclusions.

Since 1890 it has been generally accepted that the Kusporangiate Ferns (those
with more bulky sporangia) were phyletically the more primitive types, and the
Leptosporangiate (those with more delicate sporangia) the derivative, and in
point of time later. The fossil evidence clearly upholds this conclusion. But,
further, it has been shown that the character of the sporangium is merely an
indicator of the general constitution of the plants in question. Where it is
large and complex, as in the Kusporangiates, all the apical segmentations are,
as a rule, complex, and the construction of the whole plant relatively bulky.
Where the sporangium is delicate and relatively simple all the apical segmenta-
tions follow suit, and the construction of the plant is on a less bulky model.
On this basis we may range the Ferns roughly as a sequence, starting from
relatively bulky types of the distant past, and progressing to the more delicate
types of the present day. The large majority of the living species belong
naturally to the latter. But the former are still represented by a few genera
and species which, like other survivals from a distant past, are frequently of
very restricted distribution.

An interesting feature of the Australasian Flora is that a considerable
number of these relatively ancient forms are included in it. Thus the
Marattiacee are represented by one species of Alarattia and one of Angiopteris.
Though in themselves interesting, they will be passed over without special
remark, as they are very widely spread tropical forms.

All the three genera of Ophioglossacez are included, there being two species
of Ophioglossum and two of Botrychium, while Helminthostachys is recorded

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 567

from Rockingham Bay. This Family is coming more than ever to the front in
our comparisons, owing to their similarity in various aspects to the ancient
Botryopteridee. Though the Ophioglossacee have no secure or consecutive fossil
history, still they may now be accepted as being very primitive but curiously
specialised Ferns. Perhaps the most interesting point recently detected in them
is the suspensor found by Dr. Lyon in Botrychiuwm obliquum, and by Dr. Lang
in Helminthosiachys. This provides a point for their comparison with the
similar embryonic condition in Danwa, as demonstrated by Professor Campbell.
The existence of a filamentous initial stage of the embryo is thus shown for
three of the most primitive of living Ferns. Its existence in all of the Bryo-
phytes, and in most of the Lycopods, as well as in the Seed-Plants, is a very
significant fact. Dr. Lang suggests that ‘the suspensor represents the last trace
of the filamentous juvenile stage in the development of the plant, and may have
persisted in the Seed-Plants from their filicineous ancestry.’ Such a possibility
would fit singularly well with the theory of encapsulation of the sporophyte in
the venter of the archegonium.

The representation of the ancient family of the Osmundacee in the Australasian
Flora is very fine, though limited to five living species, while Osmunda itself
is absent. It is, however, interesting that the family dates back locally to early
fossil times. It was upon two specimens of Osmundites from the Jurassic Rocks
in the Otago district of New Zealand that the- series of remarkable papers on
‘The Fossil Osmundacee’ by Kidston and Gwynne-Vaughan was initiated. It
is no exaggeration to say that these papers have done more than any other
recent researches to promote a true understanding not only of the Osmundacez
themselves, but of Fern-Anatomy as a whole. They have placed the stelar
theory in Ferns for the first time upon a basis of comparison, checked by refer-
ence to stratigraphical sequence. It would be leading us too far for me to
attempt here to summarise the important results which have sprung from the
study of those fossils, so generously placed by Mr. Dunlop in the hands of those
exceptionally able to turn them to account. It must suffice to say that it is now
possible to trace as a fairly continuous story the steps leading from the proto-
stelic state to the complex condition of the modern Osmunda. These facts and
conclusions are to be put in relation with the anatomical data fast accumulating
from the Ophioglossaceze in the hands of Professor Lang and others. From
such comparisons a rational explanation of the evolutionary steps leading to the
complex stelar state in Ferns at large begins to emerge. This is no mere tissue
of surmises, for the conclusions are based on detailed comparison of types occur-
ring in lower horizons with those of the present day.

T must pass over with merely nominal mention your interesting representa-
tion of the ancient families of Schizeacee, Gleicheniacee, and Hymenophyllacee,
all of which touch the very foundations of any phyletic system of Ferns. Also
the magnificent array of Dicksoniee and Cyathee, and of the important genus
Lindsaya—Ferns which take a rather higher position in point of view of
descent. But I am bound to devote a few moments to one of your most remark-
able Ferns, endemic in New Zealand—the monotypic Loxsoma,

This species has peculiar characters which justify its being regarded system-
atically as the sole representative of a distinct Tribe. It is also restricted
geographically to the North Island of New Zealand. These facts at once sug-
gest that it is an ancient survival, a conclusion with which its solenostelic axis,
its sorus and sporangium, and its prothallus readily accord. I have lately shown
that the Leptosporangiate Ferns fall into two distinct Series, those in which the
origin of the sorus is constantly superficial, and those in which it is as con-
stantly marginal. Zoxsoma is one of the ‘ Marginales.’ It shares this position
with the Schizeacee, Thyrsopteridee, Hymenophyllacee, and Dicksoniee, and
the derivatives Davalliee and Oleandree. Its nearest living relative is probably
Thyrsopteris, which is again a monotypic species endemic in the Island of Juan
Fernandez. ‘There is also a probable relation to the genus Loxsomopsis, repre-
sented by one species from Costa Rica, and a second lately discovered in Bolivia.
Such a wide and isolated distribution of types, which by their characters are
certainly archaic, suggests that we see in them the relics of a Filicineous state
once widely spread, which probably sprang from a Schizeeaceous source, and
with them represent the forerunners of the whole Marginal Series. If we look
for further enlightenment from the fossils, it is to the Secondary Rocks that we

568 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

should turn. It is then specially interesting that Mr. Hamshaw Thomas has
lately described a new Jurassic Fern, Stachypteris Halli, which has marginal
sori, and is probably referable to a position like that of Zoxsoma and Thyrso-
pteris, between the Schizeacee and the Dicksoniee. In fact the gaps in the
evolutionary series of the Marginales are filling up. We may await with con-
fidence fresh evidence from the Jurassic Period, upon which Professor Seward is
directing an intensive interest.

I should be ungrateful indeed if I did not mention your very full representa-
tion of Blechnoid Ferns : for developmental material of several of these has been
sent to me by Dr. Cockayne, and others from New Zealand. A wide compara-
tive study of the genus has led me to somewhat unexpected results in regard to
the plasticity of the sorus, its phyletic fusions and disruptions. The consequent
derivative forms are seen in Woodwardia and Doodya on the one hand, and on
the other in Scolopendrium and Asplenium. 'These Ferns together constitute a
coherent phylum springing ultimately from a Cyatheoid source. The details
upon which this conclusion is based I hope to describe in a separate communica-
tion to the Section.

And lastly, the Hydropteridee deserve brief mention. Represented in your
Flora by two species of Azolla, and one each of Marsilea and Pilularia, they
typify a condition which must theoretically have existed among Ferns in very
early times, viz., the heterosporous state. But hitherto, notwithstanding the
existence of our living Hydropteridez, no fossil Fern with microscopic structure
preserved had been detected from the Primary Rocks, showing this intermediate
condition between the homosporous type and that of the Pteridosperms. This
unsatisfactory position has now been resolved by Professor Lignier, who has
recently described, under the name of Afittagia, a fossil from the Lower West-
phalian, which bore sori of which the sporangia contained four megaspores,
while the outer tissues of the sporangia resembled those of ZLagenostoma.
Pending the discovery of further specimens, these observations may be welcomed
as filling with all probability a conspicuous gap in the evolutionary sequence of
known forms.

From the rapid survey which I have been able to give you of some of the more
notable Australasian Ferns of relatively archaic type, it is clear that they have a
very interesting and direct bearing upon the phylesis of Ferns. The basis upon
which conclusions as to phyletic sequence are arrived at is at root that of the
Natural System of Classification generally—the recognition not of one character,
or of two, but of as many as possible, which shall collectively serve as criteria of
comparison. In the case of the Filicales we may use the characters of :—

) External form.
(1i) Constitution, as shown by simple or complex segmentation.
i) Dermal appendages, hairs or scales,
) Stelar structure, simple or complex.
) Leaf-trace, coherent or divided,
) Soral position.
(vii) Soral construction.
ii) Indusial protections.
) Sporangial structure, and mechanism of dehiscence.
) Spore-output.
) Spore-form, and character of wall.
(xii) Form of prothallus.
(xiii) Position of the sexual organs, sunken or superficial
(xiv) Number of spermatocytes, and method of dehiscence.
(xv) Embryology.

In respect of all these criteria progressions of character may be traced as
illustrated by known Ferns, and probably other criteria may emerge as study
progresses. In each case, upon a footing of general comparison, checked as
opportunity offers by reference to the stratigraphical sequence of the fossils, it
may be possible to distinguish with some degree of certainty what is relatively
primitive from what is relatively advanced. Thus, the protostele is generally
admitted to be more primitive than the dictyostele, the simple hair than the
flattened scale, and a high spore-output than a low one.

Applying the conclusions thus arrived at in respect of the several criteria, it

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 569

becomes possible upon the sum of them to lay out tle species and genera of Ferns
themselves in series, from the primitive to the advanced. In proportion as the
progressions on the basis of the several criteria run parallel, we derive increased
assurance of the rectitude of the phyletic sequences thus traced, which may finally
be clinched, as opportunity offers, by reference to the stratigraphical occurrence
of the corresponding fossils. This is in brief the phyletic method, as it may be
applied to Ferns. It may with suitable variation be applied to any large group of
organisms, though it is seldom that the opportunities for such observation and
argument are in any sense commensurate with the requirements. Perhaps there
is no group of plants in which the opportunities are at the moment so great as in
the Filicales, and they are yielding highly probable results from its application,

The greatest obstacle to success is found in the prevalence of parallel develop-
ment in phyla which are believed to have been of distinct origin. This is
exemplified very freely in the Ferns, and the systematist has frequently been
taken in by the resemblances which result from it. He has grouped the plants
which show certain common characters together as members of a single genus.
Sir William Hooker in doing this merged many genera of earlier writers. His
avowed object was not so much to secure natural affinitv in his system as readiness
of identification : and consequently in the ‘Synopsis bilicum ’ there are nominal
genera which are not genera in the phyletic sense at all. For instance, Poly-
podium and Acrostichum, as there defined, may be held from a phyletic point of
view to be collective groupings of all such Ferns as have attained a certain state
of development of their sorus; and that they are not true genera in the sense of
being associated by any kinship of descent: this is shown by the collective
characters of the plants as a whole. Already at least four different phyletic
sources of the Acrostichoid condition have been recognised, and probably the
sources of the Polypodioid condition are no fewer. Such ‘genera’ represent the
results of a phyletic drift, which may have affected similarly a plurality of lines
of descent. It will be the province of the systematist who aims at a true group-
ing according to descent to comb out these aggregations of species into their
true relationships. This is to be done by the use of wider, and it may be quite
new, criteria of comparison. Advances are being made in this direction, but we
are only as yet at the beginning of the construction of a true phyletic grouping of
the Filicales. The more primitive lines are becoming clearer: but the difficulty
will be greatest with the distal branches of the tree. For these represent
essentially the modern forms, they comprise the largest number of apparently
similar species, and in them parallel development has been most prevalent.

If this difficulty be found in such a group as the Filicales, in which the earlier
steps are so clearly indicated by the related fossils, what are we to say for the
Angiosperms? Our knowledge of their fossil progenitors is very fragmentary.
But they are represented now by a multitude of forms, showing in most of their
features an irritating sameness. For instance, vascular anatomy, that great
resource of phyletic study in the more primitive types, has sunk in the Angio-
sperms to something like a dead level of uniformity. There is little variety
found in the contents of embryo-sacs, in the details of fertilisation, or in
embryology. Even the ontogeny as shown in the seedling stages affords little
consolation to the seeker after recapitulation. On the other hand, within what
are clearly natural circles of affinity there is evidence of an extraordinary readi-
ness of adaptability in form and structure. Such conditions suggest that we see
on the one hand the far-reaching results of parallel development, and on the other
the effects of great plasticity at the present day, or in relatively recent times.
Both of these are points which prevent the ready tracing of phyletic lines. In
the absence of reliable suggestions from paleontology, the natural consequence is
the current state of uncertainty as to the phyletic relations of the Angiosperms.

Various attempts have been or are being made to meet the difficulty. Some,
on the basis of the recent observations of Wieland and others, are attempting
along more or less definite monophyletic lines to construct, rather by forcible
deduction than by any scientific method of induction, an evolutionary story of the
Angiosperms. I do not anticipate that any great measure of success, beyond
what is shown in a very polysyllabic terminology, and an appearance of knowing
more than the facts can quite justify, will attend such efforts. It would seem
to me to be more in accord with the dictates of true science to proceed in a
different way, as indeed many workers have already been doing. To start not

570 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

from preconceptions based upon limited paleontological data, but from an inten-
sive study of the living plants themselves. To widen as far as possible the
criteria of comparison, by making, for instance, every possible use of cellular,
physiologico-chemical, and especially secretory detail, and of minor formal
features, such as the dermal appendages, or by initiating a new developmental
morphology of the flower from the point of view of its function as a whole: and
with its physiological end clearly in sight, viz., the maturing, nourishing, and
placing of new germs. To make on some such basis intra-ordinal, and intra-
generic comparisons with a view to the phyletic seriation of closely related forms ;
and so to construct probable short series, which may subsequently be associated
into larger phyletic groupings. This should be checked wherever possible by
physiological probability. A keen eye should be kept upon such information as
geographical distribution and paleontology may afford, and especially upon the
fossils of the Mesozoic Period. What is above all needed for success among the
Angiosperms is new criteria of comparison, to meet the far-reaching difficulties
that follow from parallel development and recent adaptation. If some such
methods be adopted, and strenuously pressed forward, the task should not appear
hopeless, though it cannot be anything else than an arduous one.

I cannot conclude without some remark on the bearing of parallel or conver-
gent development, so fully exemplified in the Filicales, upon the question of the
genesis of new forms. Anyone who examines, from the point of view suggested
in this Address, the larger and well-represented divisions of the Vegetable King-
dom must be impressed with the extraordinary dead level of type to which their
representatives have attained. In most of these divisions the phyletic history is
obscured, partly by the absence of any consecutive paleontological record, but
chiefly by the want of recognised criteria for their comparison. This is very
prominently the case for the Mosses, and the Angiosperms.

But it may be doubted whether these large groups differ in any essential point,
in respect of the genesis of their multitudinous similar forms, from the Filicales,
in which the lines of descent are becoming clearer through additional knowledge.
Suppose that we knew of no fossil Ferns; and that none of the early Fern-types
included under the term ‘Simplices’ had survived in our living Flora: and that
the Filicales of our study consisted only of the 2,500 living species of the old
undivided genera of Polypodium, Asplenium, Aspidium, and Acrostichum. Then
the phyletic problem of the Filicales would appear as obscure as does that of the
Mosses, or of the Angiosperms of the present day. 'They would present, as these
great groups now do, an apparent dead level of sameness in type, though the
phyletic starting-points in each may have been several and distinct. There is
every reason to suppose that in the phylesis of the Mosses or the Angiosperms also
there has been a parallel, and even a convergent, development of the same nature
as that which can be cogently traced in the Filicales: but that it is obscured by
the obliteration of the early stages. Internal evidence from their comparative
study fully justifies this conclusion. How, then, are we to regard this insistent
problem of parallelism and convergence from the point of view of genetic study?

A belief in the ‘inheritance of acquired characters,’ or, as it is sometimes
expressed, ‘ somatic inheritance,’ is at present out of fashion in some quarters.
But though powerful voices may seem to have forced it for the moment into the
background, I would take leave to point out that such inheritance has not been
disproved. All that has been done, so far as I understand the position, is to show
that the evidence hitherto advanced in support of it is insufficient for a positive
demonstration. That is a very different thing from proving the negative. We
hear of ‘Fluctuating Variations’ as distinct from ‘Mutations’; and it is
asserted that the former are somatic, and are not inherited, while the latter are
inherited. This may be held as a useful terminological distinction, in so far as
it accentuates a difference in the heritable quality. But it leaves the question of
the origin of these heritable ‘Mutations’ quite open. At the present moment I
believe that actual knowledge on this point is very like a complete blank. Fur-
ther, it leaves indefinite the relative extent and proportion of the ‘ Mutations.’
It is commonly held that mutations are considerable deviations from type. I
am not aware that there is any sufficient ground for such a view. It may
probably have originated from the fact that the largest are most readily observed
and recognised as reappearing in the offspring. But this is no justification for
ignoring the possibility of all grades of size or importance of heritable deviations
from type.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 571

On the other hand, adaptation, with its consequence of parallel or even con-
vergent development in distinct stocks, is an insistent problem. The real ques-
tion is, What causes are at work to produce such results? They are usually set
down to the selection of favourable divergences from type out of those produced
at random. But the prevalence of parallelism and convergence suggests that
those inheritable variations, which are now styled ‘Mutations,’ are not pro-
duced at random. The facts enforce the question whether or not they are
promoted and actually determined in their direction, or their number, or their
quality, in some way, by the external conditions. Parallelism and convergence
in phyletic lines which are certainly distinct impress the probability that they
are. Until the contrary is proved it would, in my opinion, be wiser to entertain
some such view as a working hypothesis than positively to deny it. Such a
working hypothesis as this is not exactly the same as a ‘ mnemic theory,’ though
it is closely akin to it. It may perhaps be regarded as the Morphologist’s pre-
sentation, while the mnemic theory is rather that of the Physiologist. But the
underlying idea is the same—viz., that the impress of éxternal circumstance
cannot properly be ruled out in the genesis of inheritable characters, simply
because up to the present date no definite case of inheritance of observable
characters acquired in the individual lifetime has been demonstrated. Of
course, I am aware that to many this is flat heresy. At this Meeting of the
Association it amounts almost to high treason. I plead guilty to this heresy,
which may by any sudden turn of observation be transformed into the true
faith. I share it in whole or in part with many botanists, with men who have
lived their lives in the atmosphere of experiment and observation found in large
Botanic Gardens, and not least with a ‘former President of the British Associa-
tion—viz., Sir Francis Darwin.

It is noteworthy how large a number of botanists dissent from any absolute
negation of the influence of the environment upon the genesis of heritable
characters. Partly this may be due to a sense of the want of cogency of the
argument that the insufficiency of the positive evidence hitherto adduced
justifies the full negative statement. But I think it finds its real origin in the
fact that in Plants the generative cells are not segregated early from the somatic.
In this respect they differ widely from that early segregation of germ-cells in
the animal body, to which Weismann attached so much importance. The fact is
that the constitution of the higher Plants and of the higher Animals is in this,
as in many other points, radically different, and arguments from the one to the
other are dangerous in the extreme. Those who interest themselves in evolu-
tionary questions do not, I think, sufficiently realise that the utmost that can be
claimed is analogy between the higher terms of the two kingdoms. Their
phyletic separation certainly dates from a period prior to that of which we have
any knowledge from the fossil record. Let us give full weight to this fact, as
important as it is indisputable. The early definition of germ-cells in the animal
body will then count for nothing in the evolutionary problem of plants. More-
over, we shall realise that the plant, with its late segregation of germ-cells, will
present the better field for the inquiry whether, and how far, the environment
may influence or induce divergences from type. From this point of view the
widespread opinion among botanists that the environment in some sense deter-
mines the origin and nature of divergences from type in Plants should com-
mand a special interest and attention.

I must now draw to a close. I have passed in review some of your more
notable plants, and pointed out how the Australasian Flora, whether living or
fossil, includes in unusual richness those evidences upon which the fabric of
evolutionary history is being based. I have indicated how this history in certain
groups is showing ever more and more evidence of parallel development, and that
such development, or convergence, presses upon us the inquiry into the methods
of evolutionary progress. The illustrations I have brought forward in this
address clearly show how important is the positive knowledge derived from the
fossils in checking or confirming our decisions. Paleophytology is to be prized
not as a separate science, as, with an enthusiastic view restricted between
blinkers, a recent writer has endeavoured to enforce. To treat it so would be
to degrade it into a mere side alley of study, instead of holding it to be the
most positive line that we possess in the broad avenue of Botanical Phylesis.
An appreciation of such direct historical evidence is no new idea. Something

572 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

of the same sort was felt by Shakespeare three centuries ago, and it remains the
same to-day. Nay more :—it may lead us even to forecast future possibilities.

In following our evolutionary quest in this spirit we shall find that we are
indeed—

‘Figuring the nature of the times deceased,
The which observed, a man may prophesy
With a near aim, of the main chance of things
As yet not come to life.’

(King Henry IV., Part II., Act iii., Scene i.)

MELBOURNE.
VRIDAY, AUGUST 14,

The following Papers were read :—

Wve Double Stock—Ils History and Behaviour.
By Miss E. R. Saunpers.

* There is some evidence that the cultivation of the garden Stock dates back
to Greek and Roman times, the double-flowered plant being then unknown and
presumably not in existence.

There appears to be no definite record of the time or place of first appearance
of the double form, but for various reasons we may conclude that it made its
appearance only shortly before the date when it is first mentioned (middle of
sixteenth century). A comparison of the frequency of reference to the double form
of the three genera included at this time under the same name (Leucoium or
Viola), viz., the Violet, the Wallflower, and the Stock, seems to show that they
arose successively in the order named.

The original method of propagation of the double Stock (which is sterile)
was by slips or cuttings, the double having appeared first in the biennial types.
The fact that the double was obtainable from the seed of singles was not
generally known for more than a century after the plant was in cultivation.
Many different methods of procedure and treatment have been advocated from
time to time as leading to the production or increase of double-flowered plants,
but none have stood the test of experiment.

Mendelian methods of analysis have enabled us to arrive at an understanding
of the relation of the double to the single, and have shown that the output
of doubles is constant and independent of external conditions. By appropriate
selection, in some cases of seeds, in others of the young plants, it is sometimes
possible to obtain, not an increased output of doubles by the individual, but an
increased proportion of double plants in the flower-beds.

2. On the Sex Dimorphism and Secondary Sea Characters in some
Abnormal Begonia Flowers, and on the Evolution of the Monecious
Condition in Plants. By C. I. Bonn.

In certain Begonias the presence of an abnormal floral bract frequently indi-
cates an associated abnormality of the sex organs in the flower which terminates
the pedicle on which the abnormal floral bract appears. This abnormality may
take various forms, from simple multiplication or modification of accessory floral
parts to complete hermaphroditism. The relative position of the male and

female sex organs on the floral axis indicates whether the flower is primarily
male or primarily female.

The Terminal Position of the Male Flower in the Normal Begonia Inflorescence.

The diccious, the monecious, and the hermaphrodite forms of sex dimorphism
are the result of a process of qualitative cell division among different cell units,
at different stages of their development. This sex differentiating cell division

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 573

may occur in the germ-cell and produce the dicecious form, or it may occur during
flower bud differentiation and produce the monecious condition, or it may be
delayed to a later stage when the sex organs are differentiated on a common
floral axis. The hermaphrodite flower is then formed. The actual disposition
of the male and female sex organs may also follow one of two types: (a) Female-
ness central and terminal and maleness peripheral and lateral, as in many in-
florescences and probably all hermaphrodite flowers; (b) Maleness central and
terminal and femaleness lateral and peripheral, as in many inflorescences of the
moneecious type and in some abnormal Begonia flowers. The type assumed,
primarily female or primarily male, will depend on the position taken by the
factors for maleness and femaleness respectively during the differentiating cell
division, and on which factor passes into the terminal and which into the lateral
daughter cells.

The Bearing of these Facts on Plant Evolution.

The monecious condition is probably an intermediate and unstable stage.

The hermaphrodite flower (which is probably the result of necessity for
adaptation to insect fertilisation) has been brought about by delaying the segre-
gation of the g and @ sex organs till the period of the development of the
flower. Probably also some hermaphrodite plants may have accelerated the pro-
cess of sex differentiation. If this occurs early during the evolution of the inflor-
escence such plants would revert to the monecious condition.

In animals postponement of the process of sex differentiation from the germ-
cell to the zygote stage also produces hermaphroditism. Certain abnormalities
in the distribution of secondary sex characters in the higher animals suggest
that the development of the individual organism proceeds along two main lines,
a segmental and a bilateral line. Lateral and segmental gynandromorphs are
thus produced.

The Secondary Sex Characters of the Flowers of the Monecious Begonia.

The two processes of qualitative cell division which result in (1) the differ-
entiation of the g and Q primary sex organs, and (2) the differentiation of the
secondary sex characters, are less intimately interdependent in plants than in
animals. This greater independence may depend upon the absence of, or the
very restricted circulation of, internal secretions or sex hormones in the case of
plants.

3. Some Account of the Flora of the Northern Territory. By ALFRED
J. Ewart, D.Sc., Ph.D., and Outve B. Davies, M.Sc.

As is well known, the Commonwealth Government, since taking over the
Northern Territory, has carried out a policy of energetically investigating the
natural resources of this tract of country.

In addition to the expedition by Gilruth and Spencer, the Barclay expedition
traversed a large part of the Territory, and Mr. Hill, the collector attached to
the party, made large collections of plants.

Dr. A. Morrison was appointed to assist in the work of investigating these
collections and the flora of the Territory generally. In July 1913 he published
a Paper with Professor Ewart, ‘ Contributions to the Flora of Australia,”
No. 21: ‘The Flora of the Northern Territory (Leguminose).’ Unfortunately,
before he could publish anything further he became seriously ill, and died in
December 1913.

Miss Davies was appointed successor to Dr. Morrison, and began work in
February 1914.

Mr. Maiden has undertaken the investigation of the Myrtacee and of the
Acacias, in which groups his knowledge is unrivalled.

The present Paper not only gives much additional information as to the
distribution of the plants in the Territory, but includes several new species :
among which are four new species of Leguminose, Jsotropis argentea, Ewart
and Morrison; Jacksonia anomala, Ewart and Morrison; Psoralea luteosa, Ewart
and Morrison; 7’ephrosia pubescens, Ewart and Morrison; two new species of
Proteacee, Hakea digyna, Ewart and Davies; and Hakea intermedia, Ewart and

574. TRANSACTIONS Of SECTION K.

Davies; the former being especially interesting as showing a tendency to fusion
of the pedicels, thus forming two carpels on one pedicel or in one flower; and
one new species of Chenopodiacee, Atriplex varia, Ewart and Davies.

Very little is known as yet as to the economic properties of the plants of the
Northern Territory, more particularly as regards their fodder value or poisonous
properties. In the present investigation special attention is being paid to those
plants possessing either of these properties. Dr. Gilruth obtained data during
his first visit of the food value of certain grasses, which have since been
identified and published in the ‘19th Contribution to the Flora of Australia.’

Ewart and Morrison remark on the Leguminose :—

“The Leguminose include not only many of the most valuable fodder plants,
but also many poisonous plants. Few of the plants on the present list have been
tested as yet from this point of view, but poisonous species are known to occur
in the following genera :—Bauhinia has three poisonous species, one of which is
a fish poison, and another an anthelmintic, but no data are available for the
species of this genus on the present list. Brachysema undulatum grows in
other parts of Australia, and causes mechanical injury. Canavalia obtusifolia
causes gastro-enteritis in stock.

Several species of Cassia are considered poisonous, and, according to Greshoff,
this also applies to Cassia Sophora and (. Sturtii. No less than five species of
Crotalaria are recorded as poisonous, and of these one, @. Mitchelli, grows in
the Northern Territory. Three species of Hrythrina and two of Hrythrophlcum
have been recorded as poisonous, but they do not include any of the species
growing in the Territory. The Asiatic Flemingia congesta is a tenifuge, but
the F. lineata of the Territory has not been tested. Many species of Gastro-
lobium are poisonous, but only one incompletely tested species (G@. grandiflorum)
is included in the present list.

Indigofera boviperda, however, has in West Australia been responsible for
large losses of stock. The genera Phaseolus, Psoralea, and Sesbanea include
poisonous species, but apparently none from the Territory. Rhynchosia minima
is, however, poisonous according to Greshoff, and the same may be found
ultimately to apply to some of the species of Swainsonia and Tephrosia. Several
species of the latter genus are well-known fish poisons, and this applies to at
least one species from the Territory, namely, Tephrosia purpurea. Tn this
direction there is much work to be done in the future.

Included in the present work is a map illustrating the route taken by the
expedition, and showing the more important plants collected at each station,
that is, those which give some indication of the natural resources of the country.

4. The Flora of the Environs of Melbourne.
By C. 8. Surron, M.B., Ch.B.

Introductory.—The consideration of our flora in its relation to the factors
responsible and the estimation of these in explaining the distribution and
association of its species have as yet been undertaken only tentatively.

Physiography.—The district to be considered is somewhat arbitrarily restricted
to an area within a radius of almost thirty miles from Melbourne. The greater
part of this is of low or moderate elevation and contains three main geological
formations :—(1) From N.W. to S.W. a dat plain of the newer basalt gently
sloping to sea-level from an elevation of almost 1,000 feet, drained by a simple
river system in many places canyon-like.

(2) From N.E. a more diversified extent of Silurian formation, including,
however, a considerable area of plutonic rocks where the highest elevations, 2,000
to 2,600 feet, are to be found; the whole drained by the Yarra and its tributaries.

(3) To the 8.E. the area of Tertiary sands with an undulating surface rarely
attaining 200 feet. Here the drainage system is ill-marked and over a great part
hardly apparent.

Ecological Conditions.—(a) Climatic.—Although the rainfall is pretty evenly
distributed over all the months, the bulk of it occurs in winter and spring. The
average annual fall ranges from about 16 inches at the station in the basaltic area
to more than 50 inches in the Silurian. Snow very rarely falls. The temperature
only occasionally surmounts 100° F., and the highest temperatures do not long

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 575

persist. The mean annual humidity is high, and the annual evaporation low as
compared with other parts of the Commonwealth. V3

(6) Hdaphic.—The soil of the three areas presents well-marked differences.

The influence of man and of the domestic animals is everywhere manifest.

Plant Formations.—The vegetation of the district is clearly divisible into
three formations corresponding strikingly with the geologic formations. They
would thus seem to be mainly determined by the soil conditions.

(a) That of the basaltic area, a grass steppe with low herbs and a minimum
of tree-growth, occurring in savannah form and in the river bottoms.

(6) That of the Silurian area, a forest formation sometimes open but more
often filled in with scrub and characterised by many species of Eucalyptus.

(c) The flora of the Tertiary sands, marked by a predominance of Epacrids,
myrtaceous plants, and terrestrial orchids, constituting a scrub heath in maquis
and separated from the strand by a belt of higher scrub containing several tree-
forms.

(d) An association of halophytes peopling the strand and the salt-swamps at
the mouths of watercourses.

Census.—Lists of plants from the three formations show the greatest variety
in the forest area where the most favourable and varied conditions exist, and the
smallest total in the basaltic area.

5. Australian EHbenacee. By W. P. Hiern, M.A., FBS.

The ebony family is represented in Australia by nineteen species, out of about
487 species in all. Twelve species are endemic in Australia. The Northern
Territory, Queensland, and New South Wales supply the species. There are
none in Tasmania.

In my Monograph of Ebenacez, published in 1873, I included among 262
recent species sixteen as occurring in Australia—ten of the genus J/aba, and six
of Diospyros.

Subsequent additions include two species, each contributing a genus to the
Australian Flora. Royena villosa, a South African shrub, has been recorded
from the Brisbane river in Queensland. WHuclea australiensis was described by
me in the ‘ Journal of Botany,’ 1910, p. 159; the specimen was found among a set
of Australian plants collected long previously by Sir T. L. Mitchell; it probably
came from extra-tropical Queensland. A new species of Diospyros, D. longipes
is the latest addition.

In 1879 Hans Molisch published a paper on the comparative anatomy of the
timbers of Ebenacez and allies; this paper included an account of the minute
structure of the stem of M/aba obovata.

In 1892 Paul Parmentier published a work on the comparative histology of
Ebenacez; in this work he favoured the view that every good species can be
easily defined by the epharmotic characters belonging to it. His researches dealt
exclusively with the leaves and stems. With regard to the leaves the parts which
he studied were: 1. The upper and lower epidermis. 2. The blade, sections
being made at different places along it. 3. The mid-rib and lateral veins.
4. The petiole, at the base of the blade, and in transverse sections. With regard
to the stems, he studied all the tissues shown by transverse sections, and by radial
and tangential sections of the liber and wood. Among the 120 species and
varieties which he examined are Royena villosa, Maba rufa, M. buzifolia,
M. obovata, M. geminata, M. humilis, M. reticulata, Diospyros Ebenum, D. laxa,
D. montana, D. pentamera, and D. microcarpa.

For the present paper numerous original observations have been made in order
to test and extend the epharmosis of the Australian species. The pollen also
has been observed and measured in the cases of the Royena and Huclea.

According to Parmentier the two last-named genera are distinguishable from
the rest of Ebenaceous genera by the periderm of the stem arising from the
pericycle, instead of being sub-epidermal.

Hypoderma (arranged in a single row in both faces of the leaves) exists
in Maba humilis, in which species also the cells of each epidermis are undulate.

Stomates are furnished only on the lower face of the leaves ; they are numer-
ous and correspond to the Ranunculaceous type, and are mostly sub-epidermal,

576 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

or in a few species immersed, or (among Australian species) are exserted in
Diospyros laxa.

The mesophyll is bifacial in the majority of species, but sub-central in
D. pentamera.

The palisade cells are usually arranged in a single row, but in the leaves of
D. microcarpa they are in two rows, and a similar biseriate arrangement has
been observed in the leaves of D. longipes.

MONDAY, AUGUST 17.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Modern Derivatives of the Matonioid Ferns.
By Professor F. O. Bownr, Sc.D., F.R.S.

Cheiropleuria bicuspis (Bl.), Presl, is a fern of the Malayan region, and is
often associated locally with Dipteris. It is known chiefly from the drawings of
Sir W. Hooker, and has not been submitted to recent comparative examination.

On material supplied, through the influence of the Rajah of Sarawak, by
Mr. Moulton, keeper of the Museum, it has been found that it shows characters
relating it on the one hand to Gleichenia, Mutonia, and Dipteris, on the other to
Platycerium. It is, in fact, a synthetic type. ~

Its creeping or scandent axis bears alternate leaves, with occasional abaxial
buds on their bases, as in Lophosoria and Metaxya. The dermal appendages are
hairs only. The leaf-form varies; the lamina, borne on a long petiole, may be
one-, two-, or several-cusped; the venation is Matonioid of the type Venatio
Anaxeti. The axis is protostelic, and the leaf trace originates as a single strand,
as in Mertensia. It divides in the cortex into two, and undergoes further
fissions and fusions in its upward course.

The leaves are dimorphic, the sporophylls being taller and upright, but with
narrow lamina, marked usually by a strong midrib and enlarged margins. The
intervening area appears covered by an ‘ acrostichoid’ soral area.

Detailed examination shows that the sorus is of the ‘ mixed’ type with numer-
ous paraphyses. The sporangia share with those of Dipteris a segmentation
different from those of any other known Ferns; viz., by cleavage of the primor-
dium by alternately inclined walls, to produce two rows of segments. Bipartition
of the lower segments gives four rows of cells of the stalk, which is also a peculiar
feature common to Dipteris and Cheiropleuria. The annulus shows slight
obliquity, and is not completely interrupted at the insertion of the stalk.

The vascular supply beneath the sorus shows features which link with
Platycerium. The nerve-endings, which curve downwards to the lower soral
surface, show enlargement of the distal mass of storage tracheides. Occasionally
this enlarged receptacular supply may extend from its own definite areola of vena-
tion, crossing the vein which limits it, into a neighbouring areola.

This arrangement is a very simple example of what is a regular rule in
Platycerium. Here, in addition to the conducting reticulum of veins of the
sporophyll, there is a receptacular vascular system, extended in a lower plane.
This is composed of branches from the conducting system, which may ramify,
and extend to considerable length. The definite sori are seated upon these recep-
tacular veins. These and other characters indicate that there is a real relation
between Cheiropleuria and Platycerium. ‘The comparative conclusion is this :
That probably the whole of the Ferns above named sprang from a Gleichenioid
source. That Jatonia is the most primitive of these genera; Dipteris a more
advanced type leading to a state with webbed leaves, and a spread of sorus
over the leaf area. That Cheiropleuria retains the Gleichenioid anatomy, but
has progressed sorally to an ‘ acrostichoid’ state. That Platycerium is another
derivative of this phylum, anatomically far advanced: it is also advanced
sorally, though not -to the ‘mixed’ and ‘ acrostichoid ’ condition seen in Cheiro-
pieuria. Thus Cheiropleuria and Platycerium are probably modern Matonioid
types, and it is possible that certain other living genera will also link on to this
affinity.

2 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 577

2. On Oxidase Enzymes.
By Professor Aurrep J. Ewarr, D.Sc., Ph.D.
Plant oxidases form a class of substances of great importance in plant meta-
bolism. They are known merely by the reactions they cause, and their exact

chemical nature is quite uncertain. According to Bach and Chodat they form
three distinct classes of ferments, namely :—

(1) Oxygenases, proteins which absorb molecular oxygen forming peroxides.

(2) Peroxidases, which increase the oxidising power of peroxides and can
only act in their presence.

(3) Katalases, which destroy peroxides with an evolution of oxygen.

It has long been known that certain of the reactions supposed to characterise
oxidase ferments could be produced by certain inorganic metallic salts. As the
result of the detailed investigation of the oxidase action of various metallic
salts of copper, iron, chromium, manganese, lead, &c., upon guaiacum, para-
phenylendiamin, hydroquinone, pyrogallol, gallic acid, tannic acid, and tyrosin,
the conclusion has been formed that the correspondence between the action of
organic and of inorganic oxidases is extremely close. It was also found
that in the case of certain salts such as sodium or potassium ferrocyanide,
ferricyanide, phosphate, or chromate, the oxidase action was due to the acid, and
not to the base. In addition, oxidase action may be accelerated in the presence
of sensitisers such as the chlorides or phosphates of sodium or potassium, or
may be retarded or prevented by a variety of anti-oxidases. This applies to
both organic and inorganic oxidases, and determinations of the minimal
amounts of metallic oxidases required to produce progressive oxidation in the
presence of a sensitiser indicate that their action can be considered as closely
akin to that of an enzyme.

In general, oxidases, whether inorganic or organic, may vary from strong to
weak. The strong will cause direct oxidation from the oxygen dissolved in a
watery solution. The weak will transfer oxygen from labile oxygen com-
pounds such as hydrogen peroxide, or will use dissolved oxygen in the presence
of sensitisers such as the chlorides or phosphates of sodium or potassium.
Various intermediate grades of activity are shown. The oxidase action of a
metallic salt varies according to its acid combination, and metals such as iron or
chromium may give salts an oxidase action when the metal is present as base or
as acid (potassium ferricyanide, bichromate, &c.). There is no reason for
separating oxidases and peroxidases as distinct classes of ferments, and peroxides
do not necessarily take part in all oxidase actions. The supposed separation
of oxidase and peroxidase by fractional precipitation with alcohol may be
merely the result of attenuation. Metallic oxidases act as ferments in that a
small amount may produce considerable oxidation, especially in the presence of
sensitisers (copper sulphate and salt, potassium ferricyanide and sodium phos-
phate), and that the oxidase appears to act as an intermediary in the chemical
change. Nitric acid and potassium permanganate, on the other hand, transfer
oxygen in the first instance from themselves.

Hydrogen peroxide may influence oxidase action (a) by providing a supply
of labile oxygen; (b) by converting a feeble oxidase into a strong oxidase (fer-
rous salt into ferric, ferrocyanide into ferricyanide) ; (c) by acting as a sensitiser
to the oxidant substance ; (¢) by acting as an anti-oxidase in some cases. Various
salts may act as sensitisers (sodium and potassium chlorides, bromides, and
phosphates) or as anti-oxidases (barium chloride, sodium fluoride, organic or
inorganic acids), and in some cases with increasing concentration the action of
the former is reversed, while a substance which is a sensitiser with one oxidant
may act as an anti-oxidase with another. This applies also to the peroxide of
hydrogen, and, in the presence of an excess of this substance, an oxidase may
act as a reducing agent (copper sulphate and salt on indigo carmine). Strong
metallic poisons will arrest the action of organic oxidases or destroy them
(apple, potato, carrot, parsnip), if immediate contact or rapid penetration is
assured. Hence the organic oxidases are possibly proteids with or without
oxidase metals in basic or acid combination.

There is no justification for the use of such terms as ‘peroxidase,’ ‘kata-
lase,’ ‘cenoxydase, or ‘ tyrosinase ’ to indicate specific substances, ferments, or

1914. ote

578 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. ~

groups of ferments. The ‘tyrosinase’ of the potato is also a ‘katalase,’ a
‘peroxidase,’ a ‘ pyrogallase, a ‘hydroquinonase,’ and a ‘paraphenylendiamin-
ase.’ It is, however, permissible to use such terms as katalase action, peroxidase
action, and such names as laccase, russulase, potatase, carrotase, &c., as tem-
porary names to indicate the origin of the substances whose chemical nature is
as yet unknown. Since, however, their oxidase powers will be only one of
many properties, it will never be advisable to name them according to these
properties alone, any more than it*would be in the case of the metallic oxidases.
Comparison with metallic oxidases shows that we are not even on safe ground in
assuming the existence of specifically distinct classes of plant oxidases, such as
phenolases, aminoxidases, and iodoxidases. The chlorides and phosphates of
potassium and sodium are able to act as oxidase sensitisers, and thus may influ-
ence special oxidations, or respiration in general. It is possible that they may
exert a stimulatory or controlling action on plant metabolism and that the
sodium chloride always present in the ash of plants may not be an entirely
useless constituent. This may explain partly why small doses of salt stimulate
the growth of many plants and why phosphates, in addition to being food sub-
stances, may act as stimuli to growth. The stimulating action of many metallic
salts on growth may be partly due to their oxidase action.

Ursol tartrate turns lignified walls red or reddish brown. This is not an
oxidase reaction, but is an admirable test for lignin, especially valuable for
demonstrating the wood elements in pulpy tissue.

Chloroform strongly and ether more feebly retard or inhibit katalase action,
but they do not suppress oxidase action. After prolonged contact, however, the
organic oxidases are slowly attenuated and destroyed.

The liberation of iodine from potassium iodide may be used as a test for the
presence of oxidases in living tissues, but does not indicate the existence of any
power of producing peroxides. Dried organic oxidases may retain their pro-
perties for three weeks or more, and a glycerine extract for five or more months.

Where organic oxidases are destroyed by boiling this is probably the result
of proteid coagulation. In spite of previous statements to the contrary, (1)
oxidase enzymes are present in the pulp and rind of the orange and lemon, and
in the stalks, but not in the bodies, of the endocarpal hairs; (2) oxidase enzymes
are abundant not in the protoxylem of the carrot, but in the phloem and outer
cortex.

The oxidases of the beet and potato appear to be related to one another and
to be among the strongest plant oxidases. The nearest analogies to them are
perhaps afforded by ferric salts and ferricyanides. If the special action of apple
oxidase on tannic acid is due to the presence of a phosphatic sensitiser, it would
be a feebler oxidase of the same type. Carrot and parsnip oxidases are a grade
feebler but still react to guaiacum in the absence of a peroxide. Malt diastase
is still weaker, and papain feebler still, while pepsin may show a weak per-
oxidase reaction with guaiacum but not any other oxidase action.

3. Morphology and Anatomy of certain Pseudo-Monocotyledons.
f By Miss E. N. Tuomas and A. J. Davey.

The paper gave a preliminary account of some features of interest which
have been disclosed in the course of an investigation into the anatomy and
morphology of the seedlings of geophytic Dicotyledons including some pseudo-
monocotyledonous forms. The latter have a single cotyledonary member
terminating in a blade which is more or less bifid in Ranunculus Ficaria and
Anemone apennina, but is undivided in Conopodium denudatum and Cyclamen
persicum, the ‘petiolar’ region being much elongated in Conopodium
denudatum and Anemone apennina.

A tuberous swelling arises while the seedlings are still quite young, before
there is any sign of a plumule, and in Cyclamen persicum even before the
cotyledon has emerged from the seed. At an early age the external appearance
of the seedlings is very misleading, inasmuch as the position of the tuber is
variously related to the collet, and hence the tuber would seem to occur in
different morphological regions. The appearance of the plumule at the apex of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 579

the tuber proves the tuber to be hypocotyledonary in origin, while the collet in
some forms is situated in the cotyledon.

The anatomical investigation of Conopodium denudatum reveals the remark-
able fact that root structhre is present throughout the whole of the lower half
of the ‘petiole’ of the cotyledon, and the same is true of Anemone apennina,
while in Ranunculus Picaria root structure is only found below the cotyledonary
node. The plane passing through the two poles of the diarch primary root in
these forms, also passes through the centre of the first plumular leaf, while
in their normal dicotyledonous relatives, so far as examined (with the exception of
one individual of Anemone pulsatilla) the diarch plate is at right angles to this
plane, as in all diarch forms hitherto described. This is of interest in con-
nection with the plane of formation of the diarch root in the true mono-
cotyledons.

4. On the Systematic Position of Casuarina and its Allies.
By Emiry M. Berrince, D.Sc., F.L.S.

Since 1891, when Treub discovered chalazogamy in Casuarina, Engler,
Wettstein, and other botanists have regarded the Amentifere as primitive
forms directly descended from certain gymnospermous families.

The work of many investigators, however, has tended to show that the
characters on which this view is based are not peculiar to Engler’s class
‘ Verticillate,’ or even to the Amentiferz generally; and an examination of
the structure of the inflorescence, flower, and cupule in the Fagacez seems
to confirm the view, first brought forward by Hallier (but later discarded
by him), that the ancestors of the Cupulifere were allied to the Rosacee.

5. Description of some Fossil Fruits. By Brerrua Ress.

Fossil fruits were found in the shaft of the Langi Logan South Gold Mining
Company at Ararat. They occurred in an old river deposit at a depth of some
236 feet from the surface, and were covered by two distinct basaltic lava flows.
Many of them are of small size, being about one line in their greatest length,
rounded in outline, and flattened. Each one appears to consist of two carpels,
and has what may be the remains of a persistent perianth at the base.

There are also some fruits of a species of Casuarina and some fruits of
Eucalyptus, and in addition other remains, such as a bud of a Eucalyptus flower,
and what appears to be a portion of the rachis of an inflorescence of the same
genus.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 18.

1. Joint Discussion with Section D on the Nature and Origin of
Species.

The Origin of Species. By Dr. A. B. Renpis, F.R.S.

Use of the term ‘ species.’—The unit of the systematist who is required to
catalogue the plants of various parts of the world as they are discovered. The
‘species’ of the monographer who studies critically an extensive series of
specimens and recognises ultimate units widely differing in degree from well-
marked species to subdivisions so critical that it requires an expert in the group
to appreciate them.

Each species is eminently adapted to its environment; other than slight
change of form or of arrangement of parts will tend to throw it out of tune
with its environment, and therefore prove detrimental. To grow plants under
alien conditions generally requires care and restriction of competition. The
theory of descent implies a change in the species, and doubtless also in environ-
ment, but any change unless very slight or gradual would be detrimental.

On the theory of mutation species have not arisen gradually as the result
of selection operating for a long period, but discontinuously by sudden small

PP2

580 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

changes or ‘ mutations,’ which are given off in new directions and are inherited ;
they are distinguished from fluctuating or individual variability in which the
variations are merely of a plus or minus character and are not inherited. The
mutation gives rise to a new inheritable specific character, and is the source of
the so-called elementary species. A comparison of these elementary species
(e.g., Jordan’s Drabas) shows that their distinguishing features are precisely
those which characterise fluctuating variability—relative size and degree of
development of parts, hairiness, time of flowering, &c. Each species represents
the resultant of a number of slight individual variations of already existing
characters, and suggests some process of selection of a number of slight in-
dividual variations rather than a sudden mutation. A similar remark applies to
the cases of seasonal dimorphism in alpine meadows described by Wettstein.

Sports or mutations arising under cultivation are of a different character,
being generally marked by some one striking character such as cutting of the
leaf, monophylly in species with compound leaves, &c. Generally speaking, such
would not persist in Nature, especially where the floral organs were affected, as
marked changes in these would be detrimental. These afford no evidence as to
the origin of species in Nature.

Recently Lotsy has suggested crossing as the source of new species. Pre-
sumed stable genotypes or elementary species give rise when crossed to unstable
heterozygotes which segregate into a new series of genotypes. There is no sug-
gestion that the new batch of species is more in accord with environment than
the parents, and there seems no reason for their persistence. In place of slight
variations of well-adapted organisms this theory suggests for the operations of
Natural Selection an indiscriminate series of new forms. Is there evidence for
the occurrence of these hybrids or of these series of aberrant and largely
monstrous forms in Nature in sufficient quantity to account for the origin of
new species? Direct action of the environment an important factor in the
origin of species. ;

2. The Climate in Northern Temperate and Arctic Zones during the
Latest Pleistocene Age. By Professor GuNNAR ANDERSSON.

3. The Geographical Distribution of the Sea-grasses.
By Dr. C. H. OstENFExp.

4. The Fossil Plants discovered by Captain Scott’s last Hapedition in
the Antarctic Regions. By Professor A. C. Smwarp, I.R.S.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Relationship of Fungus and Alga in the Lichen-thallus.
By Miss A. Lorrain Suir.

General account of lichens and description of the composite thallus. Early
theories and speculations recalled as to the nature of the different tissues, more
particularly in the gelatinous lichens. The,green cells determined by Wallroth
to be brood-cells or ‘ gonidia,’ a theory which was accepted for many years.
Resemblance of the gonidia to free-growing aerial alge more and more realised.
Metamorphosis of the alga Nostoc to the lichen Collema finally observed by
Stahl, who also likened the colourless filaments of the thallus to fungal hyphe.
An account of the culture experiments by which the alga was successfully
isolated from the thallus by Speerschneider and observed by him to grow inde-
pendently and to increase by division. Following the same methods, Famintzin
and Baranetsky obtained the formation of zoospores in free-growing gonidia.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 581

Various theories as to origin of gonidia. Culture experiments with lichen
spores undertaken by Tulasne which seemed to prove that the gonidia were
directly formed at the tips of the colourless hyphz within the lichen thallus.
Finally Schwendener’s announcement of the dual theory of the lichen thallus :
that the gonidia were alge of independent origin outside the thallus, and that
the lichen was therefore a composite plant formed from a fungus more or less
parasitic on the gonidia or alge.

Synthetic cultures undertaken by various workers to test Schwendener’s
theory with the result that in time numerous lichen plants were successfully
developed, up to the fruiting stage, from lichen spores associated with alge.
Discussion thereafter centred on the exact nature of the association between the
two organisms : whether parasitism of the fungus on the alga or a condition of
mutual benefit described by Reinke as consortism, by De Bary as symbiosis?
Various forms of contact between the two symbionts described and the effect on
the alga.

The problem really one of nutrition. The fungus is certainly dependent on
the alga; but the alga is also dependent on the fungus for nitrogen, and to
some extent for carbohydrates as proved by recent research on the nutrition of
alga and lichen gonidia in varying conditions. Other instances cited of benefit
afforded to green plants by associated fungi.

2. The Contamination of Drinking Water by Alge and its Removal.
By Professor T. Jounson, D.Sc.

An account was given of an important supply of water (360 million gallons)
rendered highly objectionable for domestic use by the presence of a blue-green
alga, Oscillatoria tenuis var. natans, which was shown, by dredging, to breed in
the mud of the reservoir floor. Subsequently the weed floats and causes ‘ water-
bloom ’ or ‘ breaking of the meres.’ Its accumulation in stored water gives it an
oily, fishy odour, and also puts the filter-beds out of action.

One to 10 lb. of copper sulphate per 1,000,000 gallons removes the nuisance
without injuring man or fish, as Moore and Kellermann first showed

The paper illustrated the necessity of supplementing the usual chemical and
bacteriological examination of water with a biological one.

SYDNEY.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.

After the President had delivered his Address (see p. 560), the following
Papers were read :—

1. The Species Concept, with especial reference to Eucalyptus.
By J. H. Maren.

The paper opened with a statement that the subject, though often debated in
Europe and America, has been rarely discussed in Australia. The difficulties
presented by homoplasy were then referred to. The proposition of no fixed line
of demarcation between species was then discussed, and the writer’s use of
concentric circles to illustrate the affinities of allied species was referred to.
The difficulties presented by such large genera as Hieracium, Aster, Salix, and
Rubus, as well as Lucalyptus, were then emphasised.

The aid of anatomy and physiology, and indeed other methods, in our quest
for truly natural species was then discussed. The Jordanian species were
referred to, and Darwin’s dictum was quoted that as regards species our troubles
come from trying to define the indefinable. Species-making being a form of
empiricism, there are two camps of honest workers, the ‘splitters’ and the
‘lumpers,’ and the mistakes that are made are the result of existing conditions.

The writer then explained in detail, as regards Eucalyptus, the plan of his

582 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

critical revision, pointing out that no line of study which promised to throw
light upon the genus had been neglected. He emphasised the point that a
species must be judged as a whole, and illustrated this by analogies from the
science of history, from literary criticism, and from industrial legislation,
pointing out in proportion as a botanist grasps all the facts concerning a
species, he becomes a broader-minded man. Although endless fun can be poked
at the illogical positions in which we sometimes find ourselves by our conception
of species, it is idle to attempt to abandon them, for plants will be labelled
species on the evidence of our senses to the end of time.

The writer concluded with a reference to the services of the great European
herbaria in naming and preserving the types of Australian species at a time
when there were no means of preserving such types in Australia herself, and
entered a plea that as a recrudescence of botanical expeditions to Australia has
now set in, our colleagues in Europe and America should see that specimens
of their types are made available in some parts of this continent.

2. The Correlation between the Specific Characters of the Tasmanian

and Australian Eucalypts. By R. T. Baker, F.L.S., and H. G.
SmitH, F.C.S.

In this paper the authors brought under review the results of their recent
research on Tasmanian Eucalypts, comparing them with their own earlier work
on the Eucalypts of the mainland, supplemented by more recent data. The
ground covered by these investigations, now extending over a period of a quarter
of a century, embraces almost the whole geographical range of the genus—an area
of the earth’s surface of about 3,000,000 square miles. Such an area includes a
diversity of soils, climates, altitudes, &c., and naturally one looks for and finds
a great variety of species, but it is found at the same time that a relative con-
stancy of specific botanical features and chemical constituents characterises the
whole genus.

Comparisons, as well as contrasts, were made between the morphological and
chemical features of the trees found at the sea-level and right up to the highest
altitudes at which the correlated species occur both in Australia and Tasmania.

Most interesting results have been the outcome of this work, and a theory is
now advanced of the geological age of the Tasmanian trees in comparison with
those of the mainland. It is also attempted to show that in the Tasmanian
Eucalypts we have the more recently evolved of the whole genus.

3. Notes on the Evolution of the Genus Eucalyptus.
By R. H. Campaas, F.L.S.

A feature of the genus Eucalyptus is its wonderful adaptability to environ-
ment, and a brief sketch will show some of the changes it has undergone.

We have fossil evidence of its existence in Australia since late Eocene or
early Miocene, at which time our present mountain system had not developed,
and the climate was a mild to warm one. Eastern Australia was then fairly
level, and in early Eocene was largely composed of siliceous soils, much of the
silica being in a free state, rendering the soils sandy. Subsequent lava flows
and deposits of volcanic tuffs yielded a more basic soil, and the final uplift,
parallel to the east coast, towards the close of the Tertiary, produced elevations
which have a cold climate.

Apparently the early Eucalyptus flourished in a sandy soil with a warm
climate in Northern Australia. The bark was scaly to rough, the leaves
opposite, sessile, horizontal and generally cordate, and often covered with
stellate hairs or coated with caoutchouc. The leaves had a transverse vena-
tion, the numerous lateral veins forming an angle of about 65 degrees with
the midrib. The flowers were large as compared generally with those of the
genus at the present day, and possessed anthers which opened longitudinally
in parallel slits. The fruits were generally larger than those of the more recent
species to-day, and the chief constituent of the essential oils contained in the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 5&3

leaves was pinene. With some alteration in environment, partly climatic and
partly through the advent of more basic soils resulting from volcanic out-
pourings, a new development took place in the genus, and species were evolved
with hard furrowed, fibrous or smooth barks. The mature leaves, which now
showed a more oblique or diagonal venation, and were alternate, had gradually
developed petioles, which allowed them to hang vertically, so as to present the
least possible surface to the sun and thus minimise transpiration, while those
which remained sessile protected themselves with a glaucous powdery wax or
with a thickened epidermis. Some species of this new type possessed anthers
which opened in terminal pores, while cineol became an important constituent of
the essential oils. As the genus encountered colder conditions, partly through
spreading southwards and partly through ascending the mountains which were
uplifted in Eastern Australia towards the close of the Tertiary, a further
group was evolved having leaves with almost parallel venation, or the lateral
veins now much reduced in number, at an angle of less than about 25 degrees
with the midrib, kidney-shaped anthers with the cells divergent at the base
and confluent at the summit, and essential oils in the leaves containing much
phellandrene, and little, or in some cases no pinene. By a comparison of
seedling and mature foliage, evidence of transition in leaf form is found in
nearly all species, and in the cold-country types, such as Hucalyptus coriacea and
H. stellulata, the lateral veins of seedling foliage are arranged at angles up to
50 degrees with the midrib, while in mature leaves the angles are less than
10 degrees, and in most cases the veins are practically parallel with the midrib.
Eucalyptus leaves with transverse venation are absent from Tasmania, are con-
fined to a very small portion of North-eastern Victoria and practically
below the 3,000-foot level in New South Wales, but are common on siliceous
soils in Northern Australia, thus showing a preference for the warmer climate.
Eucalyptus leaves with parallel venation occur in Tasmania, Victoria, and
Bastern New South Wales, while in Northern New South Wales their home is
above the 3,000-foot level; and they are absent from Northern and Western
Australia, but are found at the highest point that any Eucalyptus grows in
Australia, viz., 6,500 feet, thus showing a preference for cold and moist
conditions.

4. Variation and Adaplation in the Eucalypts.
By Dr. Curuspertr Hatn.

Eucalypts have always been credited with an excessive tendency to varia-
tion. However, many of the so-called variations should more properly have the
terms deviations or fluctuation variations of De Vries applied to them. These,
are responses to physical conditions to which the genus is particularly sensitive.
Apart from these deviations there are many instances where two or more forms
closely approach each other. Some of these which were classed as varieties
should now, in the light of fuller knowledge, be counted as distinct species.
It is wiser to give specific rank wherever possible. Evolution and the pro-
duction of variations seem to be still actively going on amongst the Eucalypts.
Instances of variations may be given, among which is one I shall shortly
describe—evidence of the cotyledon leaves as to variation and adaptation. In
the 1. corymbosa group these closely resemble those of the Angophore.
Emargination has had a great influence on the evolution of the cotyledons and
their adaptation to Australian conditions. This has gone on coincidentally with
the evolution of other morphological characters and of the essential oils.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 2%.

Joint Discussion with Sections C (Geology), D (Zoology), and
E (Geography) on Past and Present Relations of Antarctica in their
Geological, Biological, and Geographical Aspects.-—See p. 409.

584 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

The following Papers were read :—
g tap

1. The Vegetation of Gondwana Land.
By Professor A. C. Szwarp, Sc.D., F.R.S.

The geographical distribution of Permo-Carboniferous plants throughout the
world is a subject on which much has been written in recent years, and evidence
has been brought forward pointing to the existence of two botanical provinces—
a northern flora illustrated by the coal-bearing strata of North America and
Europe, and a southern flora obtained from strata in South America, South
Africa, India, and Australia closely associated with glacial deposits. The object
of this paper was to institute a general comparison of the vegetation characteristic
of the two provinces with a view to determine in the light of our present know-
ledge (i) the degree of difference between the floras, (ii) the bearing of the facts
on the question of climate, (iii) the relation of the Permo-Carboniferous flora of
the southern hemisphere to older floras throughout the world.

2. Recent Advance in our Knowledge of Sigillaria.
By Professor Maraaret Benson, D.Sc.

After referring to the extraordinary habit of the plants included in this well-
known genus, and its distribution in time, the author pointed out that the
fructification of Sigillaria had been hitherto but very imperfectly known.
Recently a better knowledge of the leaves and cones has been attained. The
structure of the sporangia was then described and shown to be of exceptional
interest.

M. Zeiller was the first to prove from incrustation specimens the general
habit of the cone and form of the cone scale. Dr. Kidston had since demon-
strated, also by incrustation specimen, certain characters of the sporange. The
author has had for ten years some sections of a petrified sporange, but had no
clue to its identity beyond the fact that it was Lycopodtaceous.

Last year, however, from some ‘coal balls’ from Shore, near Manchester,
sections were cut in the radial and tangential planes of similar sporangia, and
at once the resemblance to Dr. Kidston’s specimens of Sigillariostrobus ciliatus
became apparent. No less than four petrified cones were shortly afterwards
investigated, and found to agree in all main features with the Sigillaria cones
of both Zeiller and Kidston.

Dr. Kidston’s incrustation sporangia had been regarded as being immersed in
the tissue of the sporophyll. In the new petrified material this appearance was
shown to be possibly due to the wall of the sporange being carried out as a shovel-
shaped expansion which exactly fitted into the concave upper surface of the
sporophyll. The petrified specimens had been provisionally named Mazocarpon,
or ‘loaf-fruit,’ from Mazé=a barley cake, because of the breadcrumb-like
appearance of the sterile contained tissue.

Summary of evidence that Mazocarpon is a fructification of Sigillaria :—

1. Resemblance to Dr. Kidston’s Sigillariostrobus ciliatus.

2. Resemblance of cone axis and bracts to both Zeiller’s and Kidston’s
specimens. (The cones are pedunculate, show deciduous cone-scales and cone-
scars of characteristic form and arrangement.)

3. Marked association with Sigillaria foliage leaves, and the bark of
Sigillaria mamillaris.

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides and models.

3. Types of Vegetation on the Coast in the Neighbourhood of Adelaide,
South Australia. By Professor T. G. B. OsBorn.

The region under investigation is a sand-dune fringed strip of coast extend-
ing in a direction approximately North and South for about eighteen miles from
Outer Harbour at the northern extremity of Lefevre’s Peninsula to Marino,
where the Cambrian rocks come down to the sea. The area is situated in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 585

lat. 34° 56’ S. and long. 138° 35’ E., being a portion of the eastern shore of Gulf
St. Vincent. The annual rainfall is about 18 inches, the bulk of which falls in
the winter months, April to September. The summer temperatures may be high,
not infrequently over 100° F. in the shade. The prevailing winds during the
summer are §.W. to S., in the winter N.E. to N.

St. Vincent Gulf is of very recent origin, and since Pleistocene times the
coast has undergone several submergences and uplifts. The sand forming the
dunes has been heaped up along the shores of the gulf against the seaward
extension of the recent and Tertiary clays forming the Adelaide Plain. These
clays are exposed by the drifting sand in small patches at the S. of the area.
The dunes raised by the action of the S. and S.W. winds have been prevented
from attaining any great height by the action of the strong N. and E. winds
which blow at certain times. In the shallow waters of the Gulf are large areas
of Posidonia, Pectenella, and Zostera, the débris of which, cast up by the tide,
form long banks a foot or more thick and as much as 20 feet across at high-
tide mark. These banks protect the dunes as well as forming a basis for new
ones.

Vegetation.—In connection with the dunes the following communities? may
be noted :—

Strand Plants.—Atriplex cinerea, Salsola kali and *Cakile maritima.*

Mobile Dunes.—These are colonised chiefly by Spinifex hirsutus, which has
stout, creeping rhizomes. *Ammophila arenaria is planted in places, and
is spontaneous on some mobile areas. The floor of a ‘ blow out’ is usually first
colonised by Salsola kali.

Static Dunes.—The greater part of the dune fringe may be described as
static. Spinifex hirsutus frequently extends over the seaward face to the level
of the strand flora. Associated with Spinifex and in part replacing it are many
shrubs. Of these Olearia axillaris is the most important, but Secvola crassifolia,
Alyzia buxifolia, &e., also occur, and are all able to grow through sand deposited
on them. Other plants include Pelargonium australe, Lotus australis,
*(@nothera biennis and Senecio lautus. :

Fixed Dunes.—In addition to the plants mentioned above, and other shrubs,
various Cyperaceous plants (Scirpus, Lepidosperma) and also Dianella occur. The
radiating prostrate stems of Mesembryanthemum cequilaterale cover much
ground and serve to bind the sand. Valleys of varying depth and width occur
between the dunes. In the deeper ones shrubs are common, as above, with
Leucopogon Richei, Myoporum serratum, The ground flora has many herbaceous
plants and includes several aliens. The shrubby flora is not so characteristic
of the more open valleys. These are colonised by Mesembryanthemum cequi-
laterale and * Gnothera biennis. The dunes remote from the sea are occupied by
an open community of shrubby plants in which Acacia salicina, Dodonea viscosa
appear; Muehlenbeckia adpressa, Clematis microphylla are woody climbers.
Trees of Hucalyptus odorata and Casuarina quadrivalvis occur, and there is
evidence that they were formerly more abundant.

Marine Salt-marshes.—These are developed on the landward side of the
dunes in various estuarine areas.

Mangrove.—The portions subject to tidal scour are colonised by Avicennia
officinalis. On the shoreward margin this is mingled with Suda maritima.

Salicornia Swamps.—Salicornia australe and S. arbuscula are the most im-
portant plants over large areas subject to occasional tidal inundation. Brackish
swamps beyond the tide-limit are characterised by Melaleuca pustulata with
Salicornias and Frankenia levis, while Mesembryanthemum australe also grows
on better-drained patches. These swamps may pass abruptly into sand-dunes
or may show zoning, as (1) Salicornia; (2) Salicornia and Samolus repens; (3)
Samolus repens and Sporobolus virginicus; (4) Sporobolus, Spergularia, &c.,
passing to dune flora.

1 Howchin, A.A.A.S. Report 1913.

2 The word ‘communities’ is used intentionally in preference to the term
‘ association,’ which it is thought better to avoid in the present preliminary
communication. }

* Plants not recognised as native in South Australia are distinguished by
* preceding the name.

586 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

Scrub Woodland.—The tendency to form scrub on settled dunes has been
noticed. A woodland of Callitris propinqua formerly characterised much of the
level area behind the dunes that is slightly raised above the level of the salt
swamps, but few trees now remain. Under the influence of settlement the
vegetation is either passing back to that of dunes or is becoming that of grass-
land, largely composed of Cynodon dactylon, and Sporobolus, with tussocks of
Xerotes leucocephala.

4. On the Xerophytic Characters of Bossizwa scolopendria (Sm.).
By A. G. Hamiuton.

Bossicea scolopendria is one of a group of leafless species of the genus, and
is common on the Hawkesbury Sandstone formation in the neighbourhood of
Sydney, and.on the Blue Mountains.

Tt is leafless, but seedling plants have small elliptical leaves at first, and in
very wet seasons leaves grow out on the mature branches in some instances. The
leaves are set vertically on the branches, and have stomates on both sides, and
yet the general appearance is that of a dorsi-ventral leaf, the midrib projecting
on one side, the two halves being at an angle, and the colour differing, the
side which should be lower being much lighter in colour.

The branches are flattened and winged, narrow in the lower part, but widen-
ing upwards to as much as three-quarters of an inch. The epidermis of the
branches is covered with a network of ridges and, in the hollows between, the
stomates occur. They are very numerous. The cuticle is fairly thick. The
palisade tissue is closely packed round the stomates, and absent under the
ridges. The individual cells are small in diameter and rather short. There is
no distinct spongy tissue. The vascular system includes large areas occupied by
sclerenchymatous fibres with thick walls and very small lumina. The whole of
the tissues contain a good deal of tannin. — :

5. Some Observations on the Life-history of Ophiobolus graminis.
(Sacc.). By Professor T. G. B. Osporn.

6. The Spores of Basidiomycetes. By J. Burton Curuanp, M.D.

This paper presented a study of the spores of various Basidiomycetes found
growing in Australia. In the systematic classification of species, the remark-
able diversity met with as regards the character of the surface and the shape of
the spores led to speculations as to the importance of these and as to their
value in showing specific and generic relationships. Though the results are
inconclusive, the facts are of interest, and seem worthy of still closer investi-
gation.

The spores have been considered from the following aspects :—(1) Size§ (2)
Colour in the mass; (3) Character of the surface; (4) General shape.

(1) Size.—The size of mature spores seems to be s}ecific within varying limits.
The dimensions vary in different species from about 2” in some to 22” at the
other extreme (as seen in Australian specimens). Undoubtedly very closely
allied species may show considerable differences in the dimensions of their spores
(e.g., Stropharia semiglobata and S. stercoraria).

(2) Colour in the mass.—This has been taken as a basis for the arbitrary
classification of the Agarics. Though of practical value, it tends to associate
widely separated genera and to dissociate closely allied ones (e.g., Lepiota and
Psalliota). Whilst white-spored species are, apparently, most numerous, various
shades of brown are common. Brown spores are met with in the Agaricacee,
Polyporacee, Thelephoracee, Clavariacee, and Gasteromycetes. Purplish or
vinous-tinted spores are seen amongst the Agaricacee and Thelephoracee. As
the loss or inhibition of colour is more likely to have taken place in the various
sub-orders rather than its assumption in each case independently, the basic
form from which the order sprang probably had coloured spores.

(3) Character of Surface.—This may be (a) smooth, (6) echinately warty,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 587

(c) tuberculose. The majority of spores are smooth. Amongst the Agaricaces,
whilst occasional genera are principally characterised by echinately warty spores
(e.g., Russula), in other genera they are rare (e.g., occasional in Znocybe). In the
Polyporavee occasional species of Boletus show this form; in the Thelephoracezx,
sometimes in Z’helephora (usually more twberculose) ; and in the Gasteromycetes
they are common. The occurrence of peculiar nodulose or tuberculose spores
in species of Z'helephora, Inocybe, and several genera of pink-spored Agarics is
surely more than a coincidence, indicating almost certainly a common ancestry.
The paucity of species showing this character suggests its presence being a
handicap to the maintenance of the species.

(4) Shape.—This may be (a) spherical, (b) somewhat pear-shaped (Lepiota
type), (c) ellipsoid, (d) elongated ellipsoid, (e) fusiform ellipsoid (mummy-
shape), (/) curved, and other modifications. (a) Amanita and Amanitopsis fre-
quently show spherical or subspherical spores. (b) The pear-shaped Lepiota
type is seen also in Pholiota and Psalliota, all ringed species macroscopically
resembling each other, widely separated artificially by the colour of the spore-
mass. The shape of the spores supports the general structure in indicating
close generic affinities. (c) Ellipsoid—the most prevalent type amongst Agarics.
(d) Elongated ellipsoid—appearing more in Polyporacee and Thelephoracee.
(e) Fusiform ellipsoid—characteristic especially of Boletus and perhaps of
mechanical advantage in the falling of a long spore vertically down a narrow
tube.

7. Potato Scab and its Causes. By Professor T. Jounson, D.Sc.

An account was given of ‘powdery’ scab, due to Spongospora subterranea;
of black scab, due to Chrysophlyctis (Synchytrium) endobiotica; and of some
experiments to determine to what extent ordinary scab is caused by mechanical
irritation.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 26.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Inheritance in certain Giant Races of Primula sinensis.*

By R. P. Grecory, M.A.

Experiments have been made with two giant races of Primula sinensis, which
have been shown to be in the tetraploid condition; that is to say, the plants
have 4x (48) chromosomes in the somatic cells and 2x (24) chromosomes in the
gametic cells, whereas in the ordinary (diploid) races of the species the numbers
are 2x (24) and x (12) respectively. One of these races originated in the course
of my own experiments from plants obtained in the F2 from a cross between
two ordinary diploid races; the other giant race consists of the progeny of a
plant very kindly given me by Messrs. Sutton & Sons.

The result of most general interest, which has been obtained from these
experiments, is the discovery that the reduplication of the chromosomes has been
accompanied by a reduplication of the series of factors. In the pure-bred diploid
race each factor is represented twice, AA; in the tetraploid race it is repre-
sented four times, AAAA, and there are three distinct hybrid types, namely,
AAAa, AAaa, Aaaa. These three hybrid types may, or may not, be identical in
appearance, according as the presence of a single ‘ dose’ of the factor is sufficient
or insufficient for the perfect development of the character in the zygote; in either
case they can be recognised by the progeny to which they give rise as a result
of self-fertilisation. The hybrid AAAa gives no pure recessive types among its
immediate progeny, but some of its offspring will give pure recessives in subse-

1 A report of this work has been published in the Proc. Roy. Soc., B,
vol. lxxxvii., 1914, under the title ‘On the Genetics of Tetraploid Plants in
Primula sinensis.’

588 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

quent generations; the hybrid AAaa will give, on an average, one pure recessive
in every sixteen of its offspring; while the hybrid Aaaa will, like the diploid
hybrid Aa, give one pure recessive in every four plants.

Ratios of the form 15D: 1R, such as are obtained from the hybrid
AAaa, recall those obtained in respect of certain characters by Nilsson-
Ehle* in oats and wheat, and by East* in maize, but in the tetraploid Primulas
the reduplication affects not merely the factors for isolated characters, but
extends simultaneously to all the characters which have been studied. The
numerical consequences of the reduplication of the factors are most conveniently
studied in cases in which a single dose of the factor is sufficient for the develop-
ment of the character, because one thus avoids difficulties of classification intro-
duced by the occurrence of intermediate forms; characters which fulfil this
condition in the giant Primulas are those of (a) thrum-eye or short-style, as
contrasted with pin-eye or long-style, and (b) green-stigma, as contrasted with
red stigma. Crosses between various plants having thrum-eye green-stigma and
others having pin-eye red-stigma have given the two kinds of hybrid, TTttGGgg
and TtttGGgg,* which have been identified by their progeny. The former gives
an F2 ratio of 15D: 1R in respect of each character; the latter gives 3T : 1t and
15G: 1g. When the hybrids, instead of being self-fertilised, are crossed with the
recessive, the type TTttGGgg gives offspring in the ratio 3D : 1R in respect of
each character; while the hybrid TtttGGgg gives equality of thrum-eye and pin-
eye and 3G:1g. If the two characters are considered together, a hybrid of the
type TtttGGgg would, in the absence of- special inter-relations between the
factors, give the curious F2 ratio 45TG : 8T'g: 15tG : 1tg; in the case under dis-
cussion, however, the results obtained indicate that a complication may be intro-
duced by the existence of coupling between the factors for thrum-eye and green-
stigma and further experiment is needed for their elucidation.

Other characters have been studied, in respect of which the hybrid is more
or less intermediate between the two pure types. In the case of one character,
namely, the palmate-leaf as contrasted with the ‘ fern-leaf,’ dominance is com-
plete in the diploid races, the hybrid, Pp, being indistinguishable in appearance
from the pure palmate type, PP; but in the tetraploid races a series of curious
intermediates has been obtained, which are probably of the constitution Pppp.
In other cases where the diploid hybrid is intermediate, the corresponding form
occurs among the tetraploid hybrids, but, in addition, there also occur peculiar
intermediate forms, which are confined to the tetraploid races and are quite dis-
tinct from the diploid hybrid form. In the case of the factor which, in the
homozygous condition, inhibits the production of colour in the petals, the tetra-
ploid hybrid, liii, might, so far as appearances go, very well be classed as a
coloured form; yet this ostensible recessive is capable of throwing the ‘ dominant
white.’

The results so far obtained do not throw direct light on the problem of the
possible relationships between factors and chromosomes. The fact that the
reduplication of the chromosomes has been accompanied by a reduplication of
the series of factors may, at first sight, suggest a close relation between the
chromosomes and the factors; but, on the other hand, the tetraploid number of
chromosomes may be nothing more than an index of the quadruple nature of the
cell as a whole. There are, however, grounds for hoping that the further study
of the genetics of the tetraploid plants, especially with reference to the special
inter-relations between certain factors of which indications have been observed,
may yield results having a direct bearing in connection with this problem.

* “Kreuzungsuntersuchungen an Hafer und Weizen,’ I. and II. Lunds
Univ. Arsskrift, 1909 and 1911; Berichte d. Deutschen Bot. Gesellschaft, xxix.,
1911, p. 65.

* American Naturalist, xliv., 1910, p. 65.

* The hybrid type having three doses of either factor, TTTt or GGQGg, is not
produced by the mating of a dominant with a pure recessive, tttt or gage. It
can only be formed by the mating of plants producing gametes TT (or GG)
and Tt (or Gg).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 589

2. A Botanical Survey of North-Hast New South Wales.
By Freperick Turner, F’.L.S., F.R.H.S.

North-East New South Wales, considered from a botanical point of view,
is one of the most fertile and interesting sections of country on the Australian
continent. Reference is made to its area, configuration, soil, climate, and rain-
fall. Its flora, which is described as semi-tropical, being very dense and luxuri-
ant in places, has occupied the author’s attention since early in the ’eighties. A
greater number of indigenous species of plants are growing there than on any
other area of similar size in New South Wales. Much of the arboreal vegetation
is festooned with immense and in many instances beautiful flowering climbing
plants, and on the trunks and larger branches of some trees epiphytal orchids
and ferns are growing plentifully, while the ground is literally carpeted with
many species of terrestrial ferns. On one gigantic fig tree, Ficus macrophylla,
Desf., more than two hundred epiphytal orchids and ferns have been observed.
In different parts of this area there are magnificent forests of various species
of trees, consisting of both hard and soft woods. The more important of
the former are the species of Hucalyptus, and of the latter Cedrela Toona,
Roxb. Other trees produce valuable, and in some instances highly orna-
mental, timber, suitable for many industrial purposes. The rarest and most
remarkable tree of New South Wales is Strychnos psilosperma, F.v.M., of
which botanical specimens are exhibited. According to Dr. James M. Petrie,
F.1.C., it yields strychnine, brucine, and the newly discovered Australian
alkaloid strychnicine. Reference is made to the medicinal value of Dudoisia
myoporoides, R.Br., and a number of other plants. Mention is made of the
edible fruit and nut-bearing trees which once furnished food for the aborigines,
the trees and shrubs with strongly scented bark and leaves, and also those which
yielded dyes and fibres for the natives. The most conspicuous flowering tree is
Sterculia acerifolia, A. Cunn. In the month of December it usually produces
numerous panicles of rich red flowers, which have a charming and brilliant effect.
Leguminosee are widely distributed and are a conspicuous feature, consisting of
trees, shrubs, and climbers, producing a profusion of various coloured flowers,
mostly strikingly beautiful. Several species of Hibiscus produce very large and
showy flowers, the most remarkable being H. splendens, Fraser. The palms,
although they only number a few species, sometimes grow into miniature forests
producing a decidedly tropical effect. Fern trees grow abundantly in many
places, and some attain a considerable height. In the open country the forage
plants and grasses form a large percentage of the vegetation, and are of great
economic value. There are heaths of considerable extent which are covered with
dwarf shrubs and herbaceous plants which produce a singularly beautiful effect
when in bloom.

This is the first botanical survey of the North-Hast, and has added to the
indigenous plants not previously recorded for New South Wales, twelve genera,
sixty-nine species, and many new varieties. The number of Phanerogams and
vascular Cryptogams in the North-East is 743 genera and 1,797 species.

3. Extra-tropical Forestry in Portugal. By D. E. Hurcurns.

Extra-tropical forestry in Southern Spain and Portugal has a peculiar interest
for southern extra-tropical Australia, because the climate, the trees, and the
forestry of both countries are (or will be) the same. Australia is now paying out
about 3,000,0007. yearly for imported soft wood; and to produce this at home in
the future (judging from the experiences of South Africa) Australia will have
mainly to copy the forestry of Southern Europe. The writer, after a life-time
in South African forestry, has recently completed a forest tour in Southern
Spain and Portugal. The chief points of interest for Englishmen are these :—

The most important forest-tree, and the only abundant forest species in
Portugal, is the Cluster Pine (Pinus Pinaster), the same tree which (under the
name of the Maritime Pine) has transformed the dreary malaria-stricken
‘Landes’ of Southern France. It is the Cluster Pine also which, on its own
merits, has become the most abundant coniferous tree in South Africa. The

590 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

Cluster Pine and the Stone Pine were introduced into South Africa some three
hundred years ago; and have now become completely naturalised there, in the
sense that they have taken the place of the weak natural forest flora of the
country; and would remain there if the hand of man were withdrawn.

In the centre of a large pine forest area in Portugal is the State forest of
Leiria comprising over thirty thousand acres. It has long been worked for timber
of large dimensions; and is perhaps the best example of a highly cultivated pine
forest in the extra-tropics. ‘The temperature here is between that of Sydney and
Melbourne; the rainfall is similar except that it falls almost entirely in winter.
Timber of the finest description is seen in the Leiria forest, as fine as any timber
in the best forest of central and northern Europe. I measured trees up to
35 inches diameter and 158 feet total height, and [I saw great baulks of timber
being taken out of the forest, such as one sees in the Black Forest of Germany.
One usually associates Cluster Pine with pit-props, sleepers, and small timber;
but the State Forest of Leiria produces pine timber which is used for every
purpose of house-building and furniture. ‘To protect the forest from fire during
the dry summer weather, there is a complete system of fire-paths, watch-towers,
and telephones. The area of private Cluster Pine forest in Portugal is very
large. This is mainly occupied in providing mine-props for England. Not much
resin is produced in either State or private forest in Portugal.

Cork Oak (Quercus Suber).—After the Cluster Pine the next most valuable
forest tree in Portugal is the Cork Oak. The Cluster Pine and the Cork Oak
together enable Portugal to export about 1,250,000/. worth of forest produce
yearly.

Busaco Cedar (Cupressus lusitanica) has been naturalised in Portugal about
the same time as the two pines in South Africa. My friend Dr. Henry has
shown that it came originally from Mexico; it now produces the most valuable
timber in the natural forests of Portugal. It should occupy a prominent place
in any scheme of extra-tropical forestry. It is a most beautiful and valuable
tree.

Stone Pine (Pinus Pinea)—This useful pine with its valuable nuts has suffered
badly in South Africa from a fungoid disease; but in Spain and Portugal it is
nearly free from it.

Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis).—This has certain advantages over Cluster
Pine. It stands more drought, it will put up with lime in the soil, it transplants
more easily; it is somewhat more shade-bearing. It is the species used for
reforesting the devastated mountains of Southern Spain.

Oaks.—Five Oaks occur in Southern Portugal. The common British Oak
(Quercus pedunculata) occurs as copse and scattered trees on good soil. Portugal
pays heavily for cooperage wood, and wants a great deal more Oak.

Quercus lusitanica may almost be regarded as the extra-tropical form of the
British Oak. It should occupy an important part in the future forestry of
Australia. It has been nearly exterminated in Portugal precisely on account of
its valuable qualities.

Quercus Tozza somewhat resembles the Durmast Oak of England; it is not
often seen as a large tree, but makes valuable firewood copse.

Quercus Ilex.—The forest tree-planter in Australia and South Africa will
generally prefer its first cousin, the Cork Oak; but the Ilex is somewhat hardier
than the Cork Oak. It is the last tree left on the mountains in Southern Spain
and Portugal, when fires and the axes and goats of the peasants have produced
universal desolation. Its chief value lies in acorns for pig-feeding, and there is
a variety termed Ballota which produces acorns nearly as sweet as a chestnut.

Chestnut (Castania vesca) seems steadily dying out in Spain and Portugal, as
in other Mediterranean countries. The threatened loss of this valuable tree is
one of the saddest features in modern European forestry. It may take a new lease
of life in the southern hemisphere, care being of course taken (as with Eucalyptus
in South Africa) to import the tree without its pests.

The Portuguese forest service is well organised, and the department generally
far in advance of Britain and the self-governing British Colonies, except South
Africa. It used to be customary in the forest text-books to place Spain, Portugal,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 591

and the British Empire at the bottom of the list as regards effective State
forestry. But forestry in Spain and Portugal is now a quarter of a century
ahead of that of the British Isles; and many valuable lessons are to be learnt by
those who can go to Spain and Portugal for the purpose of studying forestry.
Portugal imports one-third million pounds’ worth (against three millions Australia
and thirty millions Britain) of forest products which, with good forestry, would
come from the waste lands of each of these three countries. Portugal exports
about one and a quarter million pounds’ worth of forest products—cork, one
million; Cluster Pine pit-props, &c., one-third million; against Australia one
million and Britain nothing (the figures shown being re-exportations). Portugal
and Australia have each a population of over four millions.

592 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

Ssecrion L.—EDUCATION.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—PRoreEssor J. Perry, LL.D., F.R.S.

The President delivered the following Address at Sydney on Friday,
August 21 :—

I wisH to make some general remarks upon the Science of Education. As in the
chapter which was entitled ‘ The Snakes of Iceland,’ and which merely consisted
of the sentence, ‘There are no snakes in Iceland,’ I might finish this Address
at once by saying ‘There is no science of education.’ There is the art or prac-
tice of teaching or pedagogy, just as there used to be the art of engineering. It
was only slowly that the subject of Section G, the Science of Engineering, was
created; but the subject of Section L, this Section, has still to be created. In
the creation of a science we first and for long periods have the observation of
detached phenomena and disputes about them, because the phenomena seem
complex, having no obvious connection with one another; then experiments
simplify things, and gradually the science is created by inductive reasoning and
research. In education, observation and disputes have occupied much time, and
we cannot say that the phenomena have become much simplified by such experi-
ments as have been made. Every man in the street considers that his opinions
on education are as good as those of anybody else. I suppose that almost
nobody would refuse to make an after-dinner speech on any kind of education,
whereas he would not dream of speaking about geometry, or chemistry, or
physics, or physiology unless he had studied these subjects. Any ordinary
citizen thinks himself fit to be a member of the governing body of a school or
college, and the disasters due to this belief are worse than what would occur if
we gave to such men the command of ships. The ordinary man, especially the
Parliamentary man, who thinks that the members of a committee on some
scientific business ought all to be non-scientific men, will jeer at this statement,
but it is, nevertheless, fatally true.

It is possible that, even if we had the science, the pedagogues would pay no
attention to its principles, just as there are industrial chemists in London whose
businesses are dwindling because they pay no attention to the science of chemistry.
Pedagogy is in a worse condition than industrial chemistry, because chemical
products can be easily tested as good or bad, whereas the pedagogic product is
exceedingly difficult to test. The customer is the worst of judges. Those soul-
destroying cheap schools described by Mr. Wells used to be very numerous;
they are still, many of them, in existence. Every observant person knows of
these places, to which small shopkeepers still send their sons, because they are
genteel and cheap, and because Latin is taught, and perhaps French. Did any
such parent ever object to the result of the schooling? Even when a boy has
become a man, neither he nor his father knows whether his defects or merits are
due to bad or good schooling. Please read Mr. Wells’ book about Mr. Polly.
Again, the reforms in, pedagogy which, with Dr. Armstrong, I have been
clamouring for during the last thirty years, would cause the best-known peda-
gogues to scrap all their machinery and so to lose nearly the whole of their
invested capital, Even when they are not influenced by the idea of losing money,
these men cannot be made to believe in the necessity for reform any more than
the Central African worshippers of hideous idols can be converted, for with just

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 593

as much intensity do they worship the product of our present schools and colleges.
The pedagogue is not alone in his false worship; this is the day of small men,
commonplace men, men manufactured like so many buttons, so that it is almost
impossible for a great man to appear; everybody is compelled by custom or
by law to go to school, and the school ideal is just as false and mean and
material as any false religion ever was. Every ciever man who has gone to
a public school and to Oxford or Cambridge worships the system which has
taken from him his spiritual birthright, his individuality, his initiative,
his originality, his common sense, his power to think for himself—yes, and I
may say his belief in himself. He has become too much like a sheep, ready
to follow the bell-wether; he is a man who has greatly lost his soul. Average
boys leaving a public school all speak in the same way, in the same words,
about anything. They are nearly as much alike as things manufactured by the
same machine. An expert easily tells from what school a boy has come, because
there is nothing left in his mind which is not common to the whole school.

The education given in England to boys till they leave school at twenty and
till they graduate at a University is almost altogether classical: that is founded
on the language and literature of Greece and Rome. On the day on which I wrote
this there was a report of an address in 7'he Zimes which said that this study
was the cause ‘of all imaginative aspirations, of all intellectual interests’; ‘ it
enabled men to appreciate, not only Homer and Virgil, but equally Dante and
Milton, Goethe, and Wordsworth, all the great thoughts of all ages and all lands,
and to be awake to the movements of their own day.’ It said that this study
made a man ‘a better man of business, a better lawyer, a better merchant, a better
stockbroker, a less hidebound politician.’ ‘Those who would banish Greek or
would make it the peculiar property of a select few did a grave disservice to the
whole cause of intellectual and spiritual life.” The writer then described his own
diligent reading in the train every morning; in the course of a few months he had
read the ‘ Iliad,’ the ‘ Odyssey,’ the ‘ Aeneid,’ five books of Livy, and the whole of
* Catullus’ and ‘Martial.’ It seems almost as if he must have all extant classical
literature off by heart. He must have enormous satisfaction as he sits in the
train looking at the quite common travellers who are reading about the affairs of
the nation in English newspapers. I quote the above statements because they
are typical. All our classical friends say that sort of thing. But I do not pay
much attention to them, because I know that the greatest classical scholars only
devote themselves to editing some Greek text that has been edited over and over
again. ‘These men rave about the glory of youth and beauty as preached by the
Greeks, but their enthusiasm is not shown in any practical way. We must
believe that this enthusiasm exists, because these men tell us themselves that
they experience it. But what is a fair man to say when he hears his friends talk
of the beauties of Sophocles and Euripides if he knows that these friends never
read Shakespeare, or Jane Austen, or Goldsmith, or Dickens? I have not
referred to the fact that classical scholarship leads to power and wealth in the
Church and State, to palaces and baronies, to purple and fine linen. Leaving
such things out of account, I have a suspicion that this worship of classics is like
one’s fondness for the rhymes, often rubbishy rhymes, that associate themselves
with our infancy and boyhood, or like Johnson’s belief that his wife was amiable
and beautiful. It is even possible that the very best scholar is of but little use
to the world. It would be easy to show that, since the sixteenth century, the
classical pedant has done little but to spoil the rich English language of our
Bible. We want now a man like Bishop Pecock to delatinize our language.

Let us, however, consider a boy of another class—the boy called clever, say,
one in twenty of the whole. At the age of twenty or twenty-one, stale and
tired with the reception of ancient learning, of other men’s thoughts, he gains
a fine scholarship at the University, where he is supposed to be almost a free
man, and all the use he can make of his freedom is to go on absorbing ancient
learning, keeping his nose to the grindstone as if he were still a schoolboy.
Treated as a boy from seventeen to twenty-one, he remains a boy till he is twenty-
four, and he cannot help becoming a small-minded, though clever and learned,
man, who fails to see that literature is no longer the possession of a small class.
Yet if he had left school for the University at sixteen or seventeen we might hope
that University freedom and association with others and with learned men
might have made him great, a great poet, a man of cultivated imagination, fit

1914. QQ

594. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L

to become a great writer, a great philosopher, a great politician, a ruler of men.
One of the curses of intellectual England is due to schoolmasters keeping
men at school and treating them as boys to the age of twenty or twenty-one.
They take scholarships as stall-fed cattle take prizes at agricultural shows.

Our famous writers had, like Burns, no school education, or else only a short
school education. Boys went to the University too early after the Renaissance,
and Bacon entered Cambridge at the age of thirteen. Shakespeare, thank God,
was only at a grammar school, and is supposed not to have completed even that
short course of school work. Even Ben Jonson, who was so proud of his learning
and rather scorned Shakespeare for his ‘small Latin and less Greek,’ had only
a short school education. Phineas Fletcher went to Cambridge at sixteen.
Massinger went to Oxford at eighteen. Of the school time of some of our most
original writers we have but little information, but that it must have been short
we have indirect proof. Beaumont’s first play was produced at the age of
twenty-one. Waller entered Parliament and wrote his first poem at eighteen.
Dryden went to Oxford at seventeen. Milton went to Cambridge at seventeen.
Addison went to Oxford at fifteen. The whole of Pope’s school education was
four and a half years. Swift went to Dublin University at fifteen. Goldsmith,
after a most erratic school time, entered Dublin when he was fifteen. Our present
school system is to keep a boy with his nose to the classics grindstone from the
age of eleven to the age of twenty, and copies the German system. The result
is the same in Germany and England. Genius is very common in both countries,
but 99 per cent. of it is destroyed by the schools. It is, however, when we come
to study the average boy—nineteen in twenty of all boys—that the system looks
most devilish. In Germany it is worse than in England. There even the average
boy submits, and plods hard all the time, because there is a great reward for him
—a diminution in his time of military service. Well, the result for the average
German boy is that he becomes stupefied, dull, and loses all initiative. The
average English boy gets much less of these evil effects, because he neglects his
schoolroom work and keeps his mind active and his soul alive by means of football
and cricket. It is from this great characteristic, that knowledge and wisdom come
from doing and not from abstract reasoning, that the British race rules the world.
We learn all that induces common sense from observation and experiment. I often
used to observe that a boy whose face was attractive because of its brightness and
intelligence in the cricket field, seemed when he entered my classroom as if an
isolating veil of unintelligence suddenly covered his face. He had settled for
life that he could not understand the classroom work, and he refused to make any
more efforts. Even the clever boy’s soul is to some extent protected by his sports,
so that in every way less harm is done in England than in Germany. Still, the
system produces, even from clever boys, only clever, dull men, fit to be barnacles
in the public services. The system may be said to give a good training for
lawyers—the necessary clever kind of lawyer of the Law Courts and Chambers
who is mute in the House of Commons.’ But it destroys the higher qualities of
men and makes them narrow. It ought to be remembered that Lord Somers was
the only great lawyer who was also a great man. Poor boys cannot get this

1 The acuteness of a lawyer in finding the meaning of a document is very
wonderful. Almost any mental power can_be cultivated to such a very high
degree that it almost seems diabolical. A trained person after passing a shop-
window rapidly is able to describe every object in the window, although the
objects may be very numerous and curiously different. Yet this same man may
not be at all clever in other ways. In patent cases a clever judge takes in the
most elementary scientific knowledge with very great difficulty. The readers of the
hundreds of newspaper articles of any morning—as like one another as herrings—
are awed with their display of culture, of depth of thought, of knowledge, and
with, what is more astounding than anything else, an infinitely perfect Oxford

olish. Watching the performances of an Oxford man of letters is like watch-
ing a good billiard player or a skilled musician. His mind is filled with the
thoughts of other men, pigeonholed ready for use. It is extraordinary that a
man can have been so educated as to be a good debater, to be able to make a
fine speech, that he may have taken a degree at Oxford, that he may have passed
examinations in classics, philosophy, and mathematics, and yet be exceedingly
ignorant, illogical, and unscientific.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 595

training unless they are so unlucky as to get scholarships, or are induced to
attend University extension lectures; and it results that nearly all our best
writers, writers with imagination and originality and initiative and _ in-
dividuality, have been boys of the common people. Although poor boys are
most frightfully handicapped for the race to distinction, I do not think that the
poor child is much handicapped by mere heredity, for he is naturally nearly equal
to a boy of the highest lineage. Natural selection up to the time of the first
great civilisations, when there were comfortable houses and palaces—say, 100,000
years ago—together with the effects since then of revolutions and wars of con-
quest, involving slavery of the conquered, have created a wonderful equality
among the individuals of mixable races.

For the average boy at a public school the school work is a terrible uphill grind
all the time; a soul-destroying, stupefying business, so stupefying that he makes
no complaint, he merely suffers. He feels that he is a failure, learning nothing
that can be of spiritual or material value to him in his future life. Of course,
he can pass examinations; anybody can be crammed to pass an examination,
but after the examination he forgets what he was supposed to have learnt.

The present system of education is to be condemned for other reasons. It is
exasperating that all the most important, the most brilliant, the most expensively
educated people in England, our poets and novelists, our legislators and lawyers,
our soldiers and sailors, our great manufacturers and merchants, our clergymen
and schoolmasters, are quite ignorant of natural science; and it may almost be
said that in spite of these clever ignorant men, and men like them in other coun-
tries, through the agency of scientific men, all the conditions of civilisation are
being transformed. I do not think that a fact of this kind would have been
neglected by the philosophers of Greece (who scorned to know any other language
than their own) or the learned men of Rome, but when some of us direct attention
to it and its neglect by modern philosophers we are sneered at as Philistines. It
is a curious kind of culture which scorns the lessons of history, the study of man
in his relation to nature, the study of the enormous new forces which are now
affecting the relations of nations to one another. How many of our rulers know
the astounding fact that the cost of the most unskilled work done by man costs
1,000 times as much as when that work is done by a steam-engine? Hence it is
that the steam-engine has given means for leisure and high culture, yes, and low
culture and decadence, to hundreds of people instead of units. And the steam-
engine enables rulers to spend a hundred times as much money on soldiers and
sailors and ships and munitions of war as they did two hundred years ago.

The University man thinks that he can get some knowledge of science by read-
ing, but without laboratory study he is like the man who said ‘ barley ’ when he
wanted to escape from the robbers’ cave and ought to have said ‘sesame.’ Do
you know the ballad about Count Arnaldos, who envied the old helmsman his
weird and wondrous powers?

‘Would’st thou,’ thus the helmsman answered,
‘Learn the secret of the sea?

Only those that brave its dangers
Comprehend its mystery.’

I know that the ordinary University man thinks, like the wistful Count, that
he can get all things easily or by mere reading. But, in truth, to read the
‘Origin of Species,’ or treatises on astronomy or physics or chemistry, is a mis-
leading performance unless the reader brings to the study that kind of mind
which has been developed already by his own observation and experiment.

The University man, ignorant of science, becomes a ruler of our great nation,
his duty during war and peace being that of a scientific administrator, and with-
. out turning a hair he fraudulently accepts this important duty for which he is
utterly unfit. The gods must surely laugh when they see these rulers of ours
gibing at scientific things, giving important posts to non-scientific men who scorn
and obstruct the scientific men who are under their orders. If Oxford scholars
were merely like so many monks in their monastery, living the lives and following
the studies which they love, I would say nothing. The revenues so used up are,
I think, of no great importance to the country, and busy men elsewhere can only
be benefited in knowing that at Oxford and Cambridge there are these lovely
lamaseries where men are living in serene air apart from the struggles of the

QQ2

596 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION IL.

world, living what they think to be the higher kind of life, that of the amateur
copying the lives of the scholars of Constantinople before they were so mercifully
scattered in 1453, copying the meditative ways of the divines and hermits of the
fourth and fifth centuries. Unfortunately the Oxford hermits have by a series
of accidents become the rulers of the greatest empire that the earth has ever
seen, and it is very obvious indeed through many other things than the starting
of South African wars that they are unfit for their job.

If our rulers were like savage chiefs they might possibly give equal chances to
candidates for posts; but unfortunately it is as if our leaders possessed great
negative knowledge of Natural Science, and as if a man’s chances of being
appointed to a scientific post or of having his advice listened to were in inverse
proportion to his scientific qualifications. Scientific men look around them and
see that everything is wrong in the present arrangements, but they also see that
it is useless to give advice which cannot be understood by our rulers. And,
indeed, I may say that when by accident a scientific man is appointed on a
committee there is a negative inducement for him to do anything.

Many men enter the services by examination, and it is always through
cramming that they pass. In some cases the examination is supposed to be in
science. In truth, the scientific habit of thought, the real study of science,
the very fitness of a boy for entrance to the service, would unfit him for
passing these abominable unscientific examinations. For some army posts,
further scientific food is provided by the Government for the classical or modern
language or science dummies after they enter the service. If one wishes to hear
how evil this system of pretended education is, let him ask the opinion of some
of the professors who are condemned to help in carrying it out. The whole
system is foolishness from top to bottom, and the men prepared by the system
cannot see how abominable it is, even when they are afterwards trying to
improve it; well mannered mediocrity is everywhere successful and reproduces
itself.

I have been dwelling upon the consequences of letting aristocratic University
men who are to be rulers of the country have an education which involves no
study of natural science. Besides these men we have a larger number of middle-
class men who will succeed their fathers in the management, not merely of landed
estates, but of much more valuable estates in the manufacture and distribution of
things. With them there is the same contempt for books, for learning, and the
same absence, not merely of knowledge and of natural science, but of those
scientific habits of thought and methods of approaching problems which experi-
mental research tends to produce. These men become the owners of factories the
spirit of which ought to be scientific research; the competing factories in Ger-
many, France, and America are run by men of scientific method, but our owners
discourage reform in every possible way. The rule of thumb of their fathers and
grandfathers is good enough for them. Their factories are so badly arranged
that the works cost of any manufacture is twice what it ought to be and the time
taken is twice as great. They take eagerly to all sorts of quack remedies for bad
trade; they are the easy victims of fraudulent persons. These are the men who
discourage all education in the people employed by them, managers, foremen, and
workmen. They are what I call unskilled workmen—that is, unskilled owners of
works—and it is the University and the whole system of their education which is
to blame for their unskilfulness. It is astounding how quickly unskilled owners
of works are being eliminated, but there is a new crop of them every year.
The want of education of these men is very harmful to the country.

But I get too angry when I think of what our Universities might do in the
great world of natural science and of the futility of almost all their studies. And
this anger is greater when I think that the Universities rule the schools. The
general higher education of the community is being altogether neglected, the
general culture of professional men is being neglected; and in the case of pro-
fessions involving applications of physical science, useless obligatory subjects
are insisted upon, so that for these professions the University is a harmful
institution. Medical students have so much hard work in various kinds of
grammar subjects required for matriculation that they must be forgiven for their
utter ignorance of natural science. But an outside Philistine may also be forgiven
when he suggests that the whole country might benefit if the school training of
medical students put them more in sympathy with scientific discovery. It is a

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 597

well known fact that there are medical men in lucrative practice, said to have
the highest University qualifications, who tell you frankly that they do not
believe in bacteriology !

A great many young men from the secondary schools are now entering the
engineering profession. By engineering 1 mean any kind of applied physical
svience. Every important town in Great Britain has established at least one
great technical college at large cost in building and apparatus, with staffs
of professors and teachers (always badly paid), and it is found that for
their first two years the students have to be kept at great cost to the country
learning those simple principles of science which they ought to have learnt at
school. It is found that they are not only ignorant, but they have none of the
habits of thought and scientific method which school laboratory work induces.
The clever ones, if they leave school at seventeen, recover from the effects of a
school education which prepared men only for being lawyers or clergymen ; but the
average man finds that he has been prepared only to be a hewer of wood and a
drawer of water to the real engineer. It is found in most cases that the success-
ful students are those who have attended primary schools where no boy is com-
pelled to learn any language other than English, and where every boy does
laboratory work in mathematics and natural science. There can be no doubt that
poor boys have now an enormous advantage over the sons of rich men, for even
when the fees of the day classes are largé the evening class fees are small, and
the poor boys attending the latter are getting to be very fit for higher study in
natural science.

The English school system has outlived the medieval conditions which pro-
duced it. In old days the only way to knowledge was through Latin: all
writing was in Latin. The result then was pretty much what it is now; lawyers,
clergymen, and schoolmasters had to know some Latin after school life ; the
average man forgot anything he had learnt. A few very clever men did read,
but the average monk or priest was a very ignorant person.

English people know the worthlessness of the public school system in the
mental training of the average boy. Why, then, do they submit to it? However
conservative they may be, they would not submit to this worthless system merely
because it is hallowed by a history of 500 years.

The fact is, this worthless system continues because in some occult way it
seems to have a connection with something of real importance, public school form.
There is really no connection. When, in my youth, I was a master at one of the
great English public schools, like everybody else I was a frightful prig in
regard to public school form. Eton form or Harrow form or Rugby form or
Clifton form was the thing at each of these schools which was thought to be of
more value than anything else in the world. Dr, Arnold, of Rugby, taught the
trick of manufacturing it. It is in itself a splendid thing. The public school
boy is trained in self-possession, modesty, cleanliness, truthfulness, and courage.
At school his health in body and morals is all important. He learns to lead and
also to obey. But the average resulting man is exceedingly ignorant ; he neither
reads nor writes, and he has little reasoning power except what his sports have
developed. This form is essentially aristocratic. It is based on superiority of
position or birth or caste. A man’s place is fixed, his attitude to people of
higher or lower rank is fixed. He needs no self-assertion, and he cannot become
a ‘ bounder,’ that is, a ‘cad’; but in Thackeray’s sense he is usually a * snob,’
and in various directions he may be a prig. By prig, I mean a man who cannot
get outside convention and so cannot exercise his own common sense. One
defect is that public school form when combined with poverty cannot
make much money by its own ability, and if it does not starve it must
join the valets or the grooms. Its strength lies in convention and
habit and the belief that poor people are not men but a lower kind of
animal who may be pitied as we pity a suffering dog. Such pity can never
raise the people or reform abuses. In the middle ages young gentlemen of
England had the same sort of education. It was probably best in Plantagenet
times, when indeed a well trained young gentleman was not only very healthy and
courageous, but he had not much chance of becoming lazy. A man was proud of
his heavy armour, and he was trained to act vigorously when carrying it. They
were chivalrous to each other, but, alas! to people outside their own class they

598 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

were cruel. The Black Prince is typical; think of his courtesy to King John of
France, and then think of his destruction of the persons and property of all the
peasantry in those large regions of France which he covered with his marauding
soldiers. This kind of chivalry, which is never exhibited to a lower class than
one’s own, has its beauty, but it does not suit a democracy; it requires that there
should be a lower class than its own. The Spartans needed their helots. The
Southern planter in America had fine manners, but he could not have cultivated
them if there had been no slaves and mean whites. It is a well-known fact that
some years before the Civil War in America it was seriously proposed by
prominent Southerners to make slaves of the ‘mean,’ that is, the poor whites.
The chivalrous Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun showed but little knowledge of his
countrymen when he formed his plan for reducing a large part of the working
classes of Scotland to slavery. Public school form may sit not unhandsomely
upon country gentlemen or any rich men who have many servants or tenants or
other dependents, but it does not sit at all well upon poorer men, for it puts them
out of sympathy with people among whom they must work. It is heartbreaking
when associated with the poverty of a man looking for work in places where he
has no influential friends, as it is nearly always associated with illiteracy and want
of wisdom, with helplessness and with disinclination to learn. Nobody doubts
that a modern country gentleman is much more polished than Squire Western or
Squire Lumpkin, but he has much the same opinions and forms them in the same
way. The manners of a young officer are certainly superior to those of Ensign
Northerton, but he is in much the same state of ignorance.!

We ask the schools for mental power as of old one asked for bread, and they
give us a stone. No doubt public school form is a beautiful stone, a diamond;
but we want some bread as well, even if it were only in the Falstaffian proportion
of bread to sack. For my part I do not see why the average boy at school
should not have reasoning power and a love for reading and knowledge as well as
good manners, and this is why I ask for a great reform in our schools. We want
from the school what Nature has not been accustomed to give, and what home
life cannot give, the development of the intellect, and the school fails to give it
in ninety-five out of every 100 cases. The great danger in school life is that
it may hurt individuality, originality, because a boy, however harum-scarum, is
naturally conventional and imitative. Good form comes easily therefore, and the
master 1s more than satisfied, he is proud. He often speaks of it as character,
but he is quite wrong. Character comes from home life, not from school life,
which indeed is rather antagonistic to character. It comes from contact with
fathers and mothers, brothers and sisters, relations and friends. School life
tends to induce a contempt for the lower classes and a slavish admiration of

*The Report of the Commission on the Education and Training of
Officers of the Army (1902) is well worth study. Dr. Maguire, the most ex-
perienced coach, said, as a witness :—‘ Latin, as taught to the average schoolboy,
is pure waste of time, and does not develop intelligence or tend to breadth
of culture in the least or facilitate the acquisition of modern languages.’ .
‘The prominence of ancient classics in English schools and the large proportion
of youthful years devoted to failure in regard to them explain the stupidity
and incapacity of their pupils as compared with the same class of persons in
other advanced communities.’ . . . ‘They [classics] are kept in such vogue to
suit the convenience of languid schoolmasters who can teach nothing else, and
for no other reason whatever.’ He spoke of ‘ the absurd anachronism of lazy
and costly schools, which rendered so many of us ignorant of the very subjects
which are generally useful and interesting.” He said: ‘but our educational
system all round is utter folly at best.’ Speaking of English Universities,
‘the whole system is a grievous absurdity.’ ‘‘“‘ Society ’’ and snobbery are the
curses of England.’

This address was delivered in Australia when we had been at war with
Germany for three weeks. It was written eight months before. I told my
audience that.the printed proofs which were in their hands contained state-
ments meant only for good, which might be harmful in time of war, so I left
much of it unsaid. In this page I have deleted a long paragraph concerning
young English officers.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 599

the upper classes, which is altogether wrong in a democracy, and can only lead
to evil.

It always happens that the real education of the average man begins when he
falls in love and sees the necessity for writing love letters. He must have spent
many years of worry at school and passed examinations in Latin and mathematics,
perhaps in French or German, in geography, and many other subjects, all taught
in water-tight compartments, yet he is quite illiterate. If he has been slightly
higher than the average boy he is able occasionally in after life to quote one or two
tags from the Latin grammar and to say that he thought he remembered some-
thing of the pons asinorum; he is also fond of using the expression ‘the unknown
quantity 2,’ because it shows that he once worked at algebra. A Premier of Great
Britain who had sent out a great military expedition to Cape Breton expressed
great delight afterwards when he suddenly discovered that Cape Breton was an
island. Chancellors of the Exchequer have shown themselves to be quite ignorant
of the simplest arithmetic. A very successful Cambridge coach told me that
it is quite common for the father of a pupil to tell him that he does not wish his
son to get a good degree. Generalisation is always dangerous, but I think I am
safe in saying that Englishmen of the higher classes do not believe in education.
They believe in what they call character, which always to them means public
school form, and they believe in mental mediocrity, which in most cases means
mental inferiority. This gives one explanation of the persistence of the public
school system. The man who remembers his years of dull school classroom
routine with no intellectual result is not likely to be enthusiastic over the
education of his son.

Unfortunately all secondary schools try to copy the public schools. They
also aim at teaching good form, mainly by magnifying the importance of football
and cricket. To differentiate themselves from the primary schools, they compel
every boy to learn through Latin. And all this they do at a rate which suits
the pockets of the lower middle-class parent. It is a poor imitation of a system
only one part of which is worthy of imitation.

I can understand why Tom Sawyer and his friends, when they started their
gang of robbers, initiated them through passwords and a ritual. That was for
‘side.’ The gang did not consist of pirates or robbers; they were innocent
young boys, and their passwords and ritual were the essence of the romance of
the thing. Latin for the average youth seems to me to be merely grown-up Tom
Sawyerism, and is allied in obvious ways to the worship of Mumbo-Jumbo. It
used to be that the use of fur on clothes was reserved for the higher classes. At
another time gentlemen only were allowed to wear swords. In China and Japan
certain buttons and coloured dresses indicated certain rank. In our own time
there are fashions of slang which distinguish the smart set of society. The
survival of Latin and Greek is very much the same sort of thing. It has no
more to do with education than the two hind buttons of our coats or the wigs of
our judges have to do with convenience. The classics ride us like Sindbad’s old
man of the sea. All over the British Empire a well-educated man cannot become
a professional man of almost any kind unless he pretends to know something of
one or more dead languages, such knowledge being of no essential value to him.
It is something like what the old Test Act imposed upon us; for 130 years a
British citizen perfectly competent to fill the highest posts could not take upon
himself the smallest kind of public work unless he could swear to a certain
formula. Most of the numerous students of a very important School of Mines
refuse to take their B.Sc. degrees because they are wise enough to refuse to learn
Latin. The mine-owners are wise enough to engage these men if they possess
only the college diploma, although they have no degree. There is hardly one
mining engineer holding a University degree in the country that I speak of.
Indeed, I may say that only a few mining engineers in Great Britain hold a
University degree, and this is for the same reason.

If there is any particularly useless, poor, genteel clerk you will find that his
son must be taught Latin. If there is any little township in a new country
where everybody is ignorant, the schoolmaster must teach Latin. Any cheap
schoolmaster, knowing nothing, worth nothing, will, you may be sure, say
that he can teach Latin. If there is a particularly illiterate bar-room loafer in
the town who never reads books or newspapers you will find that he has a stock-
in-trade of perhaps three Latin phrases which keep him provided in beer.

600 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. a

Do you know why Portia the Maid of Belmont remained so long unmarried ?
It was ‘because her suitors assumed that the golden language of conquest was
Greek and the silver language was Latin. If you read between the lines you
will see that this is what Shakespeare meant. His leaden casket signified the
English of Belmont-cum-Stratford-on-Avon.

The worst of it is that the average boy who has done almost nothing else
than Latin and Greek at school gets absolutely no love for the classics; he never
reads a Greek or Latin author after he leaves school. He might enjoy them in
translations, but he hates their names, and even if he did not it would never
enter his head to read a ‘crib.’ Surely this is the natural effect of the school-
room routine.

Followmg that article in The Times newspaper, referred to above, in a
discussion, the secretary of the Association for Improving the Teaching of Latin
said, ‘Out of the vast number of boys who learned Latin only a few reached
the stage when they could read the classics with any pleasure. A still smaller
minority continued their classics after they had left school or the University.
The great majority left school with very little, if anything, as the result of years
spent in the study of the classics.’ The next speaker said that the reforms
suggested ‘ were based upon the assumption that the present method of classical
education was wholly bad. He did not agree.’ Nor do I agree. I think that
if there is one subject that the ordinary public schoolmaster can teach it is
Latin. I take the first statement as right, however. I have always said so,
loudly, to an unbelieving world that thought me prejudiced, and here we see a
lover of the classics inadvertently supporting me, and surely every fair-minded
schoolmaster must agree with him, at all events as concerning the average boy.
It is not the method of teaching that is wrong; it is merely that Latin as a
school subject for the average boy must be altogether condemned. It takes from
him all interest in every kind of literature; it makes him dislike reading. We
must have some compulsory subjects, and I think that any boy may be taught
any subject—to some extent; but we ought to have as few of these compulsory
subjects as possible, because any subject may be found very difficult by certain
classes of intelligent minds. And it is surely ludicrous when a clever mathema-
tician, well read in Natural Science and fond of English literature, is plucked
for his degree because of his poor Latin or Greek. JI knew a case where the first
classic of his year would have failed to pass his ‘ Little-go’ only that special
arrangements were made to let him through his mathematics easily. My own
career was nearly ruined because I failed in a French examination.

Before a student enters a University he has to pass a Matriculation examina-
tion, so that we may be sure that he is fit to follow any of the courses of study. In
medieval times the one compulsory subject was Latin, because all the literature
known to students and teachers was in Latin, all lectures were delivered
in Latin, all teaching was in Latin. Consequently in some Oxford Colleges a man
was fined if he spoke in any other tongue. Then came the time when there was
still no English literature, and not only was the best literature in Greek, but Greek
was the only approach to natural knowledge, so Greek also was compulsory, and
so it has remained to this day—-to this day when English literature (including
translations) is of greater worth than any ancient or, indeed, any other modern
literature; when all teaching, all lectures are given in English, and when our
English knowledge of Natural Science is not only infinitely greater than anything
possessed by the ancients; but it enables us to say that the ancients were hope-
lessly wrong; when nobody but the official University orator or some traveller
ignorant of the language of a foreign country speaks Latin and then speaks
rather the language of Stratford-atte-Bow than the Latin of the City of the
Golden Shields. The men of the City of the Violet Crown were not handicapped
by being compelled to Jearn any other language than their own, to waste their
time on mere words; ‘they were engaged in pursuits of a higher nature, in
acquiring a knowledge of things. They did not, like us, spend seven or ten
years of scholastic labour in making a general acquaintance with two dead
languages. These years were employed in the study of nature and in gaining
the elements of philosophical knowledge from her original economy and laws.’
The above quotation is from the Langhornes’ ‘ Life of Plutarch,’ and it is par-
ticularly valuable as expressing the views of two great classical scholars.

I would make a knowledge of Latin or of Greek compulsory only on students

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 601

of certain subjects, and the professor ought to impose the condition, not the
University. Again, students of certain other subjects ought to know one or more
foreign languages, and, indeed, it seems to me that the professor in each subject
has a right to insist on his students having certain special knowledge ‘before
they enter upon a study with him. But to enter the University, surely the com-
pulsory subjects ought to be as few as possible. It seems to me that the most
important thing is to make sure that every student has had an early education
through his own language—English ; that he should be able to write an account
in English of anything he has seen; should have some acquaintance with what
are called English subjects, such as geography and history, and the principles
of natural science, and the power to make simple computations. All the teach-
ing is to be in English, all his companions speak English; there are good English
books on all subjects, there are English translations of all the good books that
have been written in foreign languages. So abominable do I think compulsory
Latin or Greek or French or German that I believe a primary school to be a much
better school than any other for a boy if he is fitting himself for any profession
in which applied science is important. At present English is not taught pro-
perly in any British school. The teachers are all classical men, who are very
careful when they write Greek or Latin and exceedingly careless and slipshod
when they write English. We might easily write a fairy story about three sisters
—Greek, Latin, and English—and call it ‘ Cinderella.’ The language of the
greatest empire known in history, the empire of the English-speaking peoples,
is not taught seriously in any part of that great empire. It is shocking to get
from a great classical scholar a letter with misspelt words on every page, every
sentence being ungrammatical. When will our good modern writers tell us how
English composition may be taught to ordinary folk?

I want you to understand that we have established some fundamental prin-
ciples in our science : (1) A subject must interest a pupil. (2) A man who trains
dogs or seals or bears or other animals makes a close study of their minds. In
the same way we must recognise that one boy differs from another, and study
the mind of each boy. (3) If a boy is not very receptive of an important subject
we must do our best with him and try to settle what is the minimum with which
we ought to be satisfied. Only a few subjects ought to be compulsory on all
boys. (4) There are two classes of boys unequal as to numbers, (a) those fond
of, and () those not capable of, abstract reasoning. (5) Another two classes are
(a) those fond of, and (6) those not fond of, language study. (6) Every boy may
be made to write and read in his own language and he may be made fond of
reading. (7) The average boy’s reasoning faculties are most surely developed
by letting him do things. That is, for example, through his sports, or through
wood or metal working, or gardening, or experiments involving weighing and
measuring. Through the last of these he learns to compute. A boy of eight
learns decimals in an hour if he weighs and measures, whereas by the usual
method of teaching he is ignorant of decimals at the age of fourteen. A boy
learns whist very quickly if you seat him with three other people at a table with
a pack of cards; he would not learn in a month if he had no cards. Would you
teach a boy to swim by mere talk? (8) Every boy must get a good deal of
personal attention. (9) However good a system may be there can be no good
results if the teachers are cheap; cheap teachers are usually stupid and over-
worked. Men in charge of schools and colleges never seem to learn this. The
market price must be paid for a capable man. (10) Fairly good results may be
expected from a good teacher, even when he is compelled to work on a bad
system, but really good results can be obtainable only from a good teacher with
a good system.

I need not go into details about all these principles, but I should like to
dwell presently upon a few of them. At the beginning of this Address I, spoke
of the obstruction to great necessary reform—too much antiquated machinery to
‘scrap.’ Most schoolmasters will admit the necessity for reform in the case of
the average boy, but they say that parents are opposed to the reform. Unbelief
in education for the average man is so general among the higher classes that T
am afraid we shall have no reform unless some great national disaster causes
conversion. There is a lesson for England, and, indeed, for all European races,
in the recent history of Japan. The old structure of Japan was in many ways
beautiful, but it proved to be without physical strength. Tts extreme weakness

602 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

proved its salvation. Even the teachers of ancient classics saw that for strength
it was necessary to let scientific method permeate the thought of the whole
population. And now, at the end of the first chapter of Japan’s modern history,
we find a nation which can not only defend itself, but which retains all of its
spiritual life which was beautiful. Every unit of the population can not only
read and write, but it is fond of reading, and its education did not cease when
it left school. It is getting an increased love for Natural Science, so that it can
reason clearly; it is not carried away by charlatans; it retains its individuality.
One result of this is that in time of war Japan has scientific armies. Not only
are its admirals and generals scientific, but also every officer, every private is
scientific. Everything in the whole country is being developed scientifically,
and we Europeans, hag-ridden by pedantry in our schools and universities, refuse
to learn an easy lesson. At present we do not even ask what is meant by educa-
tion or what education is necessary if a particular boy is to be fitted for his life’s
work. In 1902, when I was President of Section G, and in opening a discussion
on the teaching of mechanics at Johannesburg in 1905, I gave my views as to the
teaching of a young engineer, but they apply also to the teaching of nearly all
boys. ‘These views have been commended by experienced engineers and teachers.
To understand me it is first necessary to try to cast away prejudices, and this is
especially difficult if one has a pecuniary interest in education. The student of
almost any other science than education cares for nothing but the truth; even
when he has committed himself to a theory and his good name or credit is at
stake the rule of the game is perfectly well known and must be adhered to. The
student must not neglect fact or pervert fact; he must be quite fair. The
student of physical science sees at once whether or not he is playing the game,
because the co-ordinates are few; there are no complexities, such as we find in
our own life problems. This also is why the study of physical science is so good
in causing boys to reason, for reasoning can only be taught by constant practice
on simple matters which one thoroughly comprehends. Consider a boy’s views
about ordinary affairs. He is downright. A complex thing must be greatly
simplified to him. His painting is in black-and-white; there is no delicate
shading in his picture. He never sits on the fence; he is never a trimmer. An
historical character is awfully good or awfully bad, very clever or very stupid.
A boy is, in fact, cocksure about everything. He is incapable of reasoning about
complex things. And when we try to teach him to reason about simple things
we must be quite sure that they really are simple to him, that he understands
them. For example, many educationists say that the study of geometry is just
right for a boy. Well, yes, for five per cent. of all boys, boys who can take in
abstract ideas. They take to Euclid as a duck takes to water. But for the other
ninety-five per cent. geometry is very hurtful, because unless they continually
experiment with rulers and compasses they do not understand what the reason-
ing is about. In ancient times only very old and exceptionally clever men were
allowed to study geometry. We now assume that it ought to be an easy study
for the average English boy. Generation after generation we stupefy the average
English boy with demonstrative geometry, and we call him a duffer so often that
he thinks himself a duffer, and even his mother thinks him a duffer, and, indeed,
we have done our best with geometry and Latin to make him a duffer. Only
for his football and cricket, which teach him to reason a little, he would ‘become
a duffer. And yet in my opinion if this average boy were properly taught in
school he would prove to be very superior to the boy who is usually called clever
The schoolmaster calls a boy clever because he is exactly like what the school-
master himself was when a boy; but I am afraid that I place little value on the
schoolmaster’s cleverness, whether as a boy or a man. Reasoning can be taught
through almost anything that a boy does, but more than all things through his
experiments in Natural Science. Formal lessons on reasoning, on logic, are
utterly useless, and I may say that set lessons on almost any subject are utterly
useless for the average boy.

Milton’s poems are greatly praised. Well, I am not going to say a word
against the people who talk in public about the most wonderful epic
in our language and who never read it; but how many people have read
Milton’s magnificent prose works? Milton first taught me the true notion of
education, that the greatest mistake is in teaching subjects in watertight com-
partments. Jt is the idea underlying one of the most instructive books ever

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 603

written, ‘Sandford and Merton.’ When teaching a subject, teach all sorts of
other subjects as well. If Mr. Barlow’s boys were interested in astronomy he
showed them stars and planets through a telescope for a night or two, but he
gave them no stupefying course on astronomy. He gave them stars and the solar
system just as long as they were interested. He used a globe as well as mere
maps in teaching them geography and history, but the soul-destroying idea of a
course of study on ‘the use of the globes’ did not commend itself to him.
They walked over the fields and took an interest in trees and flowers, but he
gave them no stupefying course on botany. When he gave them a lesson on
English grammar or literature he taught them at the same time the geography
and history and the fairy stories of their country. How can a man give a
course on grammar or geography or history or anything else without diverting
his talk in an interesting way to other subjects? What is so tremendously
important about Natural Science laboratory work is that a student must be
thinking all the time about the same matters, not from one ‘but from ten interest-
ing points of view. He is not merely observing, he is measuring, he is comput-
ing, he is reasoning; he has to write out descriptions of what he sees and does,
and he thinks then of his spelling and grammar; he has to sketch; he has to
read books about what other people have done before him on the same subject,
and also for statistics. He learns the value of a bit of work done in a clean
honest way, and when he gets some more experience he glows with the feeling
that he has really added to the knowledge of the world. He is a discoverer,
and he feels the emotion of Cortez! It is marvellous the alteration which
has occurred in the mental attitude of the common average boy. Instead of
feeling that he is a degraded slave he feels the emotion of his childhood
returning to him. He once made the great discovery at the age of six that the
back garden was inhabited by fairies and lions and Indians and pirates. He
was the Caliph Haroun Alraschid for a while. And now, after a wretched
life at Latin and Euclid, a new revelation is vouchsafed to him, and as he gathers
years he finds that Nature is placidly willing to let him steal her secrets little by
little, one by one, secrets that are gradually changing men from the bewilderment
and spirit possession of the Middle Ages; so that at length he enters into com-
plete communion with Nature and rollicks with her, and quarrels with her, and
loves her more and more until he dies. And his reasoning power has been grow-
ing all the time, so that more and more he understands complex things, for,
after an experimental study of story-books, he probably entered the kingdom of
Shakespeare at the age of fourteen. Things requiring memory can be learnt only
in early life—weights and measures, the multiplication table, languages. He
knows games involving spelling. But, over and above all these, he has from
infancy repeated all sorts of poetry long before he could enjoy much more of it
than the jingle of its rhyme.

Educaticn consists in the development of a man from his earliest day, and
does not cease till he dies. Any thoughtful man must see that there is no science
so important as that of education, the preparation of children of this generation
to be the citizens, the rulers of the country, in the next generation. The whole
future of cur Empire depends upon the education of the children. By the study
of this science we hope to improve teaching so as to make future citizens not only
to have more knowledge and more skill, but to make them wiser than the people
of the present or the past.

Early training determines what later training ought to be. Let us consider
what the early training of a boy ought to be. In his very early days Nature has
provided that his education shall proceed very rapidly by observation and experi-
ment, and the only teaching needed is through careful nursing and affection. He
teaches himself, and he loves to learn. He ought to get toys not too realistic,
for he loves to weave romance round his toys, but still things to observe
and experiment with. He has most complex problems in physical science when
he is ouly a few weeks old, the solution of which involves much labour, but it is
pleasant labour and he is happy. And he will remain sweet-tempered and happy
and unspoilt if there is real affection from his teachers. If, however, somebody
teases him by playing practical jokes, or if a selfish mother who was unreasonably
kind to him yesterday is unreasonably unkind to him to-day, he gets, because of
his reasoning power, a sense of injustice. Man, woman, or child with a sense of
injustice may be said to be possessed of a devil. During the first six years of a

604 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

child’s life the creation of its power to reason is more wonderful than anything
else, and this reasoning power comes altogether by observation and experiment.
An affectionate parent easily finds methods of helping Nature in this process.
The unspoilt boy of six years seems to forget nothing that he hears; he has
gathered a most wonderful vocabulary; he knows endless nursery rhymes and
simple poetry ; he is as active and adventurous as a kitten, and everything he does
is cultivating his senses. This is the time when he fills the smallest playground
(which to grown-ups seems bare and desolate) with giants and fairies and Indians
and pirates, with forests and mountains and rivers and oceans. His imagination
is so extraordinary that the most uncouth creation of his own gives him exquisite
pleasure. Why do I dwell upon this stage of a boy’s development? Because it
has been so perfect! Nature has learnt to do this to children during perhaps
hundreds of thousands of years, and it has been the most important time of a
boy’s life, the time when, if parents will only give the boy their love and greatly
let him alone otherwise, he develops mentally more than during all the rest
of his life. Speaking broadly, he has done nothing in all this time except
what Nature and affection made pleasant to him. I have studied the science of
education and practised the art of teaching all my life, and I say that all our
failures are due to our neglect of Nature’s methods, and our schools destroy the
good effects which Nature has produced.

As a rule I do not like to be told that certain subjects must be compulsory,
but surely every child of eleven must have some such qualifications as these :
(1) The power to speak and read and write in his own language. (2) To be able to
do easy computation. (3) To have an exact knowledge of the simplest principles of
Natural Science from his own observation and experiment. I think that every ob-
server must acknowledge that these powers are possible for almost every boy of
eleven. Some of us have for many years been endeavouring to show how the child
of six may acquire these powers by the age of eleven if Nature’s methods—that
is, Kindergarten methods—are followed. For example, he plays at keeping shop,
selling or buying things by weight and measure, and paying or receiving actual
money and giving change. He weighs and measures with greater and greater
accuracy as he makes experiments in mechanics and heat and chemistry. Every
boy is fond of stories, and if treated reasonably is easily induced to learn to read.
Reading aloud is easily made a pleasure and a habit, and so the boy learns to
speak properly. Any boy whatever will become fond of reading if the people
about him are fond of reading: I state this as a fact which I have investigated.
A boy who is fond of reading gets later on to know the value of books and the
use of books, and he will go on educating Limself till he dies. Any attempt at
coercion, unless it is the very gentle coercion of a person whom he loves, is fatal ;
even coaxing is not always good. He assimilates knowledge from everything
which he does, and therefore he ought to be induced to do things which not only
keep him healthy, but which give him knowledge and teach him to reason. Do
you remember how angry Lanfranc of Bec was at the idea that any pupil could
be forced to learn; he said ‘ it turned men into beasts.’ I speak to you who love
children, who love young people, who know that there is hardly one child in a
hundred, even among rather spoilt children, who does not love to do his duty.

Under the best and most loving of teachers a lonely child has enormous dis-
advantages, but these can generally be remedied. ‘The usual mistake is to send it
to a large school. If it is merely a day school there is no great harm. But no
child under thirteen ought to be sent to a boarding school unless it is a small
school and the master and his wife have a love and sympathy for other people’s
children, There are such people in the world, God bless them! but they are not
numerous. They are so few that we must return to Nature as the best of
teachers. The time is coming when a child’s own father and mother will have
much more knowledge and wisdom than they have now, and they will refuse to
give up to others the doing of their highest duties. It is at present not sufficiently
recognised that the most important duty of the parents is the education of their
children, At present, men who are building up fortunes are too busy to think of
their children, and so we find that the sons of Lord Chancellors and other success-
ful men have been marrying chorus girls‘and squandering those very fortunes to
which their education was sacrificed. Of course, if parents are uneducated, and
therefore selfish or otherwise foolish, any kind of school may be better than home
for their doomed children. It is one of the great advantages of poverty that the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 605

children go to day schools and they keep in touch with home life. If the day
school is really a boarding school as well, it will be found that there is always a
differentiation in favour of the boarder, which has a very bad caste effect, just as
the ‘ modern-side’ boy of any public school suffers in character because he is of a
lower caste than the classical-side boy. It is usual to remove a stupid classical-
side boy to the modern side, and every boy on the modern side has a sense of
injustice. The work of the modern side ought to be much the higher, but it is
always badly done because the atmosphere is altogether bad.

It may be said that I am only destructive in my criticism of public schools. I
think it will be found that I am also constructive, although I acknowledge that
my sketch needs much filling in. Well, can much more be done in an address
lasting one hour? I will now try my hand at a little filling in. I have no objec-
tion to the existence of classical schools something like the present for boys who
are fond of classics. The average boy will not be asked to attend such a school.
I feel sure that much greater attention ought to be paid to the teaching of
English composition, to English poetry and prose, and to English subjects
generally. I also feel sure that much attention ought to be paid to Natural
Science, And surely it can do no good for the classical masters to go on sneering
at Natural Science subjects and calling them ‘stinks’ as they do now.

I want, however, to speak more particularly of a much higher kind of school,
which will educate the boy usually called clever and also the boy usually called
stupid. As I have already remarked, I think that these names may sometimes be
redistributed.

The school is one for boys from eleven to sixteen years of age. It ought in no
way to be connected with any classical school. English subjects will predominate,
but teaching in Latin and.Greek and modern languages and other alternative
subjects will be provided, although they will not be forced upon any boy. The
masters who teach English ought to know enough Latin and Greek and Celtic and
Old English and modern languages to be able to illustrate the derivation of
English words through their roots. And they must be well read in English sub-
jects and fond of English literature. They will make the boys fond of reading
English, and encourage them to find out what they like best. Some boys will
take to history and philosophy, some to poetry and imaginative literature. Every
boy ought to get the best chance of developing his faculties. It may be asked—
if we cannot make the average boy spend or waste twelve hours a week on Latin,
what are we to do with him? At all events, now, we keep him dbing something,
even if it is only marking time. My answer is, you think only of his putting in
time ; well, then, let him put in his time at work that interests him; any work of
that kind must be educative under an intelligent master who can help him in his
studies if it induces him to look up information for himself. Thus, when reading
travels or history, he will use the globe and raised maps and read geography,
and hunt up plans of battlefields. Think of the things that a boy used to be
punished for doing, and let him do those things under wise direction. I used to
be punished for reading Scott and Cooper. Nowadays prizes are given to boys
for their knowledge of Ivanhoe or Quentin Durward. Expand this into a system.
A boy who loves to browse over Chambers’s English Literature ought to be guided
in his browsing, and induced to take up something more than selections, and he
may easily be induced to get off selections by heart if his teacher does not show
his contempt by speaking of such exercises as Rep. [repetition].

Let the teacher take a leaf out of our methods of teaching chemistry and
physics. It has been shown that twenty-five boys doing work in the laboratory dur-
ing a lesson of an hour and a half or two hours can be managed by one teacher.
Experimental lectures in a lecture room have now been greatly discarded ; such
lessons as I speak of take place in the laboratory, but reliance is placed par-
ticularly upon the personal attention of the teacher being given to each group of
students in charge of an investigation, the group not being usually greater than
four in number, and often being less than two. These students are some-
times merely verifying or testing a statement made by the teacher or found in a
book, but they are often finding out things for themselves. One idea underlying
the work is that there ought to be more and more illustrations of simple funda-
mental principles. It is long before these simple things really become part of a
boy’s mental machinery; things like the mere definition of force, for example.
It is, of course, quite different work for the teacher from anything that he used

606 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

to have to do; for one thing, being much more exhausting. He cannot shirk his
duties and sit down waiting for students to come to him. When teaching
degenerates into mere maintenance of discipline, everything being regarded as
right if the pupils are quiet and seem to be diligent, it is necessary to make a
radical change, usually a dismissal of the teacher. It used to be that a science
master gave an experimental lecture, and afterwards he had a very easy time,
letting the students follow a set routine in the laboratory, but this will no longer
do; such attendance at lectures and laboratory work means poor mental training.

Now, I would work out a system for English, English composition, English
poetry and prose, geography, history, and other English subjects, on the lines that
we have found so successful in Natural Science. An enormous change has been
effected during the last fifteen years in the teaching of mathematics. The older
methods always failed with the average boy or man. The new system, which is
sometimes called Practical Mathematics, is based on the idea that students shall
work experimentally, just as they do in their Natural Science. It is found that
their eyes and faces are bright, they work hard, and they evidently enjoy their
work. We have merely introduced common sense into the teaching; we have
approached the student’s mind from other points of view than the old academic
one, from the only side on which he has ever been taught anything—the side of
observation and trial. He weighs and measures. He does experimental
geometry and mensuration, and is assisted by abstract reasoning just to the
extent which interests him; he makes plans of the school buildings and maps
of the district; algebra becomes interesting when in co-ordination with experi-
ments in mechanics and physics; trigonometry becomes interesting in the actual
measurements of heights and distances. The infinitesimal! calculus is bound to
be a weapon which any boy of fifteen easily gets to understand by actual use
when he is dealing with dynamic experiments. In fact, the physical and
mathematical laboratories are in one, and the same teacher takes charge of both
subjects and teaches them as much as possible together.

Furthermore, in the preparation of an account of an investigation there are
practical lessons in English composition ; there is sketching, and also more careful
drawing with instruments, and the finding of empirical laws, using squared paper.
In such a school every subject is being taught through all the other subjects ;
every boy is doing the work in which he is greatly interested, and no boy is
attending merely and putting in time. Furthermore, out of school-time there
might be the usual restrictions as to ‘ bounds,’ but otherwise I would let a boy do
pretty much ashe pleased. ‘Prep.’ at boarding schools and home lessons for boys
at day schools are to be quite discredited. I would—it may cost a little more
money—allow a boy to work in the workshops or laboratories or library or in his
own room or common rooms at anything he pleases in this off-time, and I would
give him advice only if he asks for it. If I saw a boy reading a penny dreadful
T would not stop him; nor if he were reading Paine’s ‘ Age of Reason,’ or any
wretched treatise on psychology or logic. I would in no way discourage a boy
from acquiring a greater and greater fondness for reading, knowing that this is
the foundation of future happiness and education, and that no harm which he
can get from his reading is of the slightest importance in comparison with the
importance of our main object. As he grows up he will become less and less
fond of the sixpenny magazine. The school can at its best be merely a prepara-
tion for the lifelong education of the man. I would not keep the boy at school
after-sixteen. Let him then go into business, or to a science or technical school,
or to the University. } : ; ;

Unfortunately for the present no University will take men without an
entrance examination involving other languages than English. This is a great
evil, but it is not going to last much longer. In the meantime eu competent, coach
will prepare any student to pass the necessary examinations (say, in Latin and
Greek) in three months, even if there is much other work to do. This is not a
matter of learning any classics; it is rather the manufacture of some contempt
for the classics, a necessary evil for the present. Indeed, for the present, but
let us hope not for long, there are many other necessary evils. We have to find
competent enthusiastic teachers, we have to persuade governing bodies to pay
salaries two or more times as-great as at present, we have to make parents see
that some mental training and fondness for reading and writing are really of
value, and that Tom Sawyerism about Latin is only childish.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 607

The importance of primary education is now well recognised. Rich and
aristocratic folk know that they are now in the hands of the common people in
a democratic country, and it is important to see that the common people shall
be made fit to rule and shall have a real sense of fairness and reasonableness.
Above all, if they are to be good citizens we must cultivate their common sense.
I think that in the schemes and the administration of primary education by
the Boards of England and Scotland it is in a good way; but there is one great
curse upon it, and the enormous sums of money spent upon it are greatly wasted.
The local authorities give to every teacher far too much to do, and they give him
only half his proper wages. In a few years the Government of our democratic
country will be in the hands of the boys now at school. That they should be good
citizens full of common sense is more important than any other thing. If they
are without fondness for books, and if they cannot reason, their votes will be at
the command of fraudulent or foolish, or perhaps only selfish or self-deceiving
speakers. Our empire was ruled by George the Third, and by God’s grace we
only lost America and piled up the National Debt; but think of an empire
ruled by millions of Georges! Teaching the young requires great wisdom and
sympathy, and we entrust it to people paid half wages, the ‘otherwise unem-
ployed.’ In the secondary schools also we find this penny wise pound foolish
policy, and it is particularly evil in the great technical schools. A city is proud
of its magnificent college of science, first because of its architecture; secondly
because of its equipment in apparatus, perhaps in steam and gas engines and
other expensive machinery. And the man in charge of the most important
department of that college receives perhaps 2507. a year. He ought to get at
least 600/. That is the market price of a fit man, and without a fit man the
whole money and the time of students are being wasted; the thing is really a
fraud, a whited sepulchre, and of course the Principal is always a classical
non-scientific man. Photographs of the building and its laboratories are
very fine to look at in guide-books of the city, and the managers of the college
get public thanks for their services. I know nearly all the technical and science
colleges of Great Britain, and I hardly ever see any of their complacent managers,
members of their governing bodies, without wishing that I had some of the
powers of the familiars of the old Spanish Inquisition. What right have they
to undertake duties which require a knowledge of Natural Science?

The latest proposal of our callous copiers of the Germans is to make
attendance at evening classes compulsory up to the age of seventeen. At present
working boys attend evening classes voluntarily, although in many cases they
are too tired to learn much. Yet many of them do learn. These boys are
almost martyrs. They sacrifice so many of their poor pleasures, and indeed
duties, that they certainly deserve success in life. But it is not fair to impose
these sacrifices upon boys who are, as apprentices, learning the principles under-
lying their trade, and who are paid only small wages on the understanding that
their masters teach these principles. In 1889 I introduced a Bill into the
Kensington Parliament compelling employers to provide such instruction during
the working hours. Reforms of all kinds proceed with exasperating slowness,
but already many employers are carrying out this idea.

In some things we reformers have made way. It is now recognised almost
everywhere that examinations ought to be conducted mainly by the teachers of a
student. I have often put the matter in this way: Huxley used to teach about
forty students in biology; we cannot imagine better teaching. But if those
students had only wanted to pass the examination of London University it is

uite certain that they would have done very much better by attending the
class of a cheap crammer. A University consisting of two, three, or more
federated colleges is very little better than a mere outside examining body, and
this is what London University has always been. I am glad that a change
towards something better is now about to take place. A number of separate
Universities would be better, but in two years or less, probably, the colleges of
London will conduct their own intermediate and degree examinations. One
result will be that when a man gets his degree he will not shut up his books
for ever.

I would, however, point out that old London University, which was a mere
examining body, served an exceedingly important purpose. This statement may

605 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

seem curious coming from a person who has always railed at London University
as a mere examining board. I still say that it was never a University at all in
the past. But a man reading hard by himself, perhaps far away from a college,
could have a severe test applied to his acquiremernts which encouraged him in
his studies when he had no other encouragement, and the test was very rightly
a severe test. ‘To do away with its outside examinations altogether, as I believe
is the intention of the authorities, will be exceedingly harmful. It would be
impertinent in me to make a suggestion as to the distinction which might be
made between a degree conferred by his own professors upon a man who has
attended regularly a college of repute, and a degree conferred by a mere examin-
ing body upon an outside student. For the first, the examination test may be
easy. The Oxford and Cambridge pass degree examinations are quite easy, and
rightly so, for the real qualification is that an undergraduate shall have lived for
three years in the intellectual and cultured life of an Oxford or Cambridge col-
lege. In the other case the mere examination is the only test, and it is rightly very
severe. The two kinds of degree differ altogether in quality. In a new country
of great distances I can imagine many good secondary schools to be established
having neither sufficient funds nor sufficient pupils to be qualified as Universities.
Yet it may be of enormous importance that a few of the older pupils at such
schools should as external students be examined for degrees by distant Universi-
ties, which, in such a case, are merely outside examining bodies. J can see the
gradual increase in importance of such secondary schools leading to the estab-
lishment of something higher—namely, colleges of University rank—and I can
see such affiliated colleges becoming Universities themselves perhaps after a period
in which two or more of them federated themselves as Universities. But I say
that there ought always to be some examination machinery by which a student
who is too poor or who through any other circumstance is unable to attend a
University college may be encouraged to study by himself, by having his
attainments tested.

In this Address I have said nothing about the education of women. I have
always advocated higher education for girls, but it is surely wicked to teach

girls as if they were boys. Men are concentrative, and they specialise ;
women observe more and more about many things, and they really have more
capacity for acquiring mental power. Until quite recently girls were saved

from stupidity, but the high schools are now giving a crammed knowledge of
facts and of the opinions of the tribe, so that girls and women are ceasing to
think for themselves. The education of men is in a bad way, but that of women
is becoming much worse.

I think that in this Address I have put forward no idea that I have not
already published time after time in the last thirty-five years. I put these views
forward again because, after much thought and much experience, I still think
them to be correct, and I feel sure that they must prevail. But I must confess
that it is only a very hopeful man who can peg away at a thankless task as
Dr. Armstrong and I have been doing so long.

MELBOURNE.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 14.
Professor H. E. Armstrone, F.R.S., Vice-President, delivered the following
Address :—
The Place of Wisdom (Science) in the State and in Education.

‘So soon as men get to discuss the importance of a thing, they do infallibly
set about arranging it, facilitating it, forwarding it and rest not till in some
approximate degree they have accomplished it.’-—Cartyte.

Tuts, doubtless, is a true statement; the difficulty is, however, to persuade men
of the importance of a thing. We come to persuade you. As an Association
we are now eighty-four years old: our main purpose has been to obtain a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 609

more general attention to the objects of Science and a removal of any disadvan-
tages of a public kind which impede its progress—let me also add, its application
to culture and to the public service.

By holding meetings, year after year, in the principal towns of the British
Isles, the Association has at least brought under notice the fact that Science is a
reality, in so far as this can be testified to by several hundreds of its votaries
meeting together each year to consider seriously and discuss the progress of the
various departments. On the whole, dilettanti have had little share in our
debates. The Association has already carried the flag of Knowledge outside our
islands, thrice to Canada and once to South Africa; now, at last, we make this
ereat pilgrimage to your Australian shores: still we are at home. What message
do we bring with us?

In 1847, when this city was but an insignificant town, it was visited by an
Englishman who subsequently became eminent not only in Science but also as a
literary man—Thomas Henry Huxley ; he was then surgeon on board the survey-
ing ship ‘Rattlesnake.’ In 1848 Huxley visited Sydney and there met the
gracious lady, only recently deceased, who became his wife. In after years he
achieved a great reputation on account of his services to education.

Lecturing in London in 1854, he defined Science as ‘trained and organised
common sense ’—a definition often quoted since; none could be more apposite,
though it must be remembered that ‘common sense,’ after all, is but an
uncommon sense.

A few years later, in a public lecture at South Kensington, Huxley spoke to
the following effect :—

“The whole of modern thought is steeped in Science; it has made its way
into the works of our best poets and even the mere man of letters, who affects
to ignore and despise Science, is unconsciously impregnated with her spirit and
indebted for his best products to her methods. I believe that the greatest intel-
lectual revolution mankind has yet seen is now slowly taking place by her
agency. She is teaching the world that the ultimate court of appeal is observa-
tion and experiment and not authority; she is teaching it the value of evidence;
she is creating a firm and living faith in the existence of immutable moral and
physical laws perfect obedience to which is the highest possible aim of an
intelligent being.

‘But of all this your old stereotyped system of education takes no note.
Physical Science, its methods, its problems and its difficulties, will meet the
poorest boy at every turn and yet we educate him in such a manner that he
shall enter the world as ignorant of the existence of the methods and facts of
Science as the day he was born. The modern world is full of artillery ; and we
turn our children out to do battle in it equipped with the shield and sword of
an ancient gladiator.

‘Posterity will cry shame on us if we do not remedy this deplorable state
of things. Nay, if we live twenty years longer, our own consciences will cry
shame on us.’

These words were uttered in 1861. Now, after more than fifty years, not
twenty merely, we still go naked and unashamed of our ignorance: seemingly,
there is no conscience within us to cry shame on us. I have no hesitation in
saying that, at home, at all events, whatever your state here may be, we have
done but little through education to remedy the condition of public ignorance
which Huxley deplored. In point of fact, he altogether underrated the power
of the forces of ignorance and indifference; he failed to foresee that these were
likely to grow rather than to fall into abeyance. In England, what I will
venture to term the Oxford spirit still reigns supreme—the spirit of the literary
class—the medieval spirit of obscurantism, which favours a backward rather
than a forward outlook.

Wherein was Huxley out in his forecast? In 1861 the claim of Science was
already strong but think what has been done since that time—what we can
now assert of its conquests! In the interval, even within my recollection, the
whole of our ironclad fleet has been created, rifled cannon, smokeless powder
and dynamite have been introduced, and this last, in combination with the
discovery of the causes of yellow fever and malaria, has made the Panama

1914. RR

610 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

Canal possible, an entirely revolutionary work of man’s interfering hands. The
‘Great Eastern,’ which could not be launched at first on account of her size—
as a lad, I saw her sticking in the stocks—was a failure, because she was outside
the fashion of her time, yet she has given rise to a host of ocean leviathans
of far larger size; the steam-turbine has entered into rivalry with the recipro-
cating steam-engine; cold storage has revolutionised ocean transport, so that
fresh food can be carried from this continent to remote England and Europe.
Electricity, then a puling infant, is grown to giant size; not only have we deep-
sea telegraphy and mechanical speech in the form of the phonograph and tele-
phone, but wireless communication, the electric light, electric transmission of
power, electric tractioun—even the waterfalls of the world are tamed through the
turbine and made subservient to our will for motive purposes or in the pro-
duction of temperatures bordering on those of solar heat, by means of which too
we can draw food for plants, at will, from our atmosphere by combining its
constituents into the form of a fertiliser. The use of oil-fuel in the internal-
combustion engine has been made possible and, in a few short years, the streets
of London have been cleared of horse conveyances and crowded with motor-
vehicles; such engines are coming into use everywhere and enable us successfully
to perform the feat which Dedalus vainly attempted—we even talk of flying
from New York to London, across the vast Atlantic, to spend the week-end.
The cyanide process has been introduced into gold-mining and is enabling us to
unearth a fabulous wealth; a vast array of gorgeous colours has been produced
and Dame Nature so outwitted that we make indigo and madder out of the tar
which in old days was put only upon fences; Pasteur’s work has made Listerism
possible, so that nothing is now beyond the surgeon’s art and bacteriology is
become the handmaid of preventive medicine and sanitary science; not only
paper but an artificial silk is made from wood-pulp and the finest of scents
are conjured out from all but waste materials. A multitude of other discoveries
of practical value might be referred to.

But there is a reverse side to the picture. At this very moment we realise
with horror that whilst we have destructive forces at our disposal, unknown
to pre-scientific generations, of a most terrible kind, our human nature is in
no proportionate way subject to modification—nor is it likely that it ever will
be—so that the desire to destroy grows less as the means grow greater. It will
be my argument, indeed, throughout this Address, that Science is something
apart—a cult which can influence but the few.

Not so long ago, when scientific research was spoken of, the cry was always
Cui bono? What’s the good of it all? Now, no one has the patience to listen
to a recital of the benefits accruing to mankind from its operation; for all the
achievements I have referred to are not the work of mere inventors but primarily
the outcome of scientific discovery : thus our modern command of electricity is
very largely traceable to the labours of the great philosopher Faraday, who
worked in an ill-lighted and cramped laboratory in the Royai Institution in
Albemarle Street, London, with no other object than that of contributing to the
advancement of knowledge.

Perhaps the greatest of all the scientific achievements of our time remains to
be mentioned—the promulgation of the doctrine of Evolution by Charles Darwin.
Few perhaps can realise what this means for mankind, the intellectual advance
it constitutes—that through it we have at last acquired full intellectual freedom
and the belief that it rests with ourselves alone rightly to order our lives; that
by it all dogmas have been undermined.

No one has stated this better than Oliver Wendell Holmes, in saying: ‘ If,
for the Fall of Man, Science comes to substitute the Rise of Man, it means the
utter disintegration of all the spiritual pessimisms which have been like a spasm
in the heart and a cramp in the intellect of men for so many centuries.’

Let me say that Huxley did much to give credence to this same doctrine of
EKvolution : on which account Australia may well feel proud that he visited her
shores and of the use that he made of his opportunity; our visit is but the
logical sequence of his and we are but come to emphasise his message.

‘During the last three hundred years reason has been slowly but steadily
destroying Christian mythology and exposing the pretensions of supernatural
revelation.’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 611

So writes Professor Bury, the Professor of Modern History in the University
of Cambridge, in his recently published ‘ History of Freedom of Thought,’ one
of the most charming historical essays ever put together. Again, he remarks :—

‘Tf the history of civilisation has any lesson to teach, it is this: There is
one supreme condition of mental and moral progress which it is completely
within the power of man himself to secure and that is perfect liberty of
thought and discussion. The establishment of this liberty may be considered
the most valuable achievement of modern civilisation and as a condition of
social progress it should be deemed fundamental.’

Science is come into being and has prospered only since freedom of thought
was secured: on no other terms can it be. It is well that we should bear this
in mind. The growth of numbers and of democracy may well involve a re-
striction of freedom in all directions—none are so intolerant as the ignorant.

If in Science, to-day, we have something unknown to former civilisations,
what is its influence to be on the future of the world, in particular on the
future of the white people? If we are not to suffer the rise and fall which all
previous civilisations have passed through—rather let me say, if the period of
our fall is to be retarded beyond the period our forerunners enjoyed, it will be
solely because we wield and use the powers Science has put into our hands : not
so much those of abstract science but the broad wisdom which the proper
cultivation of Science should confer; hence it is that I desire to urge the
absolute importance of giving, through Science, a place to the cultivation of
wisdom in the State and therefore in education.

Clearly, two new forces are at work in the world : not Science alone but also
a broad and altruistic Socialism, both the outcome of the intellectual freedom
man has acquired since the deposition of the Churches. The one is eradually
leading us to base our actions upon knowledge and to be practical through the
use of theory; the other is leading us gradually, though slowly, to have con-
sideration for one another, to recognise how helpless are the majority, how
greatly they stand in need of the guidance of the few who are capable of
leading. But we shall need to order our Socialism by Science to make it a wise
Socialism. The signs are only too numerous that a wave of political despotism
may come over us. Hither, as time goes on, Science will be more and more of
service in guiding the social machine—or that machine will perish, from the very
complexity of its organisation and the inability of the units to understand their
place, to understand the need of subordinating their individual inclinations to
communal interests; most important of ail, to understand their inability to
recognise and require competent leadership—for Science is aristocratic in its
tendencies : indeed, I shall claim that real Science—Wisdom—is for the very few.

The arrogance of ignorance at the present day leads too many to brush all
such considerations aside. It is only too rarely that thinking men have the
courage to pronounce judgment as clearly as did recently a distinguished
dignitary of the Church, Dr. Inge, the Dean of St. Paul’s, the cathedral of our
greatest city, in a strikingly outspoken course of lectures to women. The warning
he gave is worth pondering over :—

‘Democracy is perhaps the silliest of all fetishes that are seriously wor-
shipped among us. The method of counting heads, instead of breaking them,
is no doubt convenient as a rough and ready test of strength: since government
must rest mainly on force. It is also at least arguable that democracy is, at
present, a good instrument for procuring social justice and for educating citizens
in civic duty. But that is really all that anyone has a right to say in its
favour. . . . There is absolutely no guarantee, in the nature of things, that the
decision of the majority will be either wise or just; and what is neither wise
nor just ought not to be done. This is a somewhat elementary truism to
enunciate to an intelligent audience; but there stands the ridiculous fetish
grinning in our faces and the whole nation burns incense before it.’

The message of Science must be to the same effect. If the Christian spirit
prevail, Science and Socialism must ultimately go hand in hand—but true
Socialism, not the spurious article advocated by the limited intelligence of the
political intriguer of the day who leaves altogether out of account human nature

RR2

612 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

and its imperfections while preying upon the gullibility of the masses. Science
is not yet a sufliciently public possession, however, to make a rational and
considerate Socialism possible.

That religion will ultimately be placed upon a scientific basis—though perhaps
only in far-off days—may also be anticipated, for it has been well said that in
literature we already have homilies innumerable: that God’s universe is a
symbol of the Godlike ; Immensity a Temple; Man’s and Men’s history a perpetual
Evangel. In thus quoting Carlyle, I am aware of Mr. Balfour’s ill-judged,
flippant reference to his ‘windy prophesyings "—that for the time being his
Puritanism is out of fashion. But I prefer Huxley’s estimate, who uses
memorable words in saying :—

‘“ Sartor Resartus ’’ led me to know that a deep sense of religion was com-
patible with the entire absence of theology. . . . Science and her methods gave
me a resting-place independent of authority and traditions.

‘The longer I live the more obvious it is to me that the most sacred act of
man’s life is to say and to feel ‘‘ I believe such and such to be true.’”’ All the
greatest rewards and all the heaviest penalties of existence cling about that act.
‘he universe is one and the same throughout; and if the condition of my success
in unravelling some little difficulty of anatomy or physiology is that I shall
rigorously refuse to put faith in that which does not rest on sufficient evidence,
T cannot believe that the great mysteries of existence will be laid open to me on
other terms. It is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities. I know
what I mean when I say, I believe in the law of the inverse squares and I will
not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker convictions. I dare not if I would.’

‘Science seems to me to teach in the highest and strongest manner the great
truth which is embodied in the Christian conception of entire surrender to the
will of God. Sit down before a fact as a little child, be prepared to give up
every preconceived notion, follow humbly wherever and to whatever abysses
Nature leads or you shall learn nothing. I have only begun to learn content and
peace of mind since I have resolved at all risks to do this.’

These remarkable passages occur in one of Huxley’s letters to the Rev.
Charles Kingsley; probably they are a fair representation of the faith that is in
all whose views of life are ordered on a scientific basis. At least, they indicate
our attitude towards utterances such as Sir Oliver Lodge has given expression to
even from the Presidential Chair of this Association and to the fancies woven
by Mr. Balfour in his recent Gifford Lectures. Sir Oliver has asserted that ‘the
methods of Science are not the only way, though they are our way, of arriving
at the truth.’ It is scarcely necessary to controvert so illogical a statement.
If they are our way, it is because the methods of Science are the only methods
known to us which we can apply in our search for truth: all methods which
lead to truth are necessarily methods of science.

With all the marvellous growth of achievement to which I have referred,
there has been no proportionate growth of public intelligence. Our Admiralty
and to a far less extent our War Office have called Science into their service
but our public Departments generally will have none of it. Even the elements
of an understanding of the methods of Science are not thought to be essential to
the education of a Civil Servant; such knowledge is not required even in the
highest branches of the Indian Service—no politician is ever supposed to need
it: we are governed almost entirely by the literary spirit.

Our newspaper press is in the hands of literary men. Even ‘The Times’
gives no regular place to Science—now and then chance reference is made to
some discovery but too often the account is garbled. It publishes Literary and
Educational Supplements in neither of which Science figures; and recently, on
reducing its price in order to increase its popularity, it abandoned the weekly
publication of its Engineering Supplement and issues this only monthly in an
emasculated form. ‘The Liberal press is distinguished by the infrequency of its
references to scientific questions and by the superlative inaccuracy of the state-
ments that are made. The ‘Morning Post,’ by reporting the meetings of
societies and by opening its columns recently to a lengthy correspondence
on ‘Science and the State,’ however, has shown sympathy with us.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 613

The ‘Daily Telegraph’ alone of the Conservative papers retains the ser-
vices of an eminent scientific writer but even Science cannot make a
summer of one swallow. Editors who do not appreciate a subject themselves
are not likely to suppose that others will care for it. Lastly, I am told
by friends high up in the publishing trade that there is no demand for readable
books on Science—only text-books sell and provided always that they are
written on conventional lines, so that their contents can be memorised. Never-
theless, I have hopes, since Messrs. Dent have issued Faraday’s ‘Electro-
Chemical Researches’ as one of the shilling volumes in their wonderful ‘ Every-
| aE ’ series; this is the one promising speck of white cloud on an otherwise black
orizon.

The spirit of the age, in fact, is in no way scientific, though ease and comfort
are now provided on an unprecedented scale through the agency of Science, the
engineer acting as chief interpreter. The Churches will have none of it and
almost glory in their ignorance.

Why is this? Why was Huxley so out in his forecast made in 1861? Why
do we still go naked and unashamed of our ignorance of ‘Science’?

One main reason is that the party in power is unscientific; but at bottom,
I believe, the difficulty is a far greater one and probably innate in our dis-
position. It cannot well be supposed that man is by nature disposed to be
scientific. The scientific fraternity, at any time, are and probably always will
be but a small party—a set of freaks, sports from the multitude. They think
and talk in a language of their own, as musicians do. The multitude may listen
to them at times, with more or less of pleasure, as they do to music; but it is
impossible and probably always will be impossible for the many to appreciate
the methods and results of the scientific worker. Science, in reality, is a form
of art and true artists are never numerous; moreover, it is admitted that they
are born—like Topsy, they must grow, for they are not to be made in numbers.
Our schools are for the most part in literary hands: and it would almost appear
that literary and scientific interests are antagonistic, so unsympathetic has been
the reception accorded to Science by the schools.

Parenthetically, let me here deny the accusation not unfrequently made by
literary writers that the scientific fraternity are trying to oust literary studies
from the schools. Nothing could be further from the truth. We are always
craving for better literary training; our complaint is that the methods and
subject-matter of literary training are far from being properly developed and,
especially, that English is neglected in the schools. Huxley stated the real
situation in saying ‘Science and literature are not two things but two sides of
the same thing.’ Our attitude and the difference between the two kinds of
training could not be better defined than it is in the following passage from one
of his lectures :—

‘Tf I insist unweariedly, nay fanatically, upon the importance of physical
science as an educational agent, it is because the study of any branch of
Science, if properly conducted, appears to me to fill up a void left by all other
means of education. I have the greatest respect and love for literature; nothing
would grieve me more than to see literary training other than a very prominent
branch of education: indeed, I wish that real literary discipline were far more
attended to than it is; but I cannot shut my eyes to the fact that there is a
vast difference between men who have kad a purely literary and those who have
had a sound scientific training.

‘Seeking for the cause of this difference, I imagine I can find it in the fact
that, in the world of letters, learning and knowledge are one and books are the
source of both; whereas in Science, as in life, learning and knowledge are
distinct and the study of things and not of books is the source of the latter.

‘All that literature has to bestow may be obtained by reading and by
practical exercise in writing and speaking; but I do not exaggerate when I say
that none of the best gifts of Science are to be won by these means. On the
contrary, the great benefit which a scientific education bestows, whether as
training or as knowledge, is dependent upon the extent to which the mind of
the student is brought into immediate contact with facts—upon the degree to
which he learns the habit of appealing directly to Nature and of acquiring
through his senses concrete images of those properties of things which are and

614 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

always will be but approximately expressed in human language. Our way of
looking at Nature and of speaking about her varies from year to year; but a
fact once seen, a relation of cause and effect once demonstratively apprehended,
are possessions which neither change nor pass away but, on the contrary, form
fixed centres about which other truths aggregate by natural affinity.’

The rise of Science is due to the introduction of the experimental method.
Mr. Balfour, in arguing, as he has done recently, that Science rests upon
many unprovable postulates and therefore does not differ in method from
metaphysics, has made assertions which cannot be allowed to pass as correct
True Science rests wholly upon fact and upon logic: all else is mere provisional
hypothesis—a garment we are prepared to put aside at any moment if cause be
shown. We are well aware that human nature is always intervening to spoil
our work ; it is human to err, and false doctrine may easily occupy the attention
for a time, but we are fully conscious of our limitations and prepared to admit
them, whilst we feel that we are ever advancing towards security of knowledge.

The method of Science, indeed, is the method of the Chancery Court—it
involves the collection of all available evidence and the subjection of all such
evidence to the most searching examination and cross-examination. False evi-
dence may be tendered and for the time being accepted; but sooner or later
the perjury is discovered. Our method, in fact, goes beyond that of the courts :
we are not only always prepared to reconsider our judgments but always search-
ing for fresh evidence; we dare to be positive only when, time after time, the
facts appear to warrant a definite conclusion. But there are few instances in
which we have travelled so far. The Newtonian theory of gravitation, the
Daltonian theory of atoms, are two striking examples of generalisations which
fit all the facts, to which exceptions are not known; should any exception
be met with we should at once doubt the sufficiency of such theories. In cases
such as Mr. Balfour has discussed—the problems of metaphysics and of belief—
experiment and observation are impossible: we can only resort to speculative
reasoning ; our belief, if we have one, is necessarily founded upon intangibilities
and desires.

‘ There was a door to which I found no key :
There was a veil past which I could not see;
Some little talk awhile of Me and Thee
There seemed—and then no more of Thee and Me.’

The awful problem before us at the present time is to decide which direction
we will take, to what extent and in what way we have the right to teach things
which transcend our knowledge; the way in which truth lies may be clear to
some of us but can never be to the majority. Those who wrap up such matters in
a tangle of words are not helpful, to say the least. However mellifluous the
terms of Bergsonian philosophy may be, they do not bear analysis when the
attempt is made to interpret them; their effect is merely sensuous, like that of
cathedral music.

But in order that she may lead, Science must herself set an unimpeachable
example—far too much that is now taught under the guise of Science is pure
dogma; in fact, the philosophy of the schools is mostly dogma. The true legal
habit of mind is insufficiently cultivated and but rarely developed even among
scientific workers—our logic is too often an imperfect one. In Science, as in
ordinary life, party politics run high and scientific workers are usually, for the
time being, party politicians. We are too often crass specialists, always very
human: indeed, whatever the lines along which Evolution has taken place,
they cannot well have been such as to favour in any considerable degree the
development of the proclivities which distinguish the scientific inquirer: time
after time, doubtless, he has been knocked on the head, and the spread of his
kind prevented; now we too often lame him, if we do not kill him, by faulty
education.

The difficulties under which Science labours in our schools are partly internal,
partly external. Tradition and the type of mind of the average teacher favour
set lessons and literary study by blocks of learners; the extra cost of the work
is considerable, when the expense of the special requirements is taken into
account; more time and more individual effort are demanded both from teacher

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 615

and from taught; freedom is hampered by the need of considering the require-
ments of external examinations; finally, the Universities have done but little
to help and though the schools have more or less unwillingly recognised that
there is some value in scientific studies, in consequence of the persistent demands
men such as Huxley have made, more especially because it is seen that there
is money in them, none the less there is still no real demand for them on the
part of the public. Of this and, in fact, of nearly all the real problems of
education the public are too ignorant to be judges.

Having been more than forty years not only a teacher but also a student
of students and of teachers, of educational methods and of the conditions under
which teaching is carried on, I have been led to form very definite opinions,
the more so as I have been able to regard the problems not only from the
pedagogic side but also from that of the chemist and biologist—with some
knowledge of the mechanism.

My view—and it is one that I desire to press to a logical conclusion—is that
we must recognise that human ability is not merely a limited quantity but that
it varies enormously not only in quantity but also in quality: the human
orchestra contains a great variety of instruments differing in tone and range,
but Nature, like man, makes few instruments of superlative excellence, a vast
number of very poor quality and only a moderate proportion of serviceable
type. If Science can tell us anything, it is that the democratic and republican
ideal of equality is the veriest moonshine—a thing that never has been and
never will be. And education can do very little to alter the state of affairs :
it cannot change the instrument, at most it can develop its potentialities and
it may easily, by careless handling, do damage to the working parts. To take
a special case, of interest at the moment, no contention is less to be justified,
I believe, than that which has been put forward frequently, of late years, on
behalf of women—that their disabilities are in no small measure due to the
fact that we have neglected their education: give them time to educate them-
selves and they will be as men in all things. Years ago, at our Stockport
Meeting, I ventured to express the difference by saying that woman is not
merely female man but in many respects a different animal : the two sexes have
necessarily been evolved to fulfil different purposes. Nothing is more instructive
in the history of modern educational progress than the fact that women have
asked merely for what men have: at the Universities they have attended the
men’s courses; not one single course have they demanded on their own account.
Higher teaching in relation to Domestic Science so-called has only been thought
of very recently and mainly because men have urged its importance. Most
serious and, I believe, irreparable injury is being done to women, in London
especially, by forcing them to undertake the same studies and to pass the same
University examinations as the men: and the damage is done to the race, not
merely to individuals, as the effect of education, whether direct or indirect, is
clearly to diminish the fertility of the intellectual. Some day, perhaps, when
the present wave of selfishness has passed over us, a rational section of women
will found a woman’s university where women can be taught in ways suitable
to themselves without injury to themselves. In saying these things, of course
I am laying myself open to the charge of narrowness—in deprecation I can
only say, that what we are pleased to call education is, for the most part, so
futile in substance and in its results that I shall not mind in the least if I am
accused of decrying it : in my opinion, we should all be better without most of
it, men and women alike. So far as so-called intellectual education is con-
cerned, learning to read seems to me to be the one thing worth doing: at
present it is the thing most neglected in schools.

The commotion raised in pedagogic circles, during the last few months, by
Madame Montessori is sufficient proof, if one were wanted, of the hopeless
crudity of our educational practices.

To develop a rational system, we need to take into account man’s past
history and to apply evolutionary and biological conceptions. Education, as we
know it and practise it, after all is a modern superstition—something altogether
foreign to the nature of the majority of mankind: it is based on the false
assumption that we can all be intellectual; whereas. most of us can only use

616 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

our hands. But the schools neglect hands and attempt the impossible by trying
to cultivate non-existent wits. Man is doubtless pretty much what he was and
it is useless trying to make of him what he has never been. The harmless vision
by which Mr. Wells and other windy idealists are obsessed of a perfect man in
a perfect future may safely be left out of account for the present.

We are seeking to educate all. What does this mean? Practically that
we are seeking to teach all to read. But when they have learnt, what are the
majority to read—what will they care to read? At the schools for young
gentlemen, the reading taught hitherto has been mostly the reading of Latin
and Greek. We know the result—the number of persons above school age who
can and do read either language is negligible. Some of us learn French,
scarcely any learn German, Spanish is all but neglected : when, therefore, we
visit the Continent of Europe or South America we can only mumble a few
words of the language of the country and usually allow the foreigner we visit
to speak broken English for us: few of us read his literature.

The vain attempt is made to put us in touch with the past but no real
effort is exerted to bring us into contact with the present. We have not yet
taught English in our higher schools but are beginning to think of doing so—
to this end, we are urging that attention be paid to so-called classical literature,
forgetting, of course, that for the most part this was written for grown-ups
and not as food for babes of school age.

The difficulty is still greater in the case of those who have only passed
through the elementary schools—the literature that will appeal to most of these
will be very limited in scope. Our newspapers show pretty clearly what will go
down : not much—but it represents what is going on in life. In London, when
the theatres are under discussion, it is often said that people want to be
amused, not instructed; to cudgel our dull brains is a dull business to most
of us. It seems to me that this doctrine should be applied more than it is in
the schools. At all events, we shall do well to remember the words of the
holy lama in Rudyard Kipling’s ‘Kim’: ‘ Education is greatest blessing if of
best sorts. Otherwise no eaithly use.’

To discover the best sort for each sort of student is our difficulty—who will
do it? Here comes my point. Not the present race of schoolmaster or of
educational authority. By placing classical scholars in charge, we seem uncon-
sciously to have selected men of one particular type of mind for school
service—men of the literary type; and this type has been preferred for
nearly all school posts, mainly because no other type has been available,
this being the chief product of our Universities. Such men, for the most
part, have been indifferent to subjects and methods other than literary—
I verily believe not because they have been positively antagonistic or lacking
in sympathy but rather because of their negative antagonism: of an innate
inability to appreciate the aims and methods of any other school of thought
than their own, especially on account of their entire ignorance of the experi-
mental method. I believe, moreover, that the difference is fundamental and
temperamental, not to be overcome by training. Oxford, owing to the bait
of its classical scholarships, seems to have attracted an entirely peculiar type
of ability and to stand alone in consequence; at Cambridge, owing to the hold
obtained by mathematics, the field has been divided but the mathematician, in
his way, is often as unpractical by nature as the classic; fortunately, of late
years, owing to the rise of the Medical School and that of Natural Science, other
elements have been introduced and the University has a future of infinite
promise in consequence, if it will but realise that its primary function is to
inculcate wisdom rather than to give purely professional training.

Sympathy is only begotten of understanding: the literary type of mind
apparently does not and cannot sympathise with the practical side of modern
scientific inquiry, because it has neither knowledge of the methods of experi-
mental science nor the faintest desire for such knowledge.

We need a more practical type of mind for our schools. Pessimist though
I may appear to be, having watched with close attention, all my life, the great
struggle that has been going on in and between schools—having had the great
good fortune also myself to be one of the early workers jn the proyince of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION UL. 617

technical education and having been associated with the development of one
of the greatest of our boarding schools (Christ’s Hospital)—I am, of course,
aware that very great progress has been made and am, in every way, hopeful
of the future in store for those who are unaffected by present prejudices. In
my experience, the men to whom the progress has been due have, in all cases,
been trained in a broader school than that of Oxford; the few escapes
from Oxford who have been successful reformers have been the exceptions
which prove the rule, as they have shown themselves to be gifted with practical
instincts : to such men the Oxford literary training has been of extreme value.
Oxford will not gain its full value until all types of ability are represented in
fair proportion by its students, not one almost exclusively. When this step is
taken, the incubus of the Oxford spirit w ill no longer be upon us: it will then
be possible for us to regard education as ‘a preparation for life ’"—a formula
often used but usually honoured, hitherto, in the breach, rarely if ever in the
observance, in our schools.

You may remember the words addressed to Kim by that wonderful man the
Mahbub: ‘Son, I am wearied of that madrissah (school) where they take the
best years of a man to teach him what he can only Jearn upon the Road.’ This
is true philosophy—a philosophy that should be noted by the schools, especially
those here in Australia.

There must be no misunderstanding. The representatives of literary train-
ing rely chiefly on a past into which it is well not to look too closely and must
always work with borrowed capital in the days to come: our side has no distant
past worth speaking of but is hopeful of a glorious future, in that it will
always be adding to its knowledge; we desire to do their party all possible
justice and shall ever be in need of their assistance and more than grateful
for the service they render us; but it must be war to the knife if they will
not recognise that, in a progressive age, they cannot lead any longer, that we
shall decline to put up in future with the conceit and narrowness of outlook of
the classical scholar.

The argument I have applied to the teacher is equally applicable to the
taught—boys and girls, indeed students generally, are of different types: they
have different orders of ability and cannot be treated as if all were alike. In
the beginning, we may tempt them with all sorts of scholastic diet but only,
in the main, in order to discover their aptitudes; when these are found, they
should be the main line of attack. In saying this, I am not arguing in favour
of extreme specialisation but against time being wasted in attempting the
impossible. Some of us can learn. one thing, others another: the schools try to
force too many into one mould. It is essential that we should try to lay certain
foundations but useless to proceed when we find that some of them cannot
be laid.

This doctrine is applicable especially to the selection of scholars and to the
training of teachers and of evening-class students. We select our scholars
almost entirely by literary tests—the result is that we select persons of literary
aptitude rather than those gifted with practical ability for every kind of service :
like necessarily breeds like. By insisting on ‘ grouped courses’ we too often
oblige students to take up subiects which they are incapable of paying attention
to with profit: most of us, probably, have found out that there are many
subjects which we simply cannot learn, try as we may.

Mv own experience has been gained in a wide school. My course of action
was determined in early days by reading Trench’s ‘Study of Words,’ from
which I acquired inklings of the art of inquiry and an interest in tracing
things to their origin. At College, at the end of but a single year’s didactic
study, it was my great good fortune to be honoured with the confidence of my
teacher, the discoverer of zinc methyl and the author of the conception of
valency, who charged me with the solution of a problem: to work out an
absolute method of determining the organic matter in river and well water.
Instead of wasting time in merely repeating what others had done, I had to
help myself in all sorts of ways: the discipline was invaluable. At the end
of a year and a half, on going to Germany to study, I again came under the
influence of a man, an individualist of the first water, who encouraged his

618 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

students to think for themselves and do things themselves: he was an arch
heretic himself and we disputed with him-constantly.?

When I began to teach, the formal methods in vogue appeared to me unsatis-
factory. At first I had to instruct medical students. Then, in 1879, Professor
Ayrton and I became associated with the movement to give technical education,
in both day and evening classes, started by the City and Guilds Institute. At
first we were in temporary quarters; then the Finsbury Technical College was
erected—mainly from our designs. Together with Professor Perry, we there
developed complete courses of instruction for day engineering students of differ-
ent types. In 1884 we were transferred to the Central Technical College,
South Kensington, where again, in conjunction with our colleagues, Professors
Henrici and Unwin, Professor Ayrton and I devised complete courses for
engineering students but of a higher grade than at Finsbury.” Both colleges were

* Those were halcyon times, before the rot had set in which has rendered
modern German scientific training a discipline so inferior to that imparted
while the high ideals set by Liebig and Bunsen were alone operative : money-
making was not yet the object; in fact, the Alizarin patent was only taken out
at that time and the Salicylic acid patent a few years afterwards; specialisation
was unknown : every student was working at a different problem and everyone
knew what everyone else was doing—we constantly discussed our doings together.
In later years, each laboratory has had its special subject and the students
working with this or that member of the staff, as a rule, have been pledged to
secrecy, in case their results might turn out to be of practical value and
patentable. The peculiar growth of a new school, that of Physical Chemistry,
has also contributed in an unfortunate degree to a change in attitude, the
more as it has been pledged to one particular creed.

Mainly through the remarkable influence exercised by Ostwald, an escape
from the artistic-literary party, whose voluminous and eloquent writings have
had a great vogue, highly speculative doctrine has been put before students not
tentatively and argumentatively but as absolute truth: religious doctrine has
rarely been professed with greater fervour or with less regard to logic. Workers
in this field have not only been neglectful of the organic side of chemistry
and altogether lacking in breadth of appreciation but what is even worse—their
fingers have not been cultivated.

The two influences combined have deprived the German chemical school of
salient features to which formerly it owed its pre-eminence. Fortunately,
perhaps, we have not been successfu! on the commercial side but far too many
of us have fallen victims to ionomania and the disease has had dire effects,
particularly in biological circles: the text-books are so full of it that the
infection will not easily be rooted out.

In recent years several admirable books have been written on the ‘ pay your
money and take your choice’ principle, in which the views advocated by
A, B, &c., are set down. In discussing these with friends I have been nearly
always told : ‘Oh, but you must give students some positive belief.’ To me it
seems that unless the reasons can be stated and their sufficiency considered, we
are not teaching anything worthy to be termed Science and in no way pro-
moting the intellectual revolution contemplated by Huxley.

* As pieces of original pioneering research work in education, that done at
the two colleges has been of great importance; invaluable experience has been
gained—yet no one has asked to have the work fully recorded and discussed.
As is our English habit, having made an experiment successfully, we put our
experience aside and start afresh on a new tack: after being a phenomenal
success, at the end of twenty-five years, our system has been abolished at
Kensington and a return made to easy conventional ways. New forces are in
operation ; the last thing we English can contemplate is collective and continuous
action.

To pass from small things to great, we once had a Science and Art Depart-
ment : it was brought into being, with the assistance of Prince Albert, by the
late Lord Playfair, who did everything possible, throughout his life, to secure
its efficiency; Huxley, Sir John Donnelly and Sir William Abney raised it to a
high level ; now it is all but abandoned.

Once, in early years, the School Board for London had on its Council a man

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 619

distinguished from most others in the country by the completeness of their
obligatory courses and by holding an entrance examination, which all students
entering upon such courses were required to pass, as well as by the efforts that
were made to consider the capabilities of the students and to meet their
requirements.

My views were first made public in 1884, when a scheme of instruction was put
forward which was eventually developed into that known as the heuristic
method. My experience of the method has been gained both in my own school
and by watching its application by my pupils and others in a variety
of schools—by Messrs. Gordon and Heller in schools under the School Board
for London; by Mr. W. M. Heller, of late years, on a very large scale in Irish
elementary schools; in a number of girls’ schools; in Christ’s Hospital school;
and during over twenty years in one of the most successful modern secondary
schools in the country, where my four sons have been educated, which has
grown up at my doors, under a head-master who has been a warm advocate
of heuristic teaching.

The subject is discussed so fully in my book on ‘ The Teaching of Scientific
Method’ (Macmillan & Co., London, 1903; 2nd ed. 1911) that it is unneces-
sary to say anything of the method, beyond pointing out that it involves put-
ting the learner in the position of inquirer and insisting that the purpose with
which an experiment is made shall be fully appreciated before it is carried
out and that the bearing of the result on the question asked at the beginning
shall be fully considered—each successive experiment being devised to promote
the solution of the problem undertaken and to justify the solution arrived at.
One feature of the work is the stress laid on an account being written of the
work in proper literary form, stage by stage, as the inquiry is carried on: the
art of making experiments is the one before all others to be cultivated by such
work; therefore it is essential that a statement of the motive with which an
experiment is made shall be written out before proceeding.

The results obtained either by myself or through the agency of those whom
I have trained have been most encouraging; but it has only been too obvious
that those who attempt to put it in practice, after they have been under the
influence of didactic and dogmatic teaching, have the greatest difficulty in ac-
quiring the right habit of mind, so that, probably, not many teachers have really
learnt to appreciate the method and its possibilities : it is one that involves too
much thinking to please the majority; thinking is always troublesome work.
But the movement has had an influence in many quarters and has even affected
literary subjects : an ideal has been introduced into teaching the application of
which is new, though it is not new in principle. Our conventional method of
teaching is not one which favours the development of an inquiring habit—we
give demonstrations and we call upon students to verify statements that are
made to them; but we are so occupied in stating results, that we do not explain
how the results were arrived at and what led up to them. As a rule,
only those who have done research work know what constitutes an experiment.

My own experience with students has satisfied me that they not only vary
in ability but that the different classes are of very different types of mind :
the engineer tends to be constructive but not analytical; the analytical intro-
spective habit of mind is more highly developed in the chemist; the biologist
rarely has mathematical proclivities.

It is useless to attempt to teach all in the same way and many can learn
only very little.

The explanation of Huxley’s failure to forecast the future of Science lies,
apparently, in the fact that men generally are not attuned to her ways. I am

of sterling worth, who was a whole-hearted believer in Science—the late
Dr. Gladstone : under his influence a most important and successful beginning
was made to give very elementary lessons in scientific method in the schools;
the experiment came to ‘an end even before his death: the work done by the
teacher was so highly appreciated that he was attracted elsewhere and had no
proper successor.

We seem, in all things, to depend on some one man: it will rest with Science
to remedy this disability from which we suffer so much.

620 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

inclined to think that the ‘mere man of letters’ will continue to ignore and
despise Science—he will lack the peculiar mental capacity to assimilate scientific
teaching. Only the few will rise to a proper understanding of the mysteries
and be masters of their subjects, though many may be trained to be skilful
mechanics.

The extent to which the multitude can receive instruction is a matter of
primary importance. If, as Huxley has said, the greatest intellectual revolu-
tion mankind has yet seen is now slowly taking place by the agency of Science—
if she be teaching the world that the ultimate court of appeal is observation
and experiment, not authority; teaching it the value of evidence : then must
we strive to teach all, in some measure, what constitutes evidence, what observa-
tion and experiment are.

I believe much can be done in this direction, having made the attempt
with hundreds of unwilling students in my time, students of Engineering who
had not only made up their minds that they were not going to learn
Chemistry as it was not their subject but were incapable of ever entering
into the spirit of the work—one of my sons was amongst them. At an early
period, having realised that it was useless to waste my time and theirs in
the struggle and that it would not help them, in the long run, to give
them Chemical tips which they lacked the sense to appreciate and to apply,
I made up my mind that it was desirable instead, if possible, to develop any
detective or inventive spirit that might be in them, so advised them to
read detective stories instead of a text-book and ask themselves what the stories
taught them : how the detectives set to work. Their attention was secured by
urging them also to think what would be their position, later in life, when they
were called upon to act for themselves and to get new knowledge for themselves,
if they had not learnt to think for themselves. We have then set them to work
to solve a series of problems in the laboratory. The course, in fact, was a
combined laboratory-lecture course, the lectures being on and always subsequent
to the laboratory work. In not a few cases, in after years, when I have met
old students, they have told me spontaneously that, much as they had objected
to the pressure put upon them, our insistence on their learning to do something
themselves had proved to be of extreme value. Long experience has con-
vinced me that anyone who has once learnt to make simple measurements and
observations and to ask and answer a definite question experimentally is on a
different mental and moral plane from that occupied by those who have had no
such training.

Such teaching is possible even in elementary schools—given competent
teachers; but a new race of teachers will be required to carry the work into
effect, should it be decided to make the attempt at all generally.

The great mistake that has been made hitherto is that of attempting to teach
the elements of this or that special branch of Science: what we should seek
to do is to impart the elements of scientific method and inculcate wisdom, so
choosing the material studied as to develop an intelligent appreciation of what
is going on in the world. It must be made clear, in every possible way, that
Science is not a mere body of doctrine but a method: that its one aim is the
pursuit of truth.

If we are to progress in these matters, a system must soon be developed which
is broader and better than that under which we now muddle along—at present
the real problems of education are all but neglected; even if the official mind
were capable and desirous of promoting progress, the work of administering
rules and regulations—of keeping the machine going—is so great that no time
is left for thought.

To accomplish our purpose we need to introduce higher ideals into our
University life—the ideals that have long governed the German Universities.
In place of the worship of mere knowledge, we must put those of understanding
and application and seek to teach all, as far as possible, to appreciate the art
of discovery—to value and promote inquiry and discussion: to exercise a
reasonable logic, in fact.

We have seen the error of our ways sufficiently to give up payment by results
and are all but ashamed that we were ever misled by Robert Lowe to adopt such
a soul-killing policy. But none the less our entire educational system is still in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L, 621

the grips of commercialism and, in this respect, as a nation, we stand alone,
I believe. Scholarships, prizes of one kind or another, examinations are the
perpetual feast of British education. Examinations, in fact, are a regularised
and very lucrative branch of industry—mostly in the hands of certain firms
who diplomatically shelter themselves under the exgis of this or that educa-
tional body; but the Universities are the greatest sinners. Valuable as examina-
tions may be within certain narrow limits and for certain definite purposes, there
is little doubt that our general ignorance is in no small degree determined by
our worship of the examination fetish. So long as the system prevails, the
education of our youth will not be in accordance either with their capacity or
their requirements but on lines corresponding to those by which prize cattle are
raised for show—they will be trained to develop some specially catching point.

The examinations are an inheritance from the literary rule. It is possible to
test on paper whether a man be ‘ well read’ but faculty as distinct from capacity
cannot be so determined. What is worse, by forcing students to commit a large
body of doctrine to memory, the attention becomes fixed merely upon what
others have done and little time or inclination is left them to acquire a know-
ledge of method—the faculty of thinking for themselves and applying their
knowledge. No class suffer more seriously than medical students under the
system—their preliminary training is all but entirely didactic and the time
spent upon it all but wasted: we need not wonder that medicine has made so
little advance, the practitioners being in no way trained in the use of scientific
method.

That we should so long have suffered so futile a system to prevail is incom-
prehensible. German higher education has achieved marvellous results without
any such provision of rewards and prizes as ours and has given breadth to the
nation in consequence; in fact, science in Germany is all but a household word,
as every family in the educated classes has one or more of its members trained
at the University and the primary function of the Universities is to inculcate
a knowledge of method : they insist that all who take their degrees shall have
inklings of the art of inquiry, not mere knowledge.

To improve our educational system we need to get rid of our blind British
belief in ‘men of affairs,’ especially in the ‘man of business,’ so-called, really
the man of commerce, as persons capable of ordering everybody’s affairs and
everybody’s business. The commercial man, the financier or the lawyer, would
never think of calling us in to manage his proper business—why should he be
thought competent to manage ours? Results show that he is not, as my
argument in this address would lead us to expect would be the case.

No one will seek, for one moment, to minimise the progress made or fail to
recognise that infinite credit is due to those who have controlled the work of
education thus far; hitherto, however, progress has been made in providing
accommodation and getting scholars to school and college: the art of teaching
has made no corresponding advance—nor will it, I believe, until the onus is
cast more directly upon the teachers and they are forced to exercise greater
forethought in the direction of collective action—until they are placed in a
position to be sole managers of their own affairs and called upon to row together
as entirely self-chosen crews. At home, excepting at our ancient Universities,
“Governing Bodies’ are paramount everywhere—not the teachers: and too often
the sense of responsibility and power of initiative of the teacher are further
diminished by the interposition of a Principal, who may be a man of all affairs
except that in hand—the work of teaching. If rumour speak truly, the College
President is too often the bar to progress in the United States of America.
It is well known that the exercise of responsibility promotes thought and begets
the sense and power of accepting responsibility—the opposite is none the less
true.

Personally, I have had special experience as to what can be done under a
system involving collective action and have had foretastes of what might be
done by sympathetic interlocking and correlation of courses: I have no doubt of
its superiority : nevertheless, I recognise that such co-operative action may be
‘agin Nature.’

In some way, we must learn to debate our doings more freely and not to
flinch at fair criticism. Whatever the faults of our English public school

622 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

education, one of its many advantages is that boys who go through it are
disciplined to stand the kicks of the world without too much complaining :
this is one of the marks of the gentleman. Such training is not easily given in
the day school and no little difficulty is experienced, I am told, by employers
of labour nowadays, on account of the way in which the least criticism, even the
suggestion that there may be a better way of doing a thing, is liable to be
resented and interpreted as fault-finding by those in their employ.

If the conclusion at which I have arrived be correct—that science is not
for the multitude and can never be generally appreciated or even fashionable—in
view of the part which it is clearly destined to play in education and in daily
life, on account of its infinite and far-reaching influence upon our well-being
—the responsibility cast upon the few representatives of science is very great :
in support of our civilisation and in order that wisdom may prevail more
generally, they must organise its forces effectively.

Whilst individuality is the mainspring of scientific progress, collective action
is required to provide full and proper opportunity for the workers and to
promote the success of their inquiries. At present, scientific workers are
organised merely for the purpose of providing means of publishing the results
of their studies, in no way either for defence or offence: our Societies are
not effective even for the purposes of debate and criticism. Thus, our chief
English scientific Society, consisting of some 500 members representative of all
the various branches of physical and biological science, is little more than
a rabble—its Fellows are such individualists that scarce half a dozen of us
can ever agree to work seriously together for a common purpose, and the
irresistible influence we might exercise if we could be unanimous as to our
objective is lost to the community. Most unfortunately the Society has no
influence whatever either on political or on public opinion: it makes no attempt
either to guide the public or to give dignity and importance to the cause of
science in the eyes of the community. Its meetings are dull and its belated
publications by no means represent the scientific activity of its Fellows.. The
Presidents of the Society have too often been appointed at an age when the
propagandist spirit is no longer paramount, when they have no particular
scientific message left in them to deliver. And they occupy the Chair too long :
this arises chiefly from the fact that however clear each one of us may be that
individually he is fully competent to hold the office, we all agree in finding
some objection to every name that is suggested: to overcome this difficulty a
short tenure is desirable, so that the compliment can be paid and encouragement
given to the various sciences in turn; no one should be appointed to such an
office who is more than 60-65 years old, as most of us have used up our ideas and
have lost our virility by that age. The other officers also hold their positions
too long but members of the Council have far too short a life—consequently all
the power is centred in the official body; attempts that have been made to
organise the whole Society in sections representative of the various sciences have
always been defeated by the official party.

Unless our scientific societies can be made more generally effective, if
scientific workers are incapable of learning lessons from administrative life, it
stands to reason that the collective interests of Science and of the body scientific
must remain unrepresented and unvoiced—to the great detriment of progress
and of the public. ; bee

Science must be organised, in fact, as other professions are organised, if it
is to be an effective agent in our civilisation: the problems pressing upon us
are of such magnitude and of such infinite importance that we can no longer
afford to be without wisdom.

‘That there should one Man die ignorant who had capacity for Knowledge,
this I call a Tragedy. . . . The miserable fraction of Science which an
united mankind, in a wide Universe of Nescience, has acquired, why is not this,
with all diligence, imparted to all?’ This question, asked long ago by our
Chelsea sage, remains shamefully unanswered. : 4

Our present system is cunningly devised to keep expert advice at a distance :
unless a row can be made or action taken which will affect votes, little can be
done. Persons afflicted with ideas derived from long service and serious study

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L, 623

may obtain a hearing occasionally, at meetings such as this; a leading article or
two may be written about their vagaries; but the State has no use for them.

Nevertheless, we must continue to rattle our drums, hoping that the noise will
attract in course of time :—

* The future hides in it
Gladness and sorrow ;
We press still thorow,
Nothing that abides in it
Daunting us—onward.,’
Tarry long we cannot :—
‘One moment in Annihilation’s Waste,
One moment of the Well of Life to taste—

The Stars are setting and the Caravan
Starts for the Dawn of Nothing—Oh, make haste! ’

“God, He knows we need men more and more in the game!’ said the
Mahbub to Kim. The awful war before us must inevitably prove this to be the
case, is proving it already; all that I have seen since I came to Australia, to my
mind, is proof to the same effect. As Prince von Bilow reminds us, ‘ the varied
life of a nation, ever changing, ever growing more complicated, cannot be
stretched or squeezed to fit a programme or a political principle.’ The future
of this Continent must depend on training being given that will educate and
provide real men, not softlings and town-dwellers merely.

The following Papers were then read :—
1. State Aid for Science: A Retrospect. By C. A. BuckmastER.

An attempt was made to show in what ways and to what extent the State
has provided funds for the promotion of Science during the past sixty years,
to trace the variations in amount and manner from year to year, and to see
what general conclusions, if any, can be drawn from the results.

The sums voted in the Estimates presented to Parliament were taken as a
basis, and classified under the two heads of Aid given to Science Instruction and
Aid given for the promotion of Scientific Research.

The first of these was again divided into the assistance given to Science
teaching in connection with Klementary, Secondary, University, and Technical
Education respectively,

The part played by the various Government Departments in this distribution
of public funds was indicated, and the effect of this variety on the results of the
investigation noted.

Finally the evidence of increase or decrease both in amount and interest was
examined and the general results of the inquiry summarised.

2. Mathematics and Science as Part of a Liberal Education.
By W. D. Eaaar.

The methods of teaching the elements of these subjects have been discussed
almost ad nauseam during the last thirteen years and perhaps longer, the main
starting-point being the meeting of the British Association in Glasgow in 1901.
It is not the object of the writer of the paper to question the merits of the
changes of method either in Mathematics or Science. The immediate cause of
the changes has been the change in the character of examinations. Hxamina-
tions, and, in particular, the school-leaving examination, must always determine
the nature and extent of the school teaching. The accepted view is that a boy
who has passed this examination has obtained a satisfactory general grounding,
and is capable of ‘ specialising,’ as it is called, in Mathematics, Science, Classics,
History, Modern Languages, or, at the University, in Law, or Theology, or
Metaphysics.

It is maintained by the writer that the Mathematics required by all these

624 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

qualifying examinations are either too little or too much. From the purely
utilitarian standpoint, the standpoint which is now almost universal, it is only
the man in a scientific profession who wants anything more than plain Arithmetic.
From the esthetic standpoint every educated man wants something better than
simultaneous quadratics, which mark the superior limit in Algebra. The modern
classical Sixth Form boy misses the old logical training of Huclid, which after
all did appeal to and influence the clever ones, and has now been replaced by a
hotch-potch in which any proof of a theorem is accepted which is good enough
for an engineer.

The conditions in science teaching are somewhat similar. Here again every-
thing has been sacrificed to the average stupid boy: the average clever boy is
disregarded. The boy without imagination must have everything presented to
him with an obvious utilitarian sauce. Hence Science which is not strictly useful
but only beautiful is liable to be excluded. You will not find Astronomy and
Sound included in many school curricula.

Cannot we arrive at some agreement as to the number and position of the
windows of the mind which should be opened by a liberal education? Does the
syllabus of any School-leaving or Matriculation or Previous Hxamination open
any? Greek opens a window to the mind which gets as far as being able to read
Homer and Plato without a crib and with only occasional use of the dictionary.
Physics opens a window when wave-motion in all its forms begins to be realised ;
the construction of a thermometer or an electroscope leaves the window shut.
Mathematics must open many windows for those who go far enough; but the
tendency of the average non-mathematical boy is to regard itas a dark and dusty
subway with no windows at all. How far must one go to come to a window?
The question may be asked in connection with any study ; and it might be set as
a problem for the Recorder of each Section of this Association to assess the
minimum of attainment which will enable the average member to follow with
intelligent appreciation the work of that Section.

(A general discussion followed, in which Mr. J. Saxton, Mr. M. P. Hanson,
Mr. G. Branca, and Mr. W. Jamieson took part.)

3. On some New Motor Tests of Intelligence. By H. WALKER.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 18.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The London Trade Schools. By C. W. Kimuins, M.A., D.Sc.

In order to place the subject of trade schools in its appropriate setting it is
necessary to know something of the London County Council’s elaborate scholar-
ship scheme, consisting of junior, intermediate, and senior scholarships, which
makes ample provision for the very clever child from the elementary school to the
secondary school and the University or higher technical school.

After thus making provision for the clever child the problem of problems
becomes: How can we prevent the boy and girl of normal intelligence from
drifting into the ranks of unskilled labour on leaving the elementary school at
the age of fourteen? In order to bridge over the serious gap between the ages
of fourteen and seventeen the trade school has come into existence, and is
destined in the future to play a very important part in London education. It has
been found that for the poor type of child it is, under present conditions, quite
impossible to ensure two or three years’ continuous instruction after the age of
fourteen unless some grant for maintenance is made which will recoup the
parents for the loss they sustain by not letting their children enter unskilled
employment. The trade school scholarship for boys generally consists of free
education and a maintenance grant of 6/. for the first year and 15/. for the second
and third years.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 625

The establishment of the trade school is, moreover, largely due to the changed
conditions of modern industry and the total disappearance in some, and the gradual
disappearance in others, of the apprenticeship system in many of the London
industries. Most of the trade scholarships for boys are awarded in engineering,
silversmithing and jewellery, book-production, furniture and cabinet-making,
carriage-building, photo-engraving and photo-process work, professional cookery,
waiting, and wood-carving, and for the different branches of the building trades.
In many other trades, such as tailoring and bakery and confectionery, definite
trade instruction is given, but no scholarships are awarded for these subjects.
The net cost, apart from loan charges, in a boys’ trade school is about 152. to 210.
per head.

The scholarships awarded to girls are for trade dress-making, laundry work,
upholstery, ladies’ tailoring, waistcoat-making, corset-making, millinery, design-
ing and making of wholesale costumes, and photography. As a rule, trade
scholarships for girls are for a period of two years, with a maintenance grant of
87. for the first year and 127, for the second year, in addition to free education.
The net cost in a trade school for girls is about 15/. per girl.

In order to ensure that trade scholarships are given only to children of
parents who are unable to maintain their children at school without assistance,
no candidate is eligible whose parents or guardians are in receipt of an income
which exceeds 160/. a year from all sources.

In many ways the trade school has a distinct advantage over the old system of
apprenticeship :—

(1) The supervision in a well-equipped trade school is generally of a much
more efficient kind than even that of a well-ordered workshop. ‘

(2) Culture subjects are not neglected, and consequently the general education
of the boys or girls is continued in a manner suitable to the trade for which they
are preparing. -

(3) In the apprenticeship system there is a natural tendency for the appren-
tice to become attached to some special department of the work, to the serious
neglect of others.

(4) In following out a definite curriculum under a well-arranged time-table
there is very little waste of time and the balance of theoretical and practical
work is properly maintained.

(5) The work of a trade school is generally governed by a consultative com-
mittee of experts who are to a large extent responsible for the education of the
students being carried on under the best trade conditions.

(6) The presence of trade experts with experience of teaching, who are
always at hand in the trade school workshop and able to solve any difficulties
which may arise, means an enormous saving of time as compared with the case of
the apprentice who has to await the convenience of the foreman for the solution
of difficulties.

A most important element in the success of the trade schools is the connec-
tion of the school with the trade by means of expert consultative committees.
The most important of these are the consultative committees in (i) bookbinding,
(ii) book-production, (iii) goldsmithing, silversmithing, and jewellery, (iv) tailor-
ing, and (v) furnishing trades. These committees are representative of the
Masters’ Associations, of the Workmen’s Associations, and of the Council. Local
consultative committees of experts have also been formed in the case of each
trade in each of the girls’ schools.

In addition to the full-time trade schools there are many polytechnics and
technical schools in London working in conjunction with employers of labour in
connection with the technical education of their employés. Moreover, apart from
full and part time day work admirable provision is made in all parts of London
for evening classes in polytechnics and similar institutions in connection with the
various trades. The enthusiasm with which thousands of young artisans, after a
long day’s work, will attend for theoretical and practical instruction in the
scientific principles of their trades under skilled craftsmen is one of the mest
pleasing features in London education.

1914. $s

626 _ |. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

2. Commercial Schools. By G. T. Moopy, D.Sc.

3. The Compulsory Education of Youth.
By Professor J. J. Frypuay, Ph.D., M.A.

1. Up to the era of the Industrial Revolution all races, savage and civilised,
held the youth of both sexes up to eighteen years of age in control and educated
them (although only a few were kept at school). The introduction of the factory
and of wholesale traffic has created a youthful proletariat, emancipated by earn-
ing wages from control either by the tamily, the Church, or the civic guild,

2. The consequent evil is accentuated (a) by the artificial conditions under
which the period of childhood is passed in schools: affording few experiences
adequate to prepare for precocious emancipation; (b) physical conditions of city
life; (c) opportunities for cheap luxury presenting temptations to idleness and
waste—the cinema perhaps the last word in this story; (d) the enormously
increased demand for monotonous labour which youth can undertake even better
than older people.

3. Remedies to be sought by noting how the youth in families of larger
means are nowadays educated :—

(a) Youth needs social experience; the family and the Secondary Schools
together provide opportunities for corporate life appropriate to this period of
development, ‘The parallel to this among the proletariat is found in Lads’ Clubs,
the Boy Scout movement, and similar organisations by institutional churches in
the slums of large cities; but these cannot claim contro? over the youth. With
a selected few they provide outlet for the imagination and foster ideals.

(6) Youth needs instruction. The Secondary School for the leisured class,
the Trade School for the artizan class, need their counterpart in plans for partial
instruction during a few hours in each week compulsorily imposed on all, and
taken during the day-time. This is most effective when associated with employ-
ment in commerce or manufacture, for youth profits by the discipline of hard
work. The Evening Continuation School has failed to reach the great mass of
those who need instruction, but has pointed the way to a more comprehensive
reform. i

(c) Youth needs vocational guidance and the personal interest of older folk.
The family and the school unite to supply this for the more fortunate classes.
Labour Bureaus and the like are beginning to supply it for the proletariat.

4, The organisation needed must make united provision for these three needs.
It must be set in motion by the State, since the family and the trade have lost the
compulsory authority which they formerly exercised; and the State alone can
interfere on behalf of the youth with the vested interests of capital and labour.
The outcome will be seen in a new type of institution; and a new type of teacher,
who will be the guide and friend of youth as well as a ‘ continuation ’ instructor.
Examples are already to hand in the efforts made by a few large employers of
adolescent labour in Europe and America: the State as an employer of such
labour hag hitherto done little. Reform will only be effective when the social
conscience of the community is aroused in large cities so as to support the
Legislature in accepting the principle of partial control over wage-earning youth,

4, Agricultural Education. By A. D. Hau, F.BR.S.

(A general discussion relating especially to Victorian experience followed, in
which Mr. F. Tare, Mr. Crarx, and Mr, Hucu Pyz took part.)

5. Moral Education. By W. R. Boyce Gipson.

1. Moral instruction has this distinctive characteristic, that it touches the
interest on its practical side where the life of ideas is intimately one with the
life of sentiment and will. Its appeal is to the personal reason, and the ideas
which it stimulates into activity become directive forces of the personal life.
Hence moral instruction stands on a different platform from instruction in the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 627

sciences. ‘The ideas we acquire concerning the stars do not modify or otherwise
affect their movements. They simply affect our knowledge of their movements.
But the ideas we acquire concerning our own behaviour may affect not only our
knowledge of that behaviour but the behaviour itself.

2. The ideas awakened through moral instruction will tend to act themselves
out, and in thus enacting themselves provide the natural opportunity for moral
training. Thus moral instruction and moral training are intimately connected as
stages in the completed process of moral education.

3. Since the moral ideas emerge from the depths of the personal life, we shall
find it hard on any vital definition of religion to sever moral ideas from their
religious setting or moral from religious instruction. In any case it seems inad-
visable to sever the two in advance in an artificial way. Teaching that is scrupu-
lously ethical may if it reach deep enough become profoundly religious in its
appeal whilst still remaining wholly non-theological and non-sectarian. In our
view the exclusion of the child’s most natural treasury of morals, the Bible,
from courses of moral instruction intended to promote the child’s good cannot be
logically defended, though it may on lesser grounds be judged expedient.

4. In discussing the conditions of moral instruction it would conduce to
clearness if interests were considered in the following order: (1) the child’s,
(2) the teacher’s, (3) the interests of parents and churches. No solution could,
of course, be regarded as anything but provisional which did not satisfy all the
essential interests involved.

5. Admitting the view of Professor Sadler that ‘the question of moral educa-
tion is the heart of the modern educational problem,’ and that ‘if this is
neglected, education is a peril,’ the conclusion of the late International Inquiry
dealing with moral instruction and training in schools, that in all public
elementary schools at least one lesson a week should be devoted to moral instruc-
tion can hardly be considered extravagant.

6. The main part to be played by philosophy in assisting moral education
seems to lie (1) in the psychological investigation and analysis of the life and
mentality of childhood, (2) in the discussion of the problems and requirements
of social ethics, (3) in the organising of a Weltanschauung in the light of which
educational ideals in general and those of moral education in particular may be
brought into helpful relations to each other and to the rest of life.

(A discussion followed, in which Dr. H. B. Gray and Dr. A. Lerprr took
part.)

6. The Teaching of Botany. By Miss L. J. Cuarxe.

7. The Teaching of Domestic Subjects in Primary Schools.
By Mrs. C. M. Merepiru.

The inclusion of any subject in the primary school curriculum needs careful
justification because of the limited time available. Each subject must either be
useful in the zense that it is to be of service later on, or educational, or both.
The domestic subjects are generally regarded as both; but they would probably
not be selected on educational grounds alone. Hence it is important to realise
exactly what useful result is arrived at and to base the teaching upon this.
This aim may be best described as preparation for the more intelligent manage-
ment of a home, and the teaching should therefore not occupy too much time to
the neglect of general education, nor should it be isolated from other subjects
which, e.g., provide for amusement and the occupation of leisure. Finally,
‘housecraft’ should be the subject, to which cooking, sewing, &c., are sub-
ordinate.

The main difficulties in teaching housecraft are: (a) that the conditions in
school are often too unlike those in the girl’s future home. Something is now
being done to avoid this, but a complete solution is impossible as long as slum
conditions still prevail in many working-class homes.

(b) That the child has no adequate motive for her work. This is more

ss) 2

628 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION IL.

important than (a), and more difficult to meet, but the following motives can be
appealed to :—

(1) The play motive, which is at present only made use of in young children.

(2) The desire to ‘help’ and to do ‘ real work.’

(3) The love of simplified or primitive life.

We want to arouse something of the boy scout attitude, which includes a
little of all the above motives.

(A discussion followed, in which Mrs. AttEN and Mrs. Mounratn took part.)

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 19.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Training of the Teacher. By Dr. Joun Suyta.

This paper specially emphasised :—

(1) (a) The value of giving young teachers the right ideal; (b) The steps
in the art of teaching; (c) The value of experimental work and especially of
experimental schools both in the training of the teacher and in the development
of all teachers.

(2) It is well that a student before beginning systematic professional training
should :—(a) have spent six months or a year in the observation and practice of
teaching so as to become acquainted with its problems and difficulties; (b) have
completed his course of academic training.

(3) It is well for all three classes of student-teachers : Kindergarten, Primary,
Secondary, to be trained at the same institution; or, if this be not possible, to
learn something of one another’s work. A special course of training should be
given to intending Rural School teachers.

(4) The training of the teacher naturally divides into three related parts :—
The Ideal, Culture and Knowledge, Professional Training. The Ideal may be
shortly defined as the spiritual vision of the part to be played by the school in
the upbuilding of national life. It is more important than knowledge, and in
some ways more important than professional skill. 1t begets enthusiasm,
awakens sympathy with children, and becomes the parent of many virtues.
Culture is more valuable than knowledge, as it means at least the kindling of
love and appreciation and may mean much more.

(5) The Professional Training of the teacher divides itself into three parts :—
(a) the lectures on the philosophy, history, administration, principles, and
methods of education; (b) the observation of and efforts at acquiring skill in
teaching; (c) the use of experimental work. The first of these may be passed
over at present.

(6) With reference to the acquirement of skill the problem for our time is
to reduce it by scientific investigation into a series of gradations, and to analyse
the whole process into its elements. It will be found that these steps will vary
somewhat for each type of student and will be different according as the age
is. The elements combining in the perfected result will be the same; and
ultimately have all to be mastered, but they may be gained in different ways.
Students should be divided into types or classes according to their degree of con-
fidence, their sympathy with children, and their connectedness of thought and
speech. Modifications as to the length of time spent on observation and the mode
of attack will depend on the grade of teaching for which preparation is being
made and on the academic training completed.

(7) The Art of Teaching may be analysed into :—Confidence, planning a
lesson, connectedness of thought and speech, sympathy with children, use of
illustration, eye and ear power, questioning, disciplinary power. The first
three are necessary from the beginning, but each of the others need not be con-
sciously cultivated till the preceding ones have been more or less acquired. The
development of power in each should continue to grow consciously step by step

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 629

till ultimately all combine in enabling the teacher at every moment to place him-
self alongside the conscious effort of each individual child and to be fertile in
resource to help him.

(8) Experimental work will be the basis and crown of future training. By
his laboratory work the student will get a new view of psychology and _child-
study, and from the experimental schools he will see new vistas of productive
effort and inquiry in method, curricula, correlation, &c. It will compel him
to be a better teacher, for only the skilful and sympathetic can investigate the
recesses of the child mind.

(9) Experimental schools in connection with Teachers’ Colleges are as neces-
sary for Education Departments and for all teachers as for the students. They
will set new views of the teaching art before teachers and re-awaken zeal and
enthusiasm in many. They will be able to demonstrate what correlations can
be made, what curricula may be taught, and what methods should be followed.
They will substitute scientific certainty for dogmatic opinion or scattered
observations, and will give the Teaching Art a new status in the community.

2. On the General Aims of Training.
By Professor J. J. Finpuay, Ph.D.

3. On the Possibility of Analysing the Process of Teaching with a View
to Simplifying the Approach to the Problem of Training.
By Professor J. A. Green, M.A.

SYDNEY.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.

After the President had delivered his Address (see p. 592) the following
Papers were read :—

1. Training of Teachers in New South Wales.
By Professor A. Macxiz, M.A.

Prior to 1906 training for teaching was by means of apprenticeship. Boys
and girls after the completion of the primary course were apprenticed as pupil-
teachers for a period of four years. On the completion of apprenticeship a
small number passed into one or other of the two training-colleges. The
majority, however, were appointed without further training as assistants in
State schools, and thereafter rose to the higher positions partly by length of
service, experience, and competency, and partly by sitting for the teachers’
examination. In the training-colleges the course was short—after one year of
training the students passed out as trained teachers and took their place as
assistants.

Growing dissatisfaction with this method of providing a supply of teachers
was felt for reasons similar to those operating in England and Scotland about
the same time. General dissatisfaction with the school organisations led to a
commission being sent to Europe. The report of this commission was the
immediate cause of the re-organisation of the educational system which has
been proceeding ever since. Further, a syllabus of primary instruction prepared
by Mr. Board when he became Under-Secretary in 1905 made it clear that a
higher standard of qualification was necessary for teachers.

Guiding principles determining the reshaping of the course of training for
teachers were :—

(a) The abolition of apprenticeship or the pupil-teacher system.

(b) College training for all teachers to be employed in the State service.

630 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

Since 1906 progress has been steady towards the realisation of these aims:
in spite of the very great difficulties in staffing schools in a rapidly developing
and widely scattered community there has been no reversion to the policy of
employing wholly untrained persons or persons who have picked up their know-
ledge and skill by means of apprenticeship only.

The Development of Teachers’ College.

In 1905 the two colleges were abolished. A single non-residential college
for men and women was established in temporary quarters.

Up till 1913 a special entrance examination was held for admission to the
college, and since 1910 candidates who had passed the University Matriculation
Examination were admitted without further examination.

At first the student body was almost wholly composed of those who had
passed through a period of apprenticeship, and, in consequence, courses had to
be adopted to suit the needs of ex-pupil-teachers. But gradually the supply of
pupil-teachers became exhausted, and their place was taken by probationary
students. These were boys and girls passing through a course of secondary
training at a High School or District School. During the last two years of
this course these probationary students were in receipt of scholarships given to
assist them in preparing for the work of teaching. During the last two years
of their probationary students’ course the pupils received some instruction in
teaching and some practice in giving lessons under the direction of the head
master and mistress. The Teachers’ College also took a part in the supervision
of their practice teaching during three months prior to entrance to college.

When the High School courses were reorganised it was decided that the
supply of teachers should in future be drawn from those who had completed
a four-year course of secondary work. The entrance qualification is now the
possession of a Leaving Certificate. In 1914, a transition year, a considerable
number were admitted on completion of the first three years of High Schoo}
work.

The above change precludes the possibility of any preliminary training in
teaching before admission. The High School pupil who contemplates teaching
as his future occupation is not distracted by having to begin his specific pro-
fessional training before his secondary course is completed.

The changes outlined above in the character of the student body have been
reflected in changes made from time to time in the college course.

The students to whom reference has been made are not sufficient in number
to supply the requirements of the teaching service. New South Wales has a
scattered population, and this makes necessary a large number of one-teacher
schools. Hence the supply of rural teachers is an urgent problem. The reasons
which make it impossible to staff such schools with teachers who have had a
four-year High School course followed by a college course of at least two
years are partly financial, partly due to the character of rural school teaching,
and the conditions of life in outlying settlements, and partly the result of the
inadequacy of college accommodation at present.

In the past the rural schools were staffed by persons who after a simple
examination were placed in larger schools for a period of three months’ prac-
tice, and thereafter were sent to take sole charge of the small rural school.

This method was abandoned in 1909. In 1910 the college provided a course
of training, shorter and simpler than those already in operation, and intended
to give a short period of training to the rural school teacher. A short course
of six months’ training was organised, and has since been continued. Each year
about 250 students are trained in this way for rural schools.

The college is organised to provide a variety of courses to meet the varied
requirements of the State Department. The courses at present in operation are
as follows :—

A short course of six months prepares teachers for the small rural schools.

A one-year course devoted solely to professional work prepares graduates
in Arts or Science for Primary or High School teaching. A two-year course
prepares either for Infant or Primary teaching. Third and fourth year courses
allow of students completing degree courses at the University or taking up some
special branch of work.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 631

The division of time between the two parts of the college training—the
academic and the professional—varies according to the course. The general
tendency is to increase the amount of professional work ag the college entrance
standard rises. But the shorfer courses are more predominantly professional
than the longer. Further, the practice is adopted of putting the professional
training towards the end of the longer courses.

Teaching Practice for all students in attendance is provided for in the
Sydney schools. A large number of schools are made use of in order that only
a few may be attached to each school. While engaged in practice-teaching, each
group of students is under direction of a member of the college staff who acts as
supervisor of practice-teaching.

Some years ago considerable opposition existed to the plan of training
teachers without preliminary apprenticeship. Experience does not seem to have
justified the fears entertained. No doubt the young teacher, like the young
medical man, requires a period of practice to make him a competent practi-
tioner. This is secured partly by requiring a fairly long period of continuous
practice immediately antecedent to exit from college, and partly by the pro-
bationary period prior to issue of the teacher’s certificate of competence. The
evidence available goes to show that High School and college training followed
by a period of probation produces practitioners of at least good quality as did
the apprenticeship system.

The immediate future development will consist in carrying into effect the
principles already indicated. The short course of training will be increased
from six to twelve months. A larger proportion of the students will enter
after completing a sound secondary schooling. The college courses will become
still more professional in character.

Under the direction of the college are two Demonstration Schools, the head
teachers of which hold the position of lecturers in education on the college
staff. A small amount of experimental work is carried out in these schools,
some of which has been published.

From time to time the college publishes monographs of educational interest.
These are mainly the work of members of the college staff. The stimulus of
such work is considerable, and efforts are made to allow those members of the
staff who undertake investigations the leisure necessary for carrying them out.

(A discussion followed, in which Professor Frnpuay, Dr, C. W. Kiuuins,
and Professor J. A. Green took part.)

2. Problems and Methods in Russian Experimental Pedagogics.
By Professor A. Netscuaserr, Ph.D.

There is no administrative unity in Russian education. The Ministries of
War, Commerce, Public Instruction, Agriculture, and Benevolent Institutions
all have educational responsibilities, and the Orthodox Church adds to the
complicated list of administrative authorities. This want of unity leads to
difficulties in practice, e.g., the transition from primary to secondary school is
very difficult. Public opinion moves in the direction of a single type of school
of general education for all children.

The autocratic régime of ministers has led to many ups and downs in
education, but the fact that repression in one Ministry might be contem-
poraneous with advance in another has had compensating effects. In recent
years the Ministry of Commerce has been particularly active in the encourage-
-ment it has offered to private initiative and experiment in education.

Public educational movements began in Russia under Catharine II., due
largely to the influence of Comenius and Locke. The first university in Russia
(Moscow) was founded in 1755, and at first middle and lower schools were con-
trolled by university professors. This ended with the establishment of a
Ministry of Education, and, under a rather barren officialism, the schools
became simply imitators of their Western neighbours.

Under Alexander II. new ideals came into being. They were voiced by
Ushinsky and Pirogoff, who urged the establishment of Chairs of Pedagogy in

632 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

the universities and the scientific study of children. Then followed the period
of reaction under Alexander III. The Ministry of Education reduced all its
schools to a formal type. Individuality was repressed. The system was
vigorously attacked, and finally it was officially admitted that reform was
necessary. Active propaganda continues. It has taken many forms, with only
one of which it is possible to deal here—experimental pedagogics.

Contrary to Tolstoi and his claim for absolute freedom for the child, the
psychological investigator thinks the child needs help in the process of learning
to understand himself; and in order to render that help it is the teacher’s first
duty to learn to understand the child as a phase in the process of the biological
development of man.

In 1901 the first laboratory of experimental psychology was opened in
Russia at the Pedagogical Museum of the Military Schools. This has become
the centre of scientific pedagogy in Russia. Out of this institution have developed
the Pedagogical Academy (1907), and a Society of Experimental Pedagogics
(1908), which conducts a four-year course of study, and carries on an experi-
mental school. Professor Bechtereff founded in 1908 the Psycho-Neurological
Institute in St. Petersburg, and Dr. Rossolimo founded the Institute of
Children’s Psychology and Neurology in Moscow. Numerous congresses have
been held, and 131 schools and societies have purchased a cabinet of simple
psychological apparatus for experimental purposes.

The chief problem under investigation during the last fifteen years has been
concerned with the changes in the moral life of children as depending upon
age, sex, and educational environment. Changes in memory and association
have been carefully studied. The general results offer striking evidence in
favour of co-education. The study of attention and liability to fatigue con-
firmed this result. Suggestibility, the relation of amount of sleep to intensity of
work and the like, have also been the subject of research.

Further, the specific quality of fatigue induced by special kinds of work
have been studied with a view to discovering the best possible balance in the
sequence of short exercises. We have also been engaged upon the problem
of individual memory types in relation to economy in methods of teaching, and
the possibility of improving the naturally weaker sides of individual memory.
The ‘ natural’ method of teaching foreign languages has been carefully investi-
gated with a view to determining the respective place to be given (a) to the
mother tongue and (6) to pictures in that work.

Lastly, we have been engaged in comparing the teachers’ judgments of
children as ‘ attentive,’ ‘interested,’ ‘ progressing,’ with their performances under
stricter laboratory methods and conditions.

The work of Dr. Rossolimo and Professor Lazoursky in characterology should
also be mentioned.

These researches have all taken their rise in the laboratory, passed thence
to the school, and finally come back to the laboratory again. This triple
process seems to us absolutely essential.

(Professor ANprRson followed, thanking Professor NetscHaserr, on behalf
of the University, for presenting the Department of Education with a complete
set of his psychological apparatus devised especially for educational investigation.)

3. School Training for Public Life.
By the Rev. H. B. Gray, D.D.

Educational methods and practice have been up to the last twenty-five years
empirical in England. The science of pedagogy has only recently come on to the
horizon and is still in its infancy. Traditional subjects have occupied the atten-
tion of schoolmasters even on the highest rungs of the educational ladder, and
have been accepted as the groundwork of educational faith, notwithstanding the
conclusions of thinkers like Pestalozzi, Rousseau, and Froebel abroad.

Education, which in Germany and the United States has long been welcomed
as a great national asset, has in these islands been regarded as little less than a
bore, The evolutionary theories of Darwin have, however, gradually penetrated the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 633

domain of pedagogy. It has been discovered among other things that the body
and mind are inseparably interconnected, and that the evolution of the child has
as its prototype the evolution of the race; secondly, that the higher we go up
the scale of creation, the more vast is the difference between the infant and the
adult life, and that hence arises not only the capacity but the necessity of
education to man as distinguished from the lower animals. This necessity begins
from the cradle onwards, and the training of childhood in the informal education
of the home becomes infinitely important. These theories, however, can only be
touched upon in passing, as the special subject of the Paper is the school or
formal iraining for public life.

Success and value in public life presuppose a well-balanced and ordered educa-
tion. Such an education can only be gained by a due balance between the study
of the works of Nature and the works of man, between linguistic and literary
subjects on the one hand, and mathematical and natural-scientific subjects on the
other. The adolescent who has been trained in the one to the exclusion of the
other emerges as a narrow man. This pedagogic principle has been but slowly
recognised in our ancient universities and historic public schools, which have
derived their curricula by long tradition from the ecclesiastical seminaries of four
centuries ago, although the Humanists were regarded originally as the foes of
the Church. The persistence of class interests and class prejudices in England
has kept this tradition alive, long after a philosophic pedagogy recognised its
inherent unwisdom.

A long race of schoolmasters also, trained on the narrow ancient methods, has
perpetuated the superstition, and has not yet by any means shaken off the
trammels. Their want of intellectual equipment in other subjects has been a
collateral drawback—and this notwithstanding calls, more or less intelligent,
from the industrial classes, and from the more progressive ideals of other
nations.

The devotion to literary and linguistic to the exclusion and disparagement of
scientific studies in the curricula of our universities and schools carries with it, to
a certain extent, a justification, inasmuch as it is undoubtedly true that concen-
tration on the struggles and achievements of men in the past confers on the
aspirant to public life a greater power of expressing himself more clearly and
forcibly, of impressing his views and convictions on other men. On the other
hand, his ignorance of the laws of Nature, and want of practice in tracing from
the laws and phenomena of the known to the laws and phenomena of the unknown,
have a tendency to give him a narrow outlook on the social and political problems
with which he has to deal in governing and regulating the lives and ameliorating
the condition of his fellow-men.

This becomes more painfully apparent when he is brought into contact with
the phenomena of a vast and complicated Empire, and not merely of an insular
people. It is not surprising, therefore, that the policy of our statesmen and
public men generally has been lacking in (what may be called) imperial instinct,
and this lack of a wide horizon may constitute a real danger to the future
integrity and consolidation of the Empire.

To descend, then, from the general to the particular, the youthful aspirant to
public life ought to spend far less time in the study of the two ancient languages
which (until the past twenty-five years) occupied more than three-quarters of the
educational periods of the young among the governing classes. He ought to
devote not more than one-quarter or one-sixth of his student-life to such sub-
jects. Political and commercial geography, a thorough knowledge of one modern
language, of English literature and European and English history, ought to be
part of his intellectual equipment. Civics and political economy ought to be care-
fully studied; while on the scientific side he should be taught at least the
elements of physics and chemistry, and electricity, with a certain amount of
general applied mathematics. The connection between mind and hand in manual
training should also be a part of each student’s equipment.

With regard to the social side of school-life, the great weakness, both in our
schools and universities, has been a want of large outlook. Both types of
institutions are excellent training-grounds for character: in both the
adolescent learns effectively the knowledge how to command and _ how to
obey. But the sympathy and camaraderie engendered have been confined
to those of the boy’s own rank and position in life. The republic in which he

634. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

is trained instils strong local patriotism, which, however, is intensive
rather than extensive. _ His angularities are rubbed off, and his power of
command is well trained. Hence he becomes, as a public man, if he attains
to responsible positions in his island home, a_ sensible and just ruler
within certain limits, but he perpetuates the prejudices of the class system.
For the same reason, when his functions call him to the outlying parts of the
Empire, he becomes an excellent governor over uncivilised races and over subject-
peoples which, while not inferior to himself in civilisation, have been accustomed
to domination through the centuries. But in countries like Australia, New
Zealand, and Canada he is often, at first at least, a comparative failure, through
the causes already enumerated, 7.c., class-prejudice, want of wide sympathy, an
insular distaste for customs and habits with which he is not familiar, and a lack
of manual training in early life. In fact, the majority of English boys have,
except in the narrow area of school-sports, very little knowledge of the scientific
connection between mind and hand. Some improvement, however, in all these
respects has been observable during the last ten years, but much more wide-
spread educational reform is required to make our statesmen less insular and fit
them for the government of their imperial estate. It is indeed these deficiencies
that our brethren Overseas, and those of us who have divided our lives between
our Island Home and our wide-flung Dominions, consider should be taken in
hand and remedied in our schools and colleges if our vast and complex Empire is
to survive as an organic whole.

(A discussion followed, in which Professor Finpiay, Professor H. E.
ArmstRONG, and Professor J. A. Green took part.)

TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The University and the State. By Sir H. R. Retougn.

2. Mr. P. Boarp dealt with the same problem from the point of view
of the State.

3. The School and the University. By Professor J. A. GREEN.
(Dr. H. B. Gray and Professor A. Mackin followed.)

The following Paper was taken as read :—

4. Hducational Pioneering (Queensland.)
By J. D. Srory.

1. The difficulties which have to be overcome by the Queensland Education
Department, in its efforts to give to each child the rudiments at least of a
primary education, will be understood when it is realised that the State contains
670,500 square miles; a total population of 656,224; a primary school population
between the ages of five and fifteen of 138,551; individual holdings of
2,900 square miles each; and some places a journey of at least two weeks from
the Departmental base. The success of the Department in its efforts may be
gauged from the fact that, according to the latest statistical returns of the
Commonwealth, the percentage of Queensland children between the ages of five
and fourteen who can read and write is no less than 92°69, while the percentage
of children of the same age who cannot read is as low as 6:82. These figures
it may be remarked are the best for any of the Australian States.

2. As auxiliaries to the ordinary full-time schools, there is a system of travel-
ling teachers, Saturday schools, week-end schools, part-time schools, house-to-
house schools, and railway-construction camp schools. The last-named are par-
ticularly necessary because of the rapid extension of railway facilities. The

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 635

State has already constructed 4,730 miles of railway at a total cost (including
rolling-stock) of slightly over 34,000,000/., which for the last financial year
returned 32. 8s. 8d. per cent. interest; Parliament has approved of an addi-
tional 1,406 miles on which work has not yet been begun; and there are 301
miles in course of construction at present. Many of the men employed in the
construction have their families with them; and provision is made for the
education of their children by means of tent schools, which can be readily trans-
ported from one camp to the next as the work progresses.

3. The travelling-teacher system is designed to meet the educational needs of
districts so sparsely populated, and with families so isolated, that at no one
centre can a sufficient number of children be collected to warrant the establish-
ment of a school. The system, which has proved a great success, was initiated
in 1901, when one travelling teacher was appointed; there are at present 17,
and from the beginning of 1915 the number will be increased to 20. This
teacher must be a man of special qualifications, a knowledge of ‘ bushcraft’
being indispensable; but the Department supplies him with a buggy, horses,
and camp equipment, as well as allowing him the services of a lad to tend the
horses and otherwise assist. It is the duty of the travelling teacher to ascertain
what scattered families with children requiring education are resident in -the
district assigned to him, and to visit every such family at least four times a
year. He stays as long as possible at each visit, teaches the children, revises
the work set at the preceding visit, prescribes the new work to be attempted,
and advises and helps the member of the family—usually an elder sister—on
whom devolves the duty of instructing the children during his absence. A
much-appreciated feature in connection with the travelling teacher is that he
carries with him a stock of school library books for lending to children and
parents, and of Departmental School Papers for distribution among his pupils,
thus providing a supply of cheap and wholesome literature in the out-of-the-way
places to which his duties take him. In the discharge of their duties during
1913 the 17 travelling teachers covered a total distance of 60,438 miles, visited
900 families, and instructed 1,884 children.

4. Secondary education in Queensland has always been well provided for, and
secondary education is free to all who pass the qualifying examination; there is
also a liberal system of sustenance allowances for the children of parents of
modest means. Scholarships to the University are also granted, and in addition
to free tuition these scholarships carry sustenance allowances.

5. Compulsory attendance carries with it the obligation to safeguard the
health of the children who attend; and, accordingly, a scheme of medical and
dental inspection—aiming at the practically useful rather than the scientifically
exhaustive—has been evolved. The Department has two full-time and four part-
time medical officers, one full-time ophthalmic inspector, and three full-time
dental inspectors. In addition, the State at large liberally endows its hospitals,
contributing two pounds for each pound locally subscribed, with the result that
there are 90 well-equipped public hospitals; and at 28 of these the Department
has arranged that, in return for a small annual payment, the hospital doctor
shall attend to the children in his centre.

6. Queensland upholds the Commonwealth scheme of defence and is giving
the movement warm support; male teachers are being trained as cadet instruc-
tors, and female teachers in charge of small schools are being given an appro-
priate course of instruction, so that théy may train their elder male pupils and
generally improve the physique of the children in their charge, irrespective of
sex.

7. Queensland has many empty spaces to be filled by a yeoman population;
the Education Department recognises that parents will not go to places where
their children cannot be educated, and that the Department must do its part in
encouraging settlement by making education available in every possible way, so
that the vision may be realised of a Queensland fully occupied by a contented
and happy people, a Queensland forming a strong outpost of the Empire, con-
tributing to her prosperity in times of prosperity and ready to answer her call
in the hour of her need.

636 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

Section M.—AGRICULTURE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—A. D. Hauu, M.A., F.R.S.

The President delivered the following Address at Adelaide on Wednesday,
August 12 :—

Tue Presipenr of a Section of the British Association has two very distinct
precedents before him for his Address; he can either set about a general review
of the whole subject to which his Section is devoted or he can give an account
of one of his own investigations which he judges to be of wider interest and
application than usual. The special circumstances of this meeting in Australia
have suggested to me another course. I have tried to find a topic which under
one or other of its aspects may be equally interesting both to my colleagues
from England and to my audience who are farming here in this great
Continent. My subject will be the winning of new land for agriculture, the
bringing into cultivation of land that has hitherto been left to run to waste
because it was regarded as unprofitable to farm. ‘To some extent, of course,
this may be regarded as the normal process by which new countries are
settled; the Bush is cleared and the plough follows, or under other con-
ditions the rough native herbage gives way to pasture under the organised
grazing of sheep or cattle. I wish, however, to deal exclusively with what are
commonly termed the bad lands, inasmuch as in many parts of the world,
though recently settled, agriculture is being forced to attack these bad lands
because the supply of natural farming land is running short. In a new
country farming begins on the naturally fertile soils that only require a mini-
mum of cultivation to yield Stentabte crops, and the new-comers wander
further afield in order to find land which will in the light of their former
experience be good. Before long the supply is exhausted, the second-class land
is then taken up until the stage is reached of experimentation upon soils that
require some special treatment or novel form of agriculture before they can be
utilised at all. Perhaps North America affords the clearest illustration : its
great agricultural development came with the opening up of the prairies of the
Middle West, where the soil rich in the accumulated fertility of past cycles
of vegetation was both easy to work and grateful for exploitation. But with
the growth of population and the continued demand for land no soils of that
class have been available for the last generation or so, and latterly we find
the problem has been how to make use of the arid lands, either by irrigation
or by dry-farming where the rainfall can still be made adequate for partial
cropping, or, further, how to conyert the soils that are absolutely poisoned
by alkali salts into something capable of growing a crop. You yourselves
will supply better than I can the Australian parallels, at any rate we in
England read that the wheat-belt is now being extended into districts where
the low rainfall had hitherto been thought to preclude any systematic cropping.

Now, the fact that the supply of naturally fertile land is not unlimited
reacts in its turn upon the old countries. During the ’eighties and ‘nineties
of the last century the opening up of such vast wheat areas in America,
Argentina, Australia, and the development of the overseas trade reduced
prices in Europe to such an extent that in Great Britain, where the full extent
of the competition was experienced, the extension of agriculture came to

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 637

an end despite the continued increase of population. The area of land under
cultivation has declined but little despite the growth of the towns, but the
process of taking in the waste lands stopped and much of the land already
farmed fell back from arable to cheaper pasture. But as soon as production
in the newer countries failed to keep pace with the growth of population
prices began to rise again, and we are now in the old world endeavouring to
make productive the land that has hitherto been of little service except for
sport and the roughest of grazing. Even the most densely populated European
countries contain great areas of uncultivated land; within fifty miles of
London blocks of a thousand acres of waste may be found, and Holland and
Belgium, perhaps the most intensively cultivated of all Western countries, possess
immense districts that are little more than desert. Of the European countries,
Germany has taken the lead in endeavouring to bring into use this undeveloped
capital; her population is rising rapidly and her fiscal policy has caused her to
feel severely the recent increase in the prices of foodstuffs, which she has deter-
mined to relieve as far as possible by extending the productivity of her own
land. It has been estimated that Germany possesses something approaching
to ten million acres of uncultivated land and a Government department has
been created to reclaim and colonise this area.

Before dealing with the processes by which the rough places of the earth
are to be made straight there is one general question that deserves considera-
tion—Is it more feasible to increase the production of a given country by
enlarging the area under cultivation or by improving the methods of the
existing cultivators? There is without doubt plenty of room for the latter
process even in the most highly farmed countries: in England the average
yield of wheat is about 32 bushels per acre—a good farmer expects 40; the
average yield of mangolds, a crop more dependent upon cultivation, is as low
as 20 tons per acre when twice as much will not be out of the way with good
farming. A large proportion of the moderate land in England is kept in the
state of poor grass—even as grass its production might be doubled by suitable
manuring and careful management, while under the plough its production of
cattle-food might easily be trebled or quadrupled. Why, then, trouble about
adding to the area of indifferent land when so much of what has already been
reclaimed, upon which the first capital outlay of clearing, fencing, roadmaking,
&c., has been accomplished, is not doing its duty? We are at once confronted
by the human factor in the problem. The existing educational agencies which
will have to bring about better farming will only slowly become effective,
and however imperfect they still may be in England, they are mainly so because
of the lack of response upon the part of the farmers. The present occupiers of
the Jand do obtain in many cases a very inadequate return from it, but they
make some sort of a living and they hold it up against others who, though
they want land, cannot be guaranteed to use it any better. Improved
farming means more enterprise, more knowledge, often more capital, and the
man who can bring these to the business is far rarer than the man who, given
a piece of land even of the poorest quality, will knock a living out of it by
sheer hard work and doggedness. While, then, there should be no slackening
in our efforts to improve the quality of the management of existing land, there
is a case for also using every effort to increase the cultivable area; indeed, it
is probable that for some time to come the second process will add most to
both the agricultural production and the agricultural population.

Let us now consider what are the factors which determine the fertility of
the land that is first brought into cultivation and remains the backbone of
farming in the old settled countries. Foremost comes rainfall, and the distvi-
bution is almost as important as the amount. Winter rain is more valuable
than summer, and though cereal-growing is none the worse and may even
obtain better results with a rainless summer, stock-raising and the production
of fodder crops are the better for a rainfall that is distributed fairly evenly
throughout the year. Rainfall, again, must bear some relation to temperature ;
some of the best farming in the Kastern Counties of England is done on an
average rainfall of 20 inches; there are great areas in South Africa with the
same average rainfall that are little better than desert. In temperate regions
we may say that the naturally fertile land requires a rainfall of from 20 to

638 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

50 inches per annum, not too much segregated into seasons and some at least
falling in the winter.

If the rainfall is excessive or the drainage inadequate to carry it off, the
formation of peat is induced, resulting in such uncultivated areas as the
bogs of Ireland and the moors of Eastern England, Holland, and Germany.

Given suitable rainfall and temperature the texture of the soil becomes a
factor of importance; if too coarse and sandy, so little of the rainfall is retained
that we get all the effects of drought secondarily produced. In itself the
open texture of a coarse sandy soil is favourable to plant development; under
irrigation, or where the situation is such as to result in permanent water a
short distance below the surface, fine crops will be produced on sandy soils that
would remain almost barren if they only depended upon the rainfall for their
water. In Western Europe large areas of heaths and waste land owe their
character to the coarse and open texture of the soil. At the opposite extreme
we find clays so heavy that their cultivation is unprofitable; such soils, how-
ever, will carry grass and are rarely left unoccupied. For example, in the
South-East of England there are a few commons, i.e., land which has never
been regarded as worth enclosing and bringing into particular ownership,
situated on heavy clay land; most of such land is pasture, often of the poorest,
or, if at any elevation, has been covered with forest from time immemorial.

One last factor in the soil is of the utmost importance to fertility and that
is the presence of lime—of calcium carbonate, to be more accurate—in quantities
sufficient to maintain the soil in a neutral condition. Old as is the knowledge
that lime is of value to the soil, we are only now beginning to realise, as
investigation into the minute organisms of the soil proceeds, how fundamental
is the presence of lime to fertility. A survey of the farming of England or
Western Europe will show that all the naturally rich soils are either definitely
calcareous or contain sufficient calcium carbonate to maintain them in a neutral
condition even after many centuries of cultivation. Examples are not lacking
where the supply of calcium carbonate by human agency has been the factor
in bringing and keeping land in cultivation. I have discussed one such case
on the Rothamsted estate and several others have come under my notice.
The amelioration of non-calcareous soils by treatment with chalk or marl from
some adjacent source has been a traditional usage in England and the North
of France: Pliny reports it as prevailing in Gaul and Britain in his day, and
the farmer of to-day often owes the value of his land to his unknown prede-
cessors who continuously chalked or marled the land. Upon the presence of
carbonate of lime depends the type of biological reaction that will go on in
the soil, the beneficial bacterial processes that prepare the food for plants
only take place in a medium with a neutral reaction. The Rothamsted soils
have provided two leading cases. I have shown that the accumulation of
fertility in grass-land left to itself and neither grazed nor mown, so that
virgin conditions were being re-established, was due to the action of the
organism called Azotobacter, which fixes free nitrogen from the atmosphere,
and was indirectly determined by the presence of calcium carbonate in the
soil, without which the Azotobacter cannot function. Examination of typical
examples of black soils from all parts of the world, the prairies of North
America, the steppes of Russia and the Argentine, New Zealand and Indian
soils, showed in all of them the Azotobacter organism and a working pro-
portion of carbonate of lime. Now, as we know, all virgin soils are not rich,
and only in a few parts of the world are to be found those wonderful black
soils that ere often several feet in depth and contain 10 to 20 per cent. of
organic matter and 3 to 5 parts per thousand of nitrogen. These soils are all
calcareous, they occur in regions of a moderate rainfall inducing grass-steppe
or bush conditions, and the annual fall of vegetation provides the organic
matter which the Azotobacter requires as a source of energy in order to fix
nitrogen. Non-calcareous soils under similar climatic conditions do not ac-
cumulate nitrogen and become rich; in the absence of carbonate of lime
the nitrogen-fixing organisms are not active, and the soil only receives from the
annual fall of vegetation the nitrogen that was originally taken from it. There
is but a cyclic movement of nitrogen from the soil to the plant and back
again, whereas in the calcareous soils there is also continuous addition of fresh

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 639

nitrogen derived from the atmosphere, in which process the carbonaceous part
of the annual crop supplies the motive power.

The other leading case to be found at Rothamsted is that of certain grass-~
plots which have artificially been brought into an acid condition by the
continued application of sulphate of ammonia. In these soils nitrification is
suspended, the nitrification organisms have even disappeared, though the
herbage still obtains nitrogen because most plants are able to utilise ammoniacal
nitrogen as well as nitrates. The interesting feature, however, is that the
decaying grass on these acid soils passes into the form of peat, a layer of
which is forming upon the surface of the soil, though nothing of the kind is
found on adjacent plots where the use of lime or of alkaline manures has
prevented the development of acidity. From this we may learn that the
development of a surface layer of peat, independent of waterlogging (when
another kind of peat forms even under alkaline conditions), is determined by
the acidity of the soil, when certain of the bacterial processes of decay are
replaced by changes due to micro-fungi which do not carry the breaking-down
of organic matter to the destructive stage. This affords us a clue
to the origin of many areas of upland peat in the British Isles, where the
remains of ancient forest roots and stumps of trees are found on the
true soil surface below the layer of peat, but where there is no water-
logging to bring about the death of the trees and the formation of peat. We
may suppose that when the land-surface became fit for vegetation at the
close of the glacial epoch it covered itself with a normal vegetation, chiefly
dwarf forest, because of the rainfall and temperature. The soil, however,
being without carbonate of lime, would in time become acid with the pro-
ducts of decay of the vegetable matter falling to the ground, and as soon
as this acid condition was set up peat would begin to form from the grassy
surface vegetation. The process would continue until the acid conditions
and the depth of the accumulating layer of peat would kill the trees, the
stumps of which would remain sealed up below the peat. I am far from
thinking that this explanation is complete, but at least we have facts in
sight which could lead one to suppose that a non-calcareous soil originally
neutral and carrying a normal vegetation can naturally become acid, alter
the character of its vegetation and clothe itself with a layer of peat. The
point of economic importance is that these peaty acid soils are of very little
value as long as they are acid, though they take on a quite different aspect if
they are limed and made neutral.

Of all the soil factors making for fertility I should put lime the first; upon
its presence depend both the processes which produce available plant food in
quantities adequate for crop-production at a high level and those which naturally
regenerate and maintain the resources of the soil; it is, moreover, the factor
which is most easily under the control of the agriculturist.

I need say little about those cases in which infertility is due to the
presence in the soil of some substance which is actually injurious to plant-
growth, because such substances are nearly always due to the physical environ-
ment of the soil, to too much or too little water. In waterlogged situations
we may find in the soil peaty acids, iron salts, sulphides, &c., inhibiting the
growth of plants; in arid regions the soil may still be charged with an excess
of soluble compounds of the alkalis and alkaline earths, resulting from the
decomposition of the rocks that have been broken down to form the soil, but
which through the inadequate rainfall have never been washed out. ‘The
establishment of normal conditions of growth, irrigation in the one case,
drainage in the other, will speedily result in the removal of the deleterious
substances. Practically, only bodies that are soluble can get into.a plant to
injure it, hence such bodies can be removed from the soil by water, provided
that the water can find its way through the soil and escape.

Let us now consider the various methods by which land suffering from
one or other of the disabilities we have just discussed is nowadays being brought
into cultivation. The most important, if we consider the area affected, is the
extension of cropping into regions of deficient rainfall by means of what has
been termed dry-farming. As far as its immediate methods go, dry-farming
consists in nothing more than the application of the principles of husbandry

640 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

worked out by English farmers in the East and South-East of England, prin-
ciples first expounded by Jethro Tull, though a complete explanation was not
then possible, even if it is now. In the first place, the tilth must be made both
deep and fine, thus whatever rain falls will be absorbed and the conditions
favouring a deep and full root range will have been established. Next, the
soil below the surface, though finely worked, must be compact, because only
thus can the water present travel to the roots of the plant. Lastly, a loose
layer must be maintained on the surface, which, though dry itself, acts as a
screen and a barrier to prevent loss of water from the effective soil below by
any other channel than that of the plant. Granted these methods of cultiva-
tion, the new feature about ‘dry-farming,’ which has been introduced by
settlers in the arid districts of Australia and North America, is the use of
a year of bare fallow in which to accumulate a supply of water for the next
year’s or two years’ crop. This raises the fundamental question of how much
water is necessary for the growth of an ordinary crop. The first investigation
that Lawes and Gilbert carried out at Rothamsted dealt with this very point ;
they grew the usual field crops in pots, protected the surface of the soil from
evaporation so that all the loss of water proceeded through the plant, weighed
the water that was supplied from time to time, and finally weighed the pro-
duce, expressing their results as a ratio between the dry matter produced
and the water transpired by the plant. These experiments have been repeated
under different climatic conditions by Hellriegel in Heidelberg, by Wollny in
Vienna, by King and others in America. Now the two processes in the
plant, carbon assimilation and transpiration, are not causally connected, though
as both are carried out in the leaf and have some factors in common they are
found to show some constancy in their relative magnitudes. Lawes and
Gilbert obtained a ratio of about 300 lbs. of water transpired for each pound
of dry matter harvested, but the other investigators under more arid conditions
found much higher figures, up to 500 and even 700 to 1. Now, a crop yielding
20 bushels of wheat per acre will contain about a ton of dry matter per acre,
so that, taking the high ratio of 500 to 1, no more than 500 tons of water per
acre or 5 inches of rain will have been consumed in the production of this
crop. It is, of course, impossible to ensure that all the rain falling within a
year shall be saved for the crop; much must evaporate before it reaches the
subsoil where it can be stored, and only when the crop is in full possession of
the land can we expect that all the water leaving the soil shall go through
the crop. What proportion the waste bears to that which is utilised will depend
not only on the degree of cultivation but upon the season at which the fall
occurs; summer showers, for example, that do not penetrate more than a few
inches below the surface will be dissipated without any useful effect. When
the climatic conditions result in precipitation during the winter, the water will
be in the main available for crop-production; and it has been found by experi-
ence that cereals can be profitably grown with as small a rainfall as 12 inches.
The necessary cultural operations consist in producing such a rough surface as
will ensure the water getting into the subsoil, hence autumn ploughing is
desirable. Where the precipitation is largely in the form of snow, a broken
surface also helps both to absorb the thawing snow and to prevent it being
swept into the gullies and hollow places by the wind. On some of the Russian
steppes it has become customary to leave a long stubble in order to entangle
as much snow as possible, but probably a rough ploughing before the snowfall
would be even more effective. When the rainfall drops to the region of 12 to
16 inches and occurs during the summer months, then dry-farming methods
and the summer fallow become of the first importance. The deep cultivation
ensures that the water gets quickly down to the subsoil away from danger
of evaporation, and the immediate renewal of a loose surface tilth is essential
in order to conserve what has thus been gained.

In connection with this dry-farming there are several matters that
still require investigation before we can decide what is the minimum rainfall
on which cultivation can be profitable. In the first place, we are only imper-
fectly informed as to the relation between rainfall and evaporation. At
Rothamsted there are three drain-gauges side by side, the soil layers being
20, 40, and GO inches deep respectively. The surface is kept rough and free

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 641

from growth, though hardly in the condition of looseness that could be
described as a soil mulch. Yet the evaporation, even under a moist English
atmosphere, amounts to one-half of the annual rainfall, and the significant
thing is that the evaporation is approximately the same from all of the
gauges and is independent of the depth of subsoil within which water is
stored. Evaporation, then, would seem to be determined by surface alone, but
we are without systematic experiments to show how variations in the surface
induced by cultivation will alter the rate of evaporation. A knowledge
of the evaporation factor would then inform us of what proportion of the
rainfall reaches the subsoil; we then want to know to what extent it can
be recovered and how far it may sink beyond the reach of the crop. It is
commonly supposed that the subsoil below the actual range of the roots of
the crop may still return water by capillarity to the higher levels that are
being depleted, the deeper subsoil thus acting as a kind of regulating reservoir
absorbing rain in times of excess and returning it when the need arises. But
some work of Leather’s in India and Alway’s on the great plains of North
America throw doubt on this view, and would suggest that only the layer
traversed by roots, say, down to a depth of 6 feet, can supply water to the
crop; the water movements from the deeper layers due to capillarity being too
slow to be of much effect in the maintenance of the plant. The evidence on
either side is far from being conclusive and more experiment is very desirable.

It would also be valuable to know how far evaporation from the bare
soil can be checked by suitable screens or hedges that will break the sweep
of the wind across the land. In England hedges have always been looked
at from the point of view of shelter for stock; we find them most developed
in the grazing districts of the west, while bare open fields prevail in the east
and south. Yet the enormous value of a wind-screen to vegetation can be
readily observed, and the market-gardeners both in England and the still
dryer districts of the south of France make great use of them. Lastly, we
must have more knowledge about the relation between transpiration-water and
growth : we do not know if the high ratios we have spoken of hold for all
plants. Xerophytic plants are supposed to be possessed of protective devices
to reduce loss of water. Are they merely effective in preserving the plant from
destruction during the fierce insolation and drying it receives? and do they
enable a plant’to make more growth on a given amount of water? Wheat, for
example, puts on its glaucous waxy bloom under dry conditions. Is this really
accompanied by a lower rate of transpiration per unit surface of leaf? and is it
more than defensive, connoting a better utilisation of the water the plant
evaporates ?

The cultivation of these soils with a minimum rainfall necessitates varieties
of plants making a large ratio of dry matter to water transpired and also with
a high ratio between the useful and non-useful parts of the plant. Mr.
Beaven has shown that the difference in the yields of various barleys under
similar conditions in England are due to differences in their migration factors :
the same amount of dry matter is produced by all, but some will convert 50
per cent. and others only 45 per cent, into grain. This migration ratio, as
may be seen by the relation between corn and straw on the plots at Rothamsted,
is greatly affected by season; nevertheless Mr. Beaven’s work indicates that
under parallel conditions it is a congenital characteristic of the variety and
therefore one that can be raised by the efforts of the plant-breeder. The needs
of dry-land-farming call for special attention on the part of the breeder to these
two ratios of transpiration and migration.

Closely linked up with the problems of dry-land-farming are those which
arise in arid climates from the use of irrigation-water on land which
is either impregnated with alkaline salts to begin with or develops such a con-
dition after irrigation has been practised for some time. The history of
irrigation-farming is full of disappointments due to the rise of salts from the
subsoil and the subsequent sterility of the land, but the conditions are fully
understood and there is no longer any excuse for the disasters which have
overtaken the pioneers of irrigation in almost every country. Sterility may
arise from two causes—overmuch water which brings the water-table so close
to the surface that the plants’ roots may be asphyxiated, or the accumulation

1914. TT

642 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

by evaporation of the soluble salts in the surface layer until plants refuse to
grow. The annual cutting off of the cotton crop in Egypt as the water-table
rises with the advance of the Nile flood affords a good example of asphyxiation,
but in the neighbourhood of irrigation canals we also find many examples of
sterility due both to the high water-table and an accompanying rise of salts.
The governing principle is that drainage must accompany irrigation. EHven
if free from salts at the outset the land must accumulate them by the mere
evaporation of natural waters, and they will rise to the surface where they
exert their worst effect upon vegetation, unless from time to time there is
actual washing through the soil and removal of the water charged with salt.
Without drainage the greater the quantity of water used the greater the
eventual damage to the soil, for thereby the subsoil water-table carrying the
salts is lifted nearer to the surface. With a properly designed irrigation system
the danger of salting ought not to occur; there are, however, many tracts of
land where the supply of water is too limited to justify an expensive scheme
of irrigation channels with corresponding drainage ditches at a lower level.
Take the case of a single farmer with some water from an artesian well at
his disposal, with perhaps little rainfall, with land subject to alkali, and no
considerable natural fall for drainage. If he merely grades the land and waters
it, sterility rapidly sets in; the only possibility appears to be to take a com-
paratively limited area and to cut out drainage ditches or tile drains 4 or
5 feet below the surface, even if they have to be led into a merely local
hollow that can be abandoned to salt. The bed thus established must then
be watered at any cost until there is a flow in the drains, after which the
surface is immediately cultivated and the crop sown. ‘There should be no
further application of water until the crop covers the land, the use of water
must be kept to a minimum, and by the ordinary methods of dry cultivation
evaporation must be allowed only through the crop, not merely to save water
but to prevent any rise of salt. With a loose surface and wind-breaks to
minimise evaporation it has thus proved possible to grow valuable crops even
on dangerously alkaline land. Superphosphate and sulphate of ammonia have
proved to be useful fertilisers under these conditions; both tend to prevent
the reaction of the soil becoming alkaline, and the calcium salts of the super-
phosphate minimise the injurious effects of the sodium salts that naturally
accumulate in the land. On the other hand, nitvate of soda is a dangerous
fertiliser. Attempts have been made to reduce the salts in the land by the
growth of certain crops which take up a large proportion of mineral matter,
but I have not been able to ascertain that much good can be thus effected.
Sugar-beet and mangolds do appreciably reduce the salt content, but are hardly
valuable enough to pay for such special cultivation and the limited irrigation-
water; the best thing appears to be to grow salt-bush on the non-irrigated
margin of such areas, if only to prevent the efflorescent salts from blowing on
to the cultivated portion.

Let us now turn to the problem of land réclamation as it occurs in North-
Western Europe. There are two main types of land that have hitherto been left
waste, the peaty and the sandy areas. Of the peaty areas we can distinguish
again between the low-lying moors bordering the lower courses of the great
rivers ; for example, in England near the mouth of the Trent, and the upland peat-
bogs of which Ireland furnishes so many examples. They have these features
in common—an excess of water, a deficiency of mineral salts, and, particularly
in the upland bogs, a strongly acid reaction; but they possess great potential
wealth in their richness in nitrogenous organic matter. It is in Germany and
Holland that the methods of bringing into cultivation these moors have been
most completely worked out; in Germany, for example, it is estimated that
there are about five million acres of moorland, of which about 10 per cent. is
now under cultivation. The reclamation process must begin by drainage, which
may be carried out by open ditches, but is most satisfactorily effected by pipes,
despite the greater cost. The water-table must be kept some 3 feet below the
surface. In districts which afford a market for peat, as, for example, on the
Teufelsmoor near Bremen, the reclamation often begins by cutting out the
peat, the lower layer of firm peat being won, dried, and sold for fuel. The
upper spongy peat can be used for litter, but some part at least must be thrown

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 643

back. Where the burning peat is thus extracted the excavation is in places
pushed further until the underlying sand is reached, and enough of this is
dug to spread over the reclaimed area to a depth of 4 or 5 inches and
mixed by cultivation with the spongy peat. Even when the peat is not
removed, pits are often made in order to sand the land, so great an improve-
ment does it effect in the character of the crops. However, sanding is not
possible everywhere, and there are great areas under cultivation where the
reclamation begins with drainage, followed by the cultivation of the immediate
surface without either sanding or the removal of the burning peat, which indeed
are impossible over large areas, but are carried out by the owners of small
farms little by little. Special tools are required: certain forms of disc-ploughs
and harrows give the best results; heavy tools for large-scale cultivation by
steam or electricity are furnished with broad roller-like wheels; even the horses
must wear broad wooden shoes.

The next stage is the manuring, and it has only been the development of
the artificial-fertiliser industry during the last half-century that has rendered
the cultivation of this type of land possible. On the alluvial moors where the
ground water has always been alkaline, the peat is rich in calcium and no treat-
ment with lime and marl is necessary (the English fens afford an example of
this type of soil), but on the true peat-bogs (Hochmoor of Germany) the manur-
ing must begin with a good dressing of burnt lime, or, better, of marl or ground
chalk. For meadows and pastures two tons per acre of lime, or twice as much
of carbonate of lime, should be applied; the amounts may be halved for arable
land. This must be followed by about 5 to 8 cwt. per acre of basic slag and an
equal amount of kainit, which applications should be renewed in the second
year, but then diminished in accord with the cropping. However, some phos-
phoric acid and potash salts must be continuously supplied, with occasional
dressings of lime or chalk on the acid peaty areas. These latter also require
in their earlier years nitrogenous manures, for the peat is slow to yield up the
nitrogen it contains. The fertilisers should be nitrate of soda or lime, never
sulphate of ammonia. The whole success of the reclamation depends on the
use of these manures, as the peat in a state of nature is almost devoid of both
phosphoric acid and potash; on the acid peats, again, normal growth is only
possible after a neutral reaction has been attained by the use of lime or marl
With this manuring it is found to be easy to establish a good meadow herbage
in a very short space of time; it is not even necessary to get rid of the
surface vegetation of Hrica and other heath and bog plants. The manure
is put on and the surface is worked continuously with disc-harrows and follers,
but never deeply; a seed-mixture containing chiefly red, white, and Alsike
clovers, Lotus uliginosus, rye-grass, Timothy, and cocksfoot, is sown in the
spring and soon succeeds in choking the native vegetation.

It is impossible to say what is the cost of the reclamation of moorland in
this fashion; the big expense is the drainage and the construction of roads,
both of which are entirely determined by local conditions. But of the value of
the process when accomplished there can be no doubt. I have seen a case quoted
from the ‘ Ostfriesische Zeitung,’ where a piece of moor bought for 75/. was
reclaimed and sold for 900/.; and, best test of all, one may see in places like the
Teufelsmoor near Bremen, families living in comfort on thirty to forty acres
_ of what was once merely wild moor with no productive value.

Of even greater interest in England is the reclamation of heath-land, which
has of late years been proceeding apace in Germany. In this category we may
include all land which owes its infertility to the coarse grade and low water-
retaining power of the particles of which the soil is composed, the soil being
at the same time as a rule devoid of carbonate of lime, and covered in conse-
quence with heather and similar calcifuge plants. In England there exist
extensive tracts of uncultivated land of this character in close proximity to the
considerable populations, but the process of reclaiming such land for agriculture
seems to have come to an abrupt conclusion somewhere about 1850, when the
developing industries of the country began to offer so much greater returns for
capital than agriculture. That land of the kind can be cultivated with success
is evident from the mere fact that everywhere prosperous farms may be seen
bordering the wastes, possessing soils that are essentially identical with those of

To 2

644 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

the wastes. These were brought under cultivation when labour was cheaper,
often without calculation of the cost because the work was done piecemeal at
times when the men would otherwise have been idle. Were any strict account
to be framed, the reclamation probably did not pay its way for many years, and
it has only become possible again because of modern advances in science and
machinery. As examples of the type of land, I may instance the Bagshot
Sands on which, in north Surrey, in Berkshire and Hampshire, and again in its
southern development in the New Forest, lie so many thousands of acres of
uncultivated heath. No systematic reclamation has taken place, but every-
where farms have been carved out on this formation, often by the industry of
squatters, and within reach of London the vast supplies of town manure which
used to be available have converted some of it into fertile land. The crystalli-
sation of common rights into charters for public playgrounds, its growing
appreciation for residential purposes, will now always stand in the way of the
utilisation of most of the Bagshot Sands for agriculture, but further afield there
are many areas of similar character. The Lower Greensand is perhaps equally
discounted by its residential value, but on the Tertiaries of Dorset, the Crag
and Glacial Sands of Suffolk and Norfolk—the brak, the Bunter Beds of the
Midlands, lie many expanses of waste that are convertible into farming land,
just as Lincoln Heath and much of the beautifully farmed land of Cheshire have
been gained for agriculture within the past century. Equally possible is an
attack upon the sandy areas, warrens or links, behind the sand-dunes on many
parts of the English and especially the Welsh coasts; not all of them are
wanted for golf, and many can be fitted for market-gardening. Of old the only
way of dealing with such land was merely to clear it, burn the rubbish, and
start upon the ordinary routine of cultivation, but for a long time on such a
system the crops will hardly pay their way from year to year, and the permanent
deficiencies of the soil in lime and mineral salts remain unrepaired. In Cheshire
the enormous value of marl and bones in such a connection was early recognised ;
it has been the later discovery of the potash salts that renders reclamation a
commercial proposition to-day. The method that is now followed is to begin by
clearing the land of shrubs, burning off the roughest of the vegetation, and
turning over a shallow layer in the summer, leaving the heathery sod to the
killing and disintegrating action of sun and frost until the following spring.
The manure is then put on—lime or ground chalk or marl as before, basic slag
and kainit, and the sod is worked down to a rough seed-bed on which lupins
are sown, to be ploughed in when they reach their flowering stage. The growth
of the lupins makes the land, they supply humus to bind the sand together and
retain moisture, they draw nitrogen from the atmosphere and with the
phosphoric acid and potash form a complete manure for succeeding crops.
Sometimes a second crop of lupins is ploughed in, but usually the land is put
immediately to an ordinary rotation of rye, oats, potatoes, and clover. When
the heath-land is divided among small tenants in an unreclaimed state, cropping
often begins without the lupins, the necessary nitrogen being imported by nitrate
of soda, but for years the land shows inferior results. Only the tenant can
rarely afford to lose the year the lupin crop involves, and so great is the demand
for land in Germany that the State finds it preferable to let the tenant reclaim
than to reclaim for him, and charge him as rent the cost of the more thorough
process. And now as to the finance of the operation : the reclaiming down to the
ploughing in of the lupin crop costs from 5/. to 6/. an acre, the bare heath costs
from 5/1. to 7. an acre, the reclaimed land after a few years’ cultivation would
sell at 207. to 307, an acre. Meantime the State has probably made a free grant
for drainage, looking to get some interest back in increased taxation; the local
authority has also made roads for which the increased rating due to a new
agricultural community must be the only return. It is a long-sighted policy
which will only find its full justification after many years, when the loans’ have
all been paid off and the State has gained a well-established addition to its
agricultural land and its productive population. In comparing English with
German conditions there are certain differences to be taken into account—in the
first place the work of reclamation will be dearer in England because of the
higher price of labour, then the land will not be so valuable when won because
the higher scale of prices for agricultural products enhances the price of land

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 645

in Germany. Next, I doubt, in view of the great industrial demand for men
in England, if we have the men available who will bring to the land the skill
and power of drudgery that I saw being put into these German holdings of thirty
to forty acres in their earlier years of low productivity. Moreover, in
Germany these heaths are generally bordered by forests, in which the small
holder gets occupation for part of the year while his wife and children keep
the farm going. For this, if for no other reason, afforestation and land
reclamation and settlement should go on together. But, despite these draw-
backs, I am still of opinion that the reclamation of such heath-lands is a sound
commercial venture in England, either for a landowner who is thinking of a
future rather than of a present return on his capital, or for the State or other
public body, wherever the waste land can be acquired for less than 5/. an acre.
The capitalised value of its present rental rarely approaches that figure, but the
barrenest heath is apt to develop the potentialities of a gold-mine when purchase
by the State comes in question. The map of England is so written over in detail
with boundaries and rights and prescriptions that the path of the would-be
reclaimer, who must work on a large scale if he is to work cheaply, can only
be slow and devious. There are other possibilities of winning agricultural land
even in England, from the slob land and estuaries, from the clays nowadays too
heavy for cultivation; but the problems they present are rather those of
engineering than of agricultural science. What I should like in conclusion once
more to emphasise is, that the reclamation of heath and peat-land of which I
have been speaking—reclamation that in the past could only be imperfectly
effected at a great and possibly unremunerative expense of human labour—has
now become feasible through the applications of science, the knowledge of the
functions of fertilisers, the industrial developments which have given us basic
slag and potash salts, the knowledge of the fertility that can be gained by the
growth of leguminous plants. From beginning to end the process of reclamation
of moor and heath, as we see it in progress in North-Western Europe, 1s stamped
as the product of science and investigation.

MELBOURNE.
FRIDAY, AUGUST’ 14.

Discussion on Dry Farming.

(i.) Dry Farming Investigations in the United States.
By Dr. Lyman J. Briaas.—See Reports, p. 263.

(ii.) The Ten-inch Line of Rainfall.
By Professor Toomas Cuerry, M.D., M.S.

The relative importance of Australia in regard to the future food-supply of
the world is influenced to a very marked degree by its average winter tempera-
ture and the peculiar incidence of the rainfall throughout the southern third of
the Continent. In these regions the term ‘dry farming’ has a different mean-
ing from that accepted in the Northern Hemisphere, on account of the fact that
our rainfall is almost exclusively of the winter type, and that the winter tem-
peratures are high enough to keep the ordinary cereals growing steadily during
these months. Consequently, before the dry summer sets in the crops have
reached a sufficient degree of maturity to complete their ripening before the soil
has become too dry to arrest all further growth.

Graphs were shown illustrating typical rainfall records in the region of the
winter rains in all the States of the Commonwealth except Queensland and the
Northern Territory. A brief comparison was made -with the limited areas in
other parts of the world which are similarly situated.

As a result of these conditions it may be said that in the southern parts of

646 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

the whole of Australia ‘dry farming’ does not begin until the 15-inch line of
rainfall is passed, because the winter and the total rainfalls are nearly identical.
The experience of the last fifteen years has shown :—

(1) That with the assistance of small amounts of soluble phosphates profitable
crops may be grown on less than 10 inches of winter rainfall. ;

(2) Provided the land is fairly fertile rapid growth takes place in July and
August, so that a considerable margin is available in autumn for early and late
planting.

: (3) The dry weather towards harvest-time materially reduces the risk from
all fungus diseases in cereals. .

(4) Wherever wheat can be grown peas may also be grown if necessary as
an alternate crop.

(5) Evaporation in winter is comparatively small, and consequently by fallow-
ing and other modern methods a payable crop is obtained on a lower rainfall
than is the case in any other part of the world.

(6) The slight ground-frosts which often occur in the winter nights appear to
stimulate the growth of the cereals when followed by ten hours of bright sun-
shine.

(7) The chief problem which has now to be solved is to devise methods by
which large numbers of sheep and cattle can be profitably kept on the wheat
farms in the 10-inch rainfall regions.

(8) Lands originally covered with scrub and producing very little grass have
been proved to be very suitable for wheat. With the gradual advances in the
numbers of stock kept on these farms permanent agricultural settlement ‘is
likely to extend well beyond the 10-inch line of rainfall.

(u.) The Soil-Moisture Problem in Western Australia.
By Professor Joun W. Paterson, B.Sc., Ph.D.

The author said that a sufficient supply of soil-moisture was, practically
speaking, the paramount factor in crop-production. This was true in the rela-
tively moist climate of Great Britain; the fact was illustrated in an extreme
degree in Australian agriculture. Seasonal variations were less marked in
Western Australia than in the Eastern States, and a graph was exhibited show-
ing the variations in wheat yields per acre of the various States since 1901.
The effects of drought were not simply connected with the annual rainfall of
a locality. This was a popular fallacy; but when a crop suffered from drought
the result was contributed to by quite a number of factors. Among those he
would mention—(1) the total annual rainfall, (2) its monthly distribution,
(3) the rate of evaporation as from a free surface of water, (4) the effect of
climate upon the transpiration ratio of the crop, (5) the amount of soluble salts
in the soil, (6) the physical character of the soil, (7) the skill in cultivation
of the farmer, (8) the selection of drought-resistant species and varieties of
crop-plant. In regard to annual rainfall, the South-Western corner of the
State averaged well over 30 inches, but on the Eastern fringe of the wheat-
belt wheat could be successfully grown with a 10-inch rainfall, but the greater
part of the wheat area had an average of 14 to 20 inches. To visitors these
amounts would seem low. The monthly distribution, however, was highly
advantageous, as from 70 to 80 per cent. fell between an autumn seed-time
and harvest. The third factor, viz., rate of evaporation, tended, however,
against success, and data were quoted from the Commonwealth Weather Bureau
showing that the annual loss by evaporation in the wheat-belt ranges from 60 to 80
inches of water, as against about 20 inches in the South of England. In England
therefore the annual evaporation. would amount to about two-thirds of the
annual rainfall, while in the chief farming districts of Western Australia it
was from four to six times greater than the rainfall. Closely connected with
this in some, but not all, of its contributing causes was the lower efficiency
of water to the growing crop, as indicated by the amount required to produce
a given weight of dry plant substance. The transpiration ratio was indeed
less a function of the kind of crop (speaking of the common crops) than a
function of the climate, and the author quoted from experiments he had carried

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 647

out showing that on land of moderate fertility a ratio of 600 to 700 would be
required for the wheat areas. This was roughly double the English ratio.
Again, as regards soluble salts, the drier areas commonly held a slightly higher
percentage than British soils, and while in Western Australia ‘alkali’ rarely of
itself caused infertility, his experience of alkali lands, which he had investigated
for the Victorian Government, indicated that such salts increased the liability
of crops wilting. On consideration they would expect this. Again, the physical
character of the soil had an important effect, and the sandy character of much
of the western lands gave it an advantage over the heavier soils in a dry season.
This was contradictory to his experience in the English Midlands with a 32-inch
rainfall. Fifteen inches of rain absorbed by the surface five feet of soil would
add something less than 20 per cent. of water calculated on the dry soil if it
were absorbed without loss. But the annual rainfall was spread over several
months, and the fact seemed to be that with a 15-inch rainfall the sandy soil
could hold all the rain which fell, and the greater absorbent power of the
clay soil was then of no advantage. It was indeed a disadvantage, as the finer-
grained soil could not yield up so much of its absorbed water before wilting set
in, and in the drier seasons and districts the ‘sand plain’ gave superior results
to the forest land. In regard to cultivation methods, the author quoted figures
from his experiments showing the large saving of soil-moisture by early cultiva-
tion and maintaining a soil mulch. The water saved would usually equal from
5 to 7 inches of rain in the surface five feet of soil. In Western Australia good
results from fallowing were more easily obtained than in Victoria, where the
more frequent summer rains tended to cake the surface, rendering fresh working
of the land necessary. The water saved showed itself in the crop yields, and
the results of a Kellerberrin farmer last season, showing 17 bushels on sand plain
fallowed, and 5 bushels on similar land ploughed from stubble, could be regarded
as typical under a 12-inch rainfall. The British farmer did not sufficiently
realise the use of the soil mulch in protecting his winter-ploughed lands from
the drying winds of spring. Lastly, as to the selection of drought-resistant
plants, much had been done through acclimatisation, selection, and cross-breed-
ing, but a careful analysis of the various factors which in wheat constituted
drought-resistance remained to be carried out before they could claim that plant-
breeding for this object was placed on a scientific basis. Under the dry con-
ditions of Australian wheat-growing a safe yield rather than a heavy yield was
the primary consideration. This necessitated the selection of early or middle-
early varieties, thin seeding, and in the great majority of cases the non-use of
nitrogenous manures.

(iv.) The Capillary Power of Soils. By Heser Green, D.Sc.

The conventional mechanical analysis supplies data about the sizes of the particles
of the soil; the information actually required concerns the behaviour of the soil
with respect to the movements of air and water therein. These latter are dependent
on the sizes and distribution of the free spaces between the particles and only
indirectly on the sizes of the particles.

This suggests a direct measurement, if possible, of the factors determining these
physical characters and conditions of the soil, and the magnitudes to be considered
are :—

S, the pore space, expressed as a fraction of the total volume of the soil; and
6, the water-content, similarly expressed. 6/S is then the fractional saturation
of the soil.

Pa and Pw, the permeabilities to air and water. Incidentally the ratio of these
two gives us an indication of the amount of colloidal matter present in the soil and
of its tendency to swell when wet.

K, the capillary power. This taken with the previous factors gives a measure
of the rate at which water will percolate from a wet to a dry region in the soil.

These factors (S, 6, P, and K) have been previously defined and methods for
their measurement described.! *

Of these §, 8, and P are simple properties with obvious physical meanings, but
K (the capillary power) is of a more complex character and may be defined as the

1 Heber Green and G. A. Ampt, Jour. Agr. Sci., 1911, 4, p. 1.

648 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

pull per unit area which the soil can exert on a layer of water in contact with it. This
capillary power will obviously depend on the water-content of the soil; when 0/S=1,
then K—0; the maximum value of K being reached when 0/S—O, 7.¢., when the
soil is dry.

The value of K between any given limits of 6/S becomes of practical importance,
for under field-conditions soils are rarely absolutely dry or completely saturated

Inches
50

Capillary Rise of Water
Typical Soils

Calculated from Diagram
of Experiments by Loughridge

HEIGHT TO WHICH WATER HAS RISEN

te) x 12 Naar t
} Hour |Day IMonth 4Months
and the water-movements with which we are most concerned are from relatively
moist to relatively dry sections.

This capillary power is due to the surface-tension effects produced by the attrac-
tion between the walls of these capillary pores and the water in the soil, and may
be most conveniently studied by considering a vertical column of soil with its Jower
end placed just in contact with a free surface of water. It has previously? been

2 Loc, cit.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION \. 649

shown that sucha column of soil will behave (statistically speaking) as a bundle of
capillary tubes, varying from a maximum radius depending on the size of the largest
soil-grains down to others extremely minute. The water will rise in cach capillary
to a height inversely proportional to its radius, equilibrium being rapidly attained
in the larger tubes; but, as the frictional resistance varies inversely as the fourth
power of the radius, the rate of rise in the smallest tubes will steadily slacken but
will not absolutely cease within any finite time.

This rise without limit is in conflict with the generally accepted opinion, and
Hilgard® quotes a series of experiments by Loughridge, in which the final heights
recorded (after several months) are regarded as maxima for the soils concerned.
The rate of rise in his experiments may be shown to be inversely proportional to the
time ; i.e., dh/dt=k/t or h=A+B log.t. From the examples illustrated in the graph
in the accompanying diagram it is clear that any apparent limit to h within a reasonable
time or variation from a linear function can only be due to initial disturbances or
other accidental errors.

With a view to a further and more accurate investigation the author has arranged
a laboratory draught-cupboard so that it can be maintained at a constant temperature
for several months at a time.

Experiments have been carried out on the rate of rise of water in soils of different
types; and the dependence of K (the capillary power) on S and @/S and on the sizes
of the soil-grains has been investigated. :

(v.) Flax as a Paying Crop. By C. P. Oamvim.

Flax destined for fibre has to be cultivated on different lines from that of
flax-seed or linseed (as it is usually called). Should seed be required, flax is
sown thinly, about a bushel and a half per acre—by planting thinly the stem has
a chance to branch out and flower.

If fibre is the chief object the seed is planted closer—about two or two
and a half bushels per imperial acre—the result being the drawing up of the
stalks with little tendency to branch.

The total of the last available figures shows that the world’s flax crop (includ-
ing Russia for 1911) was grown on over four and a half million acres, which
produced over 800,000 tons.

In 1912 Russia alone had 3,832,056 acres under cultivation, which produced
817,871 tons, and out of this she exported 345,216 tons, realising 11,432,954/. To
the United Kingdom she sent 68,500 tons, valued at 3,474,187/.

In Ireland there are nearly 1,000,000 spindles at work, over 7,000,000/. are
sunk in mills, machinery, etc., and 5,300,000/. are constantly locked up in
manufactured goods; 3,300,000/. are annually paid to Trish fibre-workers.

Tt would seem, therefore, that the agricultural part of the business is assured,
but it is not so. f

In England and Scotland flax has almost ceased to be grown, and the acreage
in Ireland has been reduced from 301,693 in 1864 to 46,921 in 1912. The acreage
cultivated in 1913 was, however, increased.

Within the last two or three years great strides have been made in our know-
ledge, and Governments are assisting colleges and others in studying the history
and habits of flax.

By constant attention and selection longer straw which will not branch until
full height will be secured. A steady growth produces best fibre, and small
clean stems will produce the finest filaments. The root itself has no fibrous
tissues.

The fibres are surrounded by pectose, and He in bundles containing varying
numbers of filaments.

The process of separating fibre from the boon and rind has engaged many
minds. Artificial means and chemistry have been employed without end.
Recently a new method has been tried upon the principle of solvency under
pressure, and has proved highly successful

The old process of retting and scutching was explained.

8 Soils, P- 205.

650 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

Interest in the flax-fibre industry has entered into a new phase of existence,
with a brighter horizon.

Given suitable land, good seed, careful supervision, scientific degumming, and
improved scutching, there is no reason why farmers should not devote part of
their land to flax for production of fibre. It should return a better result
financially and give greater employment than any other crop usually grown.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 18.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Methods of Milk Recording. By ALEXANDER Lauper, D.Sc.

In this paper a short account was given of the methods of obtaining the milk
records of dairy cattle as carried out in Scotland and Ireland. In Scotland the
work has been practically confined to the Ayrshire breed. A scheme has been in
operation since 1903, but in the earlier years the number of herds under inspection
was comparatively small. The work is now under the direction of the Scottish
Milk Records Committee, a representative body in receipt of an annual grant
from the Development Fund. In 1914 this grant amounted to 2,000/. The
number of cows under inspection has increased rapidly from year to year, and
during the present year has reached 25,000.

The work is carried on through local societies consisting of twelve to twenty-
four members, so that the work of each society is sufficient to take up the whole
time of a recorder. The weighing and testing may be done every fourteen,
twenty-one, or twenty-eight days, according to circumstances, an interval of
twenty-one days being the most common in Scotland. The recorder arrives at
the farm in the afternoon, weighs, and determines the percentage of fat in the
evening milk and the morning milk next day. All the testing and weighing is
done by the recorder, the farmer being only asked to supply details as to feed-
ing, times of calving, &c. A copy of the record is left with the farmer, and a
copy forwarded to the offices of the Central Committee.

Finance.—The expense of carrying on a local society may be put at about
80/. per annum. Part of this expenditure is met by a grant from the Central
Committee, and the remainder is apportioned between the members. In some
societies the members are charged so much per cow. The cost per cow is from
1s. 9d. to 1s. 10d. per annum, and each member is charged on a minimum of
forty cows.

Results.—The systematic keeping of records of the yield of milk and the per-
centage of fat has led to the gradual elimination of the less productive cows from
the herds. In this way the average yield of the herds has been greatly increased,
and also their value, especially for export purposes. In some herds the average
annual yield per cow has been increased by 100 to 200 gallons in six to eight
years.

‘ The increase in the value, since the beginning of the scheme, of Pedigree
(Milk Record) Ayrshires for export purposes is estimated at about 50 per cent.

In this connection the importance of the sire being descended from a dam of
good milking qualities has been proved by experiment, and cannot be too strongly
emphasised.

Classification of Cows.—For purposes of comparison the yield of milk is
calculated to the equivalent amount containing one per cent. fat.

In judging cows at cattle shows the more rational method of taking into
account the milk-yielding capacity of the cow is gradually superseding the
former method of depending solely on appearance. ‘Three classes are now com-
monly adopted :—i., For cows giving over 1,200 gallons; ii., for those over 1,000
gallons; iii., for those over 800 gallons.

Trish Method.—The milk recording and testing in Ireland are carried out
under a scheme of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction.
Under this scheme the cows have first to be inspected and approved. The farmer
weighs the milk on one definite day per week, and his herd and records are open

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 651

to inspection at any time without notice. The Department’s inspector checks
the farmer’s weighings, and takes samples of the milk at intervals for analysis.
Approved cows, of proved milk-yielding capacity, are then eligible for entry in
the Department’s herd book.

A short account was given of Gavin’s statistical inquiry into the accuracy of
estimating a cow’s milking capability by her first lactation yield [Gavin, ‘ The
Interpretation of Milk Records’ (Journal Royal Agricultural Society, 1912,
p. 153); “Studies in Milk Records’ (Journal Agricultural Science, 1913, vol. v.,
parts 3 and 4)].

2. Milking Machines in Victoria. By R. T. Arcuer.

There are about fourteen different makes of milking machine in this State,
and as far as can be ascertained 2,000 farmers have been supplied with
machines equal to 6,000 single machines or pulsators. Some of these have been
put out of use for various reasons considered below. One of the principal advan-
tages in connection with machine milking is that it makes a farmer practically
independent of labour, which is a difficult problem in this country.

When the machines are handled properly by those who take an interest in
them they give thoroughly satisfactory results; especially is this the case with
heifers first broken in to the machine. It is found also that the milk keeps satis-
factorily. That this should be the result with proper handling is proved by
the experience at the Lady Talbot Institute. On the other hand, it is difficult,
almost impossible, to persuade the average dairy-farmer to exercise the neces-
sary care in cleansing the machines, and when this is neglected the quality of
the product suffers.

Types of Machines.

All the machines but one in use in Victoria are worked on the vacuum
principle, which is produced either by pump or by a steam-ejector. The
systems in use are the bucket and the conduit or tank. In the conduit system
the milk is conveyed from the teats through pipes to a tank in any convenient
place, but the pipes become an additional menace in careless hands. They are
of brass or gun-metal with polished surface inside. Experiments are being
made with strong clear glass tubes to replace the metal. If these prove satis-
factory it will be easy to see if they are clean. In this system various valve
devices are used to provide automatic release of the milk so that the vacuum
may be sustained.

Another type of apparatus used for milking, which on account of its apparent
cheapness and simplicity is likely to find favour with the uninitiated, consists of
four ordinary milk-tubes or teat-syphons with rubber tubes attached to convey
the milk to the buckets.

Many reliable users of the milking machine claim that with the machines the
cows never have sore teats, and if used on a cow with sore teats they rapidly
heal and do not bleed as they do when milked by hand. Some claim that con-
tagious mammitis is more likely to spread with machines, but this only applies
to the careless man.

Cost of Upkeep.

This varies according to care bestowed, but under proper treatment it may
be put down at about 1/. per machine per annum. Aluminium is largely used
now in the teat-cups, and many of these appear to corrode rapidly at the top
and bottom. Some attribute this to milk, but it is more probably due to the
soda used in cleansing. It is questionable if aluminium is suitable for this
purpose. Light gun-metal or brass cups nickel-plated appear to stand better.

The Sanitary Aspect.

The greatest problem in connection with the milking machine as it presents
itself in this country is with regard to sanitation. The difficulty is to impress
users with the necessity of properly cleansing the machines as soon as possible
after using. The experience gained through the Lady Talbot Institute goes to
prove that with proper care milk can be produced giving an exceptionally low
bacterial count.

652 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

Lady Talbot Milk Institute.

Table showing number of micro-organisms per cubic centimetre (machine
milking) :—

site 911 1912

| February . -|) 9,000 «|. 5,300

| March : ; : 3 . | 29,600 21,200 |
April . é 5 - ' . . | 25,400 31,300

| May . E ‘ a : : ; | 3,600 11,600

| Average . x 2 é | 23,800 18,700

Table showing average of micro-organisms per cubic centimétre after
deleting the figures for the sample yielding the highest count each month. (This
table gives a better idea of the bacterial condition of the bulk of milk supplied
by the Institute.)

Average * S20) Ui ais + Saebo an

Experiments conducted at the farm proved the superiority of the machines
over hand milking as regards cleanliness.

3. Trials of Milking Machines. By Dr. R. Srennousre W1iLuLIAMs,
J. Goupine, and James MAckINTOSH.

At the trials of milking machines arranged by the Royal Agricultural Society
of England in 1913, the chemical and bacteriological tests were conducted by
the authors. Eleven machines competed, and the paper discussed the various
lines of development along which future progress may take place.

At the outset it may be stated that the Committee excluded syphon machines
on the ground ‘ that they were rightly considered by the Society to be injurious
to the cows.’

There remained then two types of machine :—

A. Pressure machines, those in which an attempt was made to simulate the
process of hand milking, and

B. Suction machines, those in which suction in one form or another was

employed.
Of the former three competed. The bacteriological results were as follows :—
O P Q
675 4,603 5,161,

which represents the average bacteriological content per c.c. during the trials.

Remarks on Pressure Machines.

O. Squeezing the teats from above downwards. No friction on udder. Milk
caught in open pail.

P. Squeezing of teats by rubber plates associated with adjustable shields
which massaged the udder during milking, thus dislodging hairs and dirt
particles. Open bucket underneath the udder.

Q. The milk was expressed by pressure only and conveyed by short channels
to an open tray, thence by a tube to the receiver which is suspended underneath
the cow. As it enters the receiver the milk is strained.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 653

Remarks on Suction Machines.

The results obtained with these machines depend, firstly, on the defects in
the machines themselves, and, secondly, on the care and skill of the operator. It
was not always possible to differentiate between these, but the following instance
may be given as indicating the effect of want of care in this direction.

A (average bacteriological count 3,103 per c.c.) compared with D (average
bacteriological count 1,579 per c.c.).

A was a better machine but not so well cleansed.

Again, if we consider four of the suction machines in all of which reasonable
care was taken in the cleansing, we find that the average count varied from about
2,000 to about 4,000 organisms per c.c. On the other hand, the two machines in
which the cleansing was undoubtedly indifferent had average counts of 41,419
and 12,384. The bacterial content in the machine giving 12,384 was mainly due
to inefficient cleansing of the machine. In the machine giving 41,419, insufficient
cleansing, excessive length of rubber tubing, and leakages contributed to the
high count.

It appears, therefore, that suction machines, as exhibited in this trial,
depended to an unreasonable extent on the personal equation, and demanded an
amount of intelligence that cannot be expected from the average cow-man.

The results seem to indicate that some type of pressure machine milking
directly into a covered can might give the most effective bacteriological results
in the hands of an ordinary worker.

The suction machines with their tubing and fittings require a cleansing
between each milking, which almost amounts to bacteriological sterilisation, if
really good results are to be obtained. The absence of the means to effect this
on many farms, and the lack of training in those who have to perform the work,
render a plea for the simplification of the machine specially cogent.

4. The Results of Milk and Dairy Supervision in Victoria,
By Dr. 8. S. Camsron.

5. Milk and Butter Records of Pure-bred Cows in Australia, with
Special Reference to the Australian Breed of Milking Shorthorns.
By M. A. O’CanuacHan.

This paper showed what the Government of New South Wales and the
breeders of pure-bred dairy cattle are doing towards obtaining the records of all
pure-bred cows in the State.

Records were given for Australian dairy shorthorns, and also a brief history
of the formation of this breed.
Records were also given for Jerseys and Guernseys.

Climate and Food Conditions in relation to Composition of Milk.

The question of the effect of extreme periods of drought during which time
cows receive no green food was referred to as affecting the solids not fat in milk.
The question was also raised as to the effect on the percentage of fat in milk of
almost continual sunshine and absence of rainy weather coupled with good food
eam such as prevail on the irrigated lands of Yanco district, New South
ales.

Milk and Butter Records. ;
Shorthorns (Australian type). Pa a
‘Melka ITI.’ for 9 months = , B : : : 585 13,818
as lie 55 3 3 3 : . 653 15,238
‘Champion III.’., 9 ,, F 5 5 E ‘ E 563 10,299
33 Oe as, ee eee i ; F 574 10,500
‘Camelia II.’ ,, 9 ,, : E ; : 2 446 10,366
Hise RD ern : : : : : ; 524 12,039
‘ Lily III.’ Bot Oib7);, : : PAT ie . 680 14,742

3 7a ee Spat ee GRO 17,599

654 # TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

Butter. Milk.

Jerseys. Ibs. Ibs.
Hordern’s ‘ Ledas Snowdrop’ (imp.) for 7months. . 518 8,079
Gollan’s ‘ Winsome’ er i nation: 4 + 481 8,106

a9 * Bessie’ a Cras 5 : 454 8,134
Macdonald’s ‘ Coomassie’ tnt Wise . 2 497° 8,363
a ‘Madeira 8th’ ef) a la et : : 482 6,685

°e ea Ber 1 6a as é Z 616 8,348

Miss Walker’s ‘ Lady Capture’ és) Sas : : 452 6,788
of 75 RON 5 4 2 482 7,217

Guernseys.

*Perry’s ‘ Mignotte 7th’ (imp.) for 9 months 331 5,786
* ,, ‘La Colombe’ (imp.) Pea ha 364 6,598
Kinross’ ‘ Merton Margaret 2nd’ (imp.) ages ie: 455 7,109

N.S.W. Government’s ‘ Calm 2nd’ », 41 weeks 503 7,548

is » ‘Parsons Red Rose Ist’ (imp.),,51 _,, 452 6,999

* Cows marked thus were only on their second calf.

6. Preliminary Note on Wool Inheritance. By P. G. Battey, M.A.

This paper dealt with the methods employed in the experiments made at
Cambridge on the question of the ‘Inheritance of Wool Characters,’ and the
results so far obtained from these experiments.

A cross was made between two Merino rams sent us by the late Mr. Charles
Harper, of Western Australia, and twenty Shropshire ewes. Thirty-one F, rams
and forty-one F, ewes were obtained from this cross. An F, ram was mated to
the F, ewes, and from these we have now got thirty-three F, rams and forty-
seven F, ewes, but of these F, sheep only six rams and eight ewes have been
shorn.

The methods employed in this investigation were the following :—

(1) Each sheep was given an earmark number in order that a complete pedi-
gree should be kept.

(2) At shearing, small samples were taken from the two shoulders, neck, belly,
and britch. The fleeces were then given the number of the sheep from which
they came, were weighed and sent to Professor Barker at the Technical College,
Bradford. They were there sorted into the commercial qualities.

(3) The commercial qualities apparently depend upon a large number of
factors, each of which is possibly independent in its inheritance. These factors
have been stated to be lustre, uniformity in length, waviness, and, most impor-
tant of all, average diameter of fibre. | Consequently it became necessary to
analyse these factors separately. With Mr. F. L. Engledow’s help, a micro-
scopical investigation has therefore been made into these characters, especially
as regards average diameter of fibre.

Results so far obtained :—

(1) Range of qualities shown by Bradford sorting :—

Merinorams . . . . . . Quality 64s

Shropshire ewes . : 3 ; A F > 54s—50s
F, rams : : 3 P é h : > 60s—44s
F, ewes 3 A ; i ‘ 4 . s, 608—50s
F, rams ‘ : : 5 5 P ‘ > 60s—54s
F, ewes : : : : 3 5 >» 608-54s

There is, in fact, a high range of variation in the F, generation, but the great
bulk of the F, sheep are of a quality intermediate between those of its Merino
and Shropshire parents.

(2) No accurate investigation has yet been made into the amount of grease in
fleeces, but it was seen that the F, generation were intermediate in this respect
between the two parents.

(3) The microscopical investigation of the average diameter of the fibres
points to the fact that the great bulk of the F, sheep are intermediate as regards
this character.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 655

It has incidentally been shown that in order to obtain a probable error of less
than 3 per cent. of the average of any sample it is necessary to take 160 measure-
ments of that sample.

(4) There is a large variation in the range of the weights of the F, fleeces.

(5) The F, generation are also intermediate as regards the number of waves
per inch.

7. Size Inheritance in Poultry. By P. G. Batey.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 19.

Joint Discussion with Section G on Irrigation.

(i.) Irrigation Works in Italy.!. By Professor Lurar Luiae1, D.Sc.,
M.Inst.C.H., President, Italian Society of Civil Engineers.

The average tourist who visits Italy and admires the splendid orange-
groves round Sicily and Calabria, the industrial flower-gardens of the Ligurian
Riviera, the luxurious vegetable-gardens and orchards of Tuscany and Campania,
or the extensive green meadows of exuberant trefoil and lucerne of Lombardy
and Lower Piedmont—if he has any tinge of poetry in his veins—will be apt to
raise a hymn of praise to Providence for bestowing upon Italy such great
blessings, and forget the industry of its inhabitants accused of the sins of ‘ dolce
far niente.’

And truly Italy has been greatly favoured by a mild climate with plenty
of sunshine—although even in excess in some parts; but beyond this, Providence
has not done much more than for any other nation of Southern Europe, if it
were not that it has also given to Italy a very hardy race of people, full of
resources, very thrifty, content with little, and ready to till the land cheerfully
from dawn to dusk in the hope of getting good crops, notwithstanding the
numerous drawbacks of a rather poor soil, of a very irregular rainfall—in excess
during the winter months, when it causes inundations, and nearly absent for
five to seven months of the warm season, during which a fierce sun would scorch
the land and dry up all vegetation if the industry of the Italian farmer did not
overcome these natural drawbacks by means of a rational system of irrigation.

And, in fact, the prosperity of agriculture in the regions just mentioned—
which are the most prosperous in Italy—is due exclusively to the incessant
work of men who, far from enjoying much ‘ dolce far niente,’ have applied,
and are extending continually, the art of irrigation, which in Italy dates back
from the time of the Etruscans, and has reached great perfection in our days.

Without irrigation, the rich orange-groves, the bountiful orchards and
vegetable-gardens, which give such valuable products for exportation to Central
Europe and North America, could not exist, and the land would give but a
scanty revenue to its owners; but especially the luxurious and extensive meadows
of the valley of the Po—which are intensely green all the year round, and give
even seven or eight crops of fodder per year—could not exist, and barely one or
two cuttings of grass could be raised without the help of irrigation.

It is the art of the hydraulic engineer and the intelligence and perseverance
of the agriculturist that, by regulating the natural water-courses, impounding
the water in reservoirs, or raising it from the subsoil or from the natural
streams, and then distributing this water intelligently over the land at the
proper time—that is, by scientific irrigation—have transformed the waste sandy
plains of Piedmont and Lombardy into the most prosperous meadows of Europe,
and made the orange-groves around the Tyrrhenian coasts so plentiful and beauti-
ful as to cause Goethe to give to Italy the name of ‘the land where the orange
blooms.’

1 Published in Engineering, September 18, 1914.

656 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M,

As the climatic conditions of Australia are very similar to those of Italy,
it may be interesting—and it is hoped useful—to the citizens of the Common-
wealth to know how Italians manage to get the best out of the natural con-
ditions of their native land, which, owing to the prosperous state of agriculture
from time immemorial—which leaves a good surplus for improvements and
comfort—has made Italy the land of music, of poetry, and of arts.

After this introduction, showing that irrigation is the principal factor
of the advanced state of agriculture, and the principal source of revenue for the
Italian nation, the author described the different ways of getting water for
irrigation, and how it is distributed over the cultivated fields.

The Cost of Water.—When only small quantities are required, as for the
orange-groves and flower-gardens, the water is generally raised from the sub-
soil—at the foot of the hills or round the coasts—either by very primitive means
such as water-buckets (cicogne) moved by men, or norias, or rosary-pumps
moved by animals, as in Southern Italy, or by small but very modern centrifugal
pumps moved by oil or electric motors, used especially along the Ligurian
Riviera and in many parts of the valley of the Po, where hydro-electric plants
are very common.

The cost of the water raised electrically—especially during the daytime, when
the electric current is distributed at lower rates than at night—varies from 0°10
to 0:25 franc per cubic metre (from 43d. to 11d. per 1,000 gallons), and it is
considered not dear, for if raised by animals or, worse still, by men, its cost
would be respectively eight to seventeen times higher.

Nevertheless the products grown with irrigation realise such high prices that
this expenditure is justified, and also a very fair profit is left to the growers of
oranges, early vegetables, and flowers, which find a ready market in Central and
Northern Europe, especially during the winter months. The revenue of a good
orange-grove varies from 2,000 to 3,000 francs per hectare (36/. to 54/. per
acre) per year.

Huge Rcservoirs.—¥or irrigation on a large scale—that is, for fairly large
farms of some 50 to 100 acres in extent, where ordinary vegetables, fruit-trees,
vines, olives, &c., are cultivated—this price of water would be prohibitive, and,
besides, the quantity would be insufficient. Then recourse is had to collecting
the rainfail-—which on the average varies from 36 inches in North Italy to
15 inches in the South—by storing it up in reservoirs. These vary from the
modest cistern of some few hundred cubic metres capacity, sufficient for the
horticulturist, to large artificial lakes of many million cubic metres formed in
some valley of the Alps or of the Apennines by high dams, built either of earth,
rock-fill, or masonry, the last being generally preferred.

There are already many large reservoirs, especially in Northern Italy, such
as the Lagastrello, Brasimone, Gorzente, Devero, Adamello, and others, but the
largest of all is now in construction in Sardinia, across the River Tirso. The
dam, of masonry, is 55 metres high (179 feet), and is of gravity section. It
will impound 350 million cubic metres (12,250 million cubic feet) of water
—so that it will be the largest in Europe—sufiicient to irrigate from 20,000 to
30,000 hectares (about 50,000 to 80,000 acres) of land capable of being cultivated
for early vegetables, fruit, oranges, olives, vines, and such good-priced products.

Several other dams are soon to be built in Southern Italy, the most important
being on the rivers Bradano, Sila, Simeto, and Fortore. The latter will be
75 metres high (243 feet), and will impound 410 million cubic metres (14,350
million cubic feet) of water and irrigate about 100,000 acres in the fertile plains
of Apulia.

The water from all these artificial lakes is generally used first for motive
power, in some hydro-electric installations—which in Northern Italy are very
plentiful, and this helps much in lowering the price of the irrigating water—
and afterwards it is distributed by means of canals to the different farms, at
prices varying from about 0-005 to 0-01 franc per cubic metre (from 1d. to 4d.
per 1,000 gallons), or at the ‘lump sum’ or ‘annual rate’ of from 80 to 120
francs per hectare (17. 10s. to 2/. 10s. per acre per annum).

These prices, however—although quite reasonable in semi-arid regions, where
a timely irrigation may save the crops from total failure in a year of drought—
are still too high for ordinary irrigations, especially of meadows, and besides,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 657

for very large extensions of land, the quantity of water that can be impounded
in an artificial lake is always comparatively small.

Canals.—So, when large quantities are required, the water is obtained from
rivers, fed, generally, by some natural lake, like the rivers Ticino, Adda,
Oglio, Mincio, or by some glacier which, melting in the summer season, acts
practically like a lake of frozen water; in this condition are the rivers Tanaro,
Po, Dora, Orco, Adige, and many others.

The engineering works consist of a submergible dam of very substantial
masonry, built across the river, and capable of raising the level of the water to
that of the country to be irrigated ; of some controlling sluices at the canal head ;
and of a main canal, with lateral distributing ditches, provided at their intake
with some apparatus for measuring the water to be delivered. Generally, the
“Cipeletti Weir’ or some such over-fall weir is used. No mechanical meters
are adopted, except for very small deliveries.

The price of this canal water varies from 20 to 45 francs per hectare per year
(8s. to 1, per acre).

Many of these irrigation canals date back from the Middle Ages. For
instance, the ‘ Naviglio Grande’ was built in the twelfth century, and is used
also for inland navigation—in fact, it is a feature of these canals called
‘Navigli’ to serve both for irrigation and navigation purposes. The
‘ Naviglio Grande’ is about 50 miles long, and has a capacity of 55 cubic metres
(2,275 cubic feet) per second; and in order of date come the ‘ Muzza’ with
60 cubic metres, the ‘Cremona’ with 30 cubic metres, and scores of smaller ones.

Of the canals of modern times—that is, built during the last fifty years—the
most interesting, also from the point of view of the engineering features, are
the ‘Cavour’ canal with 110 cubic metres discharge (3,850 cubic feet) per
second, the ‘ Villoresi’ with 44 cubic metres (1,500 cubic feet), the ‘Marzano’
with 30 cubic metres (1,050 cubic feet), the ‘ Veronese’ with 15 cubic metres
(510 cubic feet), and the ‘Tagliamento’ with 17°5 cubic metres (600 cubic feet)
per second. They are really models, both from the engineering point of view and
the perfection of their administration; so much so, that many engineers come

_ from all parts of the world to study them.

* The largest and longest of all is the ‘Cavour’ canal, with a discharge
capacity of 110 cubic metres (3,850 cubic feet) per second, and a development of
fully 1,000 miles, including its branches. It was built in 1855-65 by a private
company that failed, and was taken over by the State.

This canal, the most important in Europe, was the means of transforming an
almost barren region of 250,000 acres of sand and gravel—useful only for growing
timber and bushes—into the most fertile rice-fields and meadow-land of Italy,
where the best Parmesan and Gorgonzola cheeses are produced. A still larger
canal is about to be undertaken, the ‘ Emiliano’ canal, with a capacity of 300
cubic metres (10,500 cubic feet) per second, 120 miles long, and estimated to cost
12,000,000/.

Results of Irrigation.—The author described, with the help of lantern slides,
the most salient engineering features of some of these canals, i.e., their head-
works—one of them at the ‘Ombrone’ inlet is capable of receiving 600 cubic
metres (21,000 cubic feet) per second—and the numerous aqueducts and syphons
over and under existing canals or rivers; pointing out that the irrigation canals
of Italy carry the life-blood of the national agriculture. He described also how
the water is applied to the crops, the ‘rotations’ or periods of irrigation used
according to the nature of the land, its permeability, and the crops to be raised ;
concluding with the results obtained by irrigation, which are most satisfactory
from the agricultural point of view, as the rent of the fields is more than
doubled or trebled by irrigation. From the financial point of view of the
Canal Administration, however, with very rare exceptions, the results are not
so satisfactory, and in fact are generally disappointing. It is not sufficient to
build a canal carrying a large volume of water, it is necessary to sell this water—
that is, find the farmers ready to use it—and provide to pay for the original cost
of the canal and its ordinary expenses. But in order to use the water, it is
necessary for the farmers first to prepare their own distributing ditches, then
to level their fields properly, and learn how to apply the water to the land at
the moment, and in the proportion most convenient ; to decide which crops are’

1914. r=

658 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

the most profitable in regard to the different markets, and—where the land is
not very permeable—it is also necessary to prepare drainage ditches in order to
get rid of the surplus water that otherwise might damage the vegetation or pro-
duce an excess of parasitic plants. All this requires experience, time, and
capital, and thus the Administration of the irrigating canal is not in a con-
dition to sell all its water for many years.

In the best conditions it takes from twenty to thirty years—and sometimes
even more—to dispose of all the water of a large canal.

For instance, the ‘ Marzano’ canal, which crosses the province of Cremona,
where irrigation has been adopted since the Middle Ages, and all the distribut-
ing ditches were already made when the main canal was built—in fact, its
function is that of increasing the flow of the older irrigation canals—needed
fully thirty years before all its cubic metres per second of water were dis-
posed of, although the conditions were most favourable. The ‘ Villoresi,’ also
in a region where irrigation is pretty well developed, after forty years has not
yet disposed of all its water, and the financial conditions of its administration
are far from being prosperous.

The State’s Help.—This is the reason why the State considers it is its duty to
help all these undertakings. Irrigation puts under cultivation large tracts of
land of very little value, and in places almost sterile, and part of the population
that now emigrates abroad can thus find useful employment in the cultivation of
this land, otherwise nearly useless, and thus increase the national wealth.

Italy has an increase of population of almost one million souls per year, and
some 500,000 to 600,000 people are obliged to emigrate, especially to North
America, or Central Europe, while some 100,000 go to Argentina, and 50,000 to
other countries round the Mediterranean.

To moderate this exodus, which is not beneficial to the country, the State
encourages irrigation by granting a subsidy of three per cent. per year for
a period of ten years on the capital spent in the construction of the main
canal and its principal branches, two per cent. per year for the following ten
years, and one per cent. for another period of ten years. Then the subsidy
ceases, but in the meantime these subsidies, capitalised at five per cent., repre-
sent already about thirty-five per cent. of the initial expenditure. But if the canal
is arranged in such a way as to help to control the flood-water of rivers—as when
impounding reservoirs are also built—then some subsidy is also granted on the
capital in the proportion of ten per cent. to thirty per cent. of the expenditure.
For instance, for the Tirso reservoir and canal, estimated at about 20 million
francs (800,000/.), the State, besides the usual grants, pays three million francs
(120,0002.) for the beneficial effect on the régime of the river, and grants a
yearly subsidy of 150,000 francs (6,000/.) for fifty years for the canal, provided
that the price of the water for irrigation is not more than 32 francs per hectare
per year (lls. per acre). After sixty years all the works become the property of
the State.

The conclusion, based on Italian experience, is that irrigation is very bene-
ficial to the individual farmer, when he can get the water by paying 30 to
50 francs per hectare per year (11s. to 17s. per acre), but not to the Adminis-
tration of the canal during at least the first thirty years; so the undertaking
requires a great help from the State during this trying period. But in the
meantime the State, in the form of taxation, and in the increased welfare of its
citizens, reaps a large benefit from these works, which is more than sufficient
to repay amply all the sacrifices made for this purpose. Without irrigation
Italy would not be able to feed a large portion of its present population; as it
is, with its wonderful network of irrigating canals, it has become the ‘ garden
of Europe,’ and is now preparing to extend irrigation in order to be able in
thirty years’ time to feed a population of fifty to sixty million inhabitants.
This gives an idea of the satisfactory results accomplished by scientific irriga-
tion, and explains also the reason why the Italian State encourages and helps
financially all such undertakings.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M, 659

(ii.) Some Factors controlling the Growth of Cotton,*
By H. T. Ferrar, M.A., F.G.S.

Among the main factors which control the cultivation of cotton on a com-
mercial basis are :—(1) Temperature, (2) water-supply, (3) soil, (4) labour.

(1) The cotton-plant is commonly found in those parts of the world which lie
within thirty degrees of the Equator, but finds its best development in what may
be described as sub-tropical climatological regions. In Egypt the air-tempera-
tures which rule at sowing-time are in the neighbourhood of 65° F.; as the plants
attain maturity the temperatures gradually rise to values of 82° F. and 83° F.
and fall some 9° or 10° during harvest.

(2) The water requirements of the crop are equivalent to about 46 inches of
rainfall, which in Egypt is met by irrigation from perennial canals. The water-
factor naturally depends upon environment. The methods adopted by the
Egyptian cultivators were described.

(3) The volume (depth) of soil available to the roots of the cotton-plant is of
more importance than its texture or its chemical composition, provided always
that the soil contains sufficient available plant-foods. In Egypt cotton is grown
profitably on a soil which in one extreme case is an almost pure sand, and in
the other extreme an unctuous clay. Diagrams were exhibited showing how a
high water-table, by reducing the volume of available soil, limits the yield of the
plant.

(4) The profits derived from the cultivation of cotton naturally depend upon
the cost of agriculture. Where the price of labour is high better returns are
obtained by cultivating the more valuable types of cotton. The higher-grade
Egyptian cottons grow best in the Delta, while warmer Middle Egypt supplies a
cotton (Ashmuni) whose fibre is of medium value only.

The East Coast of Australia would seem to provide the requisite temperatures
and rainfall necessary for cotton-cultivation, but widespread experiment is
necessary if it is desired to prove what areas provide suitable soil conditions and
what is the margin of profit of the husbandman.

(i1.) Two Maps illustrating the Fertility of Lower Eqypt.*
By H. T. Ferrar, M.A., F.G.S.

In an arid country water-supply is the most important factor governing the
fertility of the soil, and, given a sufficiency of water, the origin or the chemical
composition of the soil is usually of secondary importance. Evaporation being
active under arid conditions there isa tendency for salt to accumulate in the soil
to the detriment of agriculture. In the United States of America much arable
land has deteriorated owing to the accumulation of salts caused by injudicious
irrigation, and the next step in Hgypt’s agricultural progress is the provision
of a widespread and efficient network of drains.

The programme of this work is now in hand, and, in order to be in a position
to assess the improvement effected after the improved drainage facilities begin
to operate, the Egyptian Survey Department was asked to make a survey which
would record the present condition of the land. A Fertility Map of part of the
Northern Delta was shown. The map on a scale of 1 : 50,000 is reduced from the
1: 10,000 field-sheets of Mr. F. E. Frith and myself, which are coloured accord-
ing to an eye-estimate of the value of the land. The agricultural value has been
proved to depend upon the salt-content of the soil, and in order to control the
arbitrary scale adopted frequent soil-samples have been analysed by Mr. F.
Hughes of the Agricultural Department. The mean salt-content of what we
have called good land (coloured yellow on the map) is about 0-3 per cent.,
medium land (burnt sienna) about 0:5 per cent., poor land (sepia) 0-8 per cent.,
and barren or uncultivated land (purple) 1 per cent. to 20 per cent.

On comparing this map with another on the same scale showing the contours
it is noticeable how the fertility depends upon both absolute and relative levels,
i.e., upon natural drainage. The good land occurs in the south, aud becomes

? By permission of the Director-General of the Egyptian Survey Department.

uvua

660 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M,

gradually inferior, and finally barren as sea-level is approached, except for
narrow strips along the high-lying arterial waterways.

Canals such as these, though sometimes following a tortuous course, are
always the most satisfactory, firstly because they easily command the country
they serve with irrigation water, and, secondly, because the evils of salt-
accumulation consequent on active infiltration are reduced to the lowest possible
minimum. Conversely, drainage channels are not fully efficient unless they
follow closely the lowest parts of depressions between opposing elevations.
In Egypt differences of level are usually comparatively small; nevertheless, re-
modelling of water-channels, which in the old days were not excavated according
to the contours, has formed part of the irrigation programme since the British
occupation of that country.

It is understood that some Australian irrigation projects have not been
entirely successful owing to difficulties such as are indicated, and it is urged
that it is an economy to spend money on detailed mapping of new country before
launching on projects of canalisation, which if lacking in finality may entail a
greater outlay on remodelling than would have been needed for the initial survey.

‘When we mean to build,
We first survey the plot, then draw the model.’

(iv.) Irrigation in Victoria. By J. H. Derurinar.

SYDNEY.
ERIDAY PAC GOST 21.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Migration of Reserve Material to the Seed in Barley considered as a
Factor of Productivity. By E. S. Braven.

With barley the ratio of the dry matter accumulated in the seed to the total
dry matter of the plant when fully ripe frequently influences the produce of
grain to a greater extent than any other factor; also it is more important in
barley than in either wheat or oats, because the value of the dry matter of the
haulm (i.e., the stem and leaves) is less with barley; also this ratio is higher
in some races of barley than in any variety of the other cereals, and probably
higher than in any other cultivated plant. The paper dealt with some of the
bearings of these facts.

This ratio varies considerably as between different varieties of barley and
as between different races of the same variety of any cereal species. It has a
high value for purposes of selection, especially in the early stages of selection
from amongst a limited number of individual plants which are the progeny
obtained by the artificial cross-fertilisation of any two individuals.

As between two races, each the progeny of a single plant of the F4 generation
of the same cross, and with the same weight of dry matter in the entire plants
on unit area, the inherited and persistent difference in the ratio referred to has
been found in a series of experiments to be as much as 5 per cent. In conse-
quence of this factor alone with the same total weight of grain and straw on unit
area the yield of grain was more than 10 per cent. greater in some such races
than in others. :

In the case of hybrid races generally the number of individuals possessing
different combinations of characters is very large, especially if minor characters
affecting either productivity or quality are taken into account. The experi-
mental error involved in selecting either individual plants, or aggregates which
are the progeny of single self-fertilised plants, for the purpose of starting new
races of cereals is so great in consequence of environmental conditions that no
conclusions of practical value can be drawn, except from a very large number of
observations, as to relative productivity when only the dry weight of the grain
is taken into account, and then only if special methods of cultivation are
adopted.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 661

In the initiatory stages of new races it becomes, therefore, impracticable with
any certainty to extract the most productive races from those originated by
artificial crossing by the merely empirical methods hitherto adopted.

The paper described the methods adopted in collaboration with Professor
Biffen, and, in respect of the biometrical data obtained, with Mr. W. E. Gosset,
and gave a summary of the conclusions arrived at from the experiments of the
last five years; more particularly as to the value for selection purposes of accu-
rate determination of the relative seed-forming energy as shown by the ‘co-
efficient of migration ’ of different races of barley.

2. Wheat Improvement in Australia. By ¥. B. GuTurie, LO.

Part I.

Early inter-State action with regard to the study of wheat and its diseases
was reviewed, and it was shown how the original scheme developed.

The work of private individuals, working before State action was
inaugurated, was discussed, and in particular the present position of the Farrer
wheats was dealt with.

The special qualities looked for in wheats to be grown under Australian con-
ditions were grouped under the following heads :—

(1) Resistance to rust and other diseases.

(2) Prolificness.

(3) Drought resistance.

(4) Milling quality.

(5) Wheats for hay.

(6) Wheats for different districts and climates.

It was shown how the interpretation placed on the above terms in Australia
differs from that which obtains in other countries on account of the differing
conditions; for example, wheats which resist rust locally succumb to this disease
when grown in other parts of the world; some of the most prolific HKuropean
varieties are very poor yielders when grown locally, &c.

The characteristics enumerated above were next considered more in detail.

(1) Resistance to Rust, &c.—The principal workers on this subject were
referred to. The point was noted that the nature and life-history of rust were
different in Australia. The question of rust-escaping by quick maturing was
dealt with, and the damage done by rust in Australia, especially in the coastal
districts, was discussed.

Remarks followed on some rust-resistant wheats.

(2) Prolificness.—The importance of this quality from a farmer’s point of
view. In the older wheats prolificness was very frequently associated with
inferiority in other respects. The smallness of local yields was considered in
comparison with other countries. The characteristics required in a prolific
wheat were reviewed and some successful new varieties described.

(3) Drought Resistance.—It was shown that this property is of the greatest
local importance in view of the extension of wheat-growing into drier areas.
The characteristics to be looked for in dry country wheats were discussed, and
some successful new varieties described.

(4) Milling Qualities.—The different requirements of English and Australian
millers were referred to, and the characteristics of a good milling wheat for
Australian conditions discussed. The export and internal trade were reviewed,
and it was shown that there is a steady improvement in the quality of our
locally grown wheat. Notes followed on some of our best-milling wheats.

Part II.
The work done in the individual States in the improvement of wheat was
reviewed under the following headings :—
(1) Work done by individual investigators.
(2) Work carried out at institutions under departmental control.
(3) Action taken by the different States in furtherance of the object of
improving wheats.

662 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

8. William Farrer’s Work, Methods, and Success: a Short Sketch.
By J. T. PripHam.

Farrer, the famous wheat-breeder, was born in England in 1845 and had
a distinguished career at Cambridge. He emigrated to Australia for health
reasons, and after practising as a surveyor he started his wheat-breeding experi-
ments on his own property at Lambrigg, New South Wales, in 1886. In 1898
he became wheat-breeder to the State Department of Agriculture and was
actively engaged in this great work till the day of his death in 1906.

What first attracted his attention to wheat improvement was the damage
done for a number of years by rust (Puccinia graminis), and he set
himself the problem of producing a rust-resisting variety. Other features which
he aimed at securing were greater flour-strength, drought-resistance, early
maturity, freedom from shelling, suitability for hay-making, and immunity to
bunt (Yilletia tritici). Prolificness he regarded as of secondary importance,
although this is the leading characteristic of his most popular variety, ‘ Federa-
tion.’ He seems to have thought that proper attention to cultivation, manur-
ing, &c., were of more importance in securing high yields than the actual
prolificness of a particular variety.

Cross-breeding followed by selection from the varying progeny formed the
basis of all Farrer’s work, and he usually made between 200 and 400 crosses in
each year after joining the Department. The varieties used in addition to the
best local ones were chiefly of the Fife type from Canada and the United
States to impart strength, and Indian varieties to give early maturity and
capacity for holding the grain after ripening. The selection of the best cross-
breds and the elimination of the unsuitable ones presented the greatest diff-
culties he had to encounter. He was greatly helped in this by the setting-up
of a miniature flour-mill under the superintendence of Mr. F. B. Guthrie, the
departmental chemist; for this made it possible to determine accurately the
milling and baking qualities of very small samples of grain, any varieties not
coming up to a certain standard being immediately rejected. He kept well
abreast of the current literature on the subject, and although during his later
years he was in correspondence with Professors Biffen and Spillman on the
subject of Mendelism he did not see his way to alter his methods materially,
except, perhaps, in reducing the number of crosses made.

His work proved successful beyond his wildest dreams, though it was only
partially appreciated at the time of his death. His greatest popular success is
‘Federation ’—a variety first introduced to the farming public about 1901 and
now the most extensively grown and prolific of any in Australia. It is a cross
between ‘ Purple Straw,’ one of the best all-round local varieties up till Farrer’s
time, and a Fife-Indian cross-bred called ‘ Yondilla.’ In addition, he has pro-
duced varieties (‘Comeback,’ ‘ Bobs,’ and ‘ Cedar’) of much greater flour-
strength than any previously grown; varieties relatively immune to rust
(‘Warren ’ and ‘ Thew ’), suitable to the moister districts near the coast ; varieties
not subject to bunt (‘ Florence,’ ‘ Genoa,’ and ‘ Cedar ’), early-maturing varieties
—some of them suitable for hay-making, like ‘ Firbank ’ and ‘ Bunyip,’ and most
of them hold their grain better and are more suitable to Australian harvesting
methods than the majority of the older varieties. Since his varieties have come
into general use the growth of wheat has extended into drier and drier districts
and a new province has been added to the ‘ wheat-belt ’ in New South Wales, °
while the average milling and baking qualities of Australian wheat have
improved year by year.

In the opinion of the author the main factors which contributed to Farrer’s
success were his keen enthusiasm, perseverance, thoroughness, and singleness
of aim, coupled with the assistance of the Government, which caused the new
varieties to be thoroughly tested and finally introduced to the farmers.

4. (a) Variety Testing and (b) Strength of Wheat Flour.
By Professor T. B. Woop, M.A.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 663

5. Wheat-Breeding in Australia. By A. B. V. Ricuarpson, M.A., B.Sc.

Wheat is the staple crop of Australia. Steady increase in production has
taken place during the past three decades, and the annual production is now
approximately 100 million bushels. The greatest increase has taken place during
the past decade, the area of land under wheat for grain rising from 5} million
to 74 million acres, and the production from 50 million to 100 million bushels.
The factors mainly responsible for this increase are the opening up of lands
hitherto regarded as unsuitable for wheat-culture, the adoption of labour-
saving machinery and improved methods of culture, and the introduction of
improved varieties of wheat.

Hitherto, attention has been mainly directed to the improvement in the
plant’s environment, as contrasted with the improvement in the plant itself.

The future magnitude of the wheat industry of Australia depends on the
extent to which lands lying outside the existing margin of cultivation can be
profitably farmed. These are the semi-arid areas, and, to make them fully
productive, drought-resistant prolific types are urgently required.

In the three principal wheat States, New South Wales, Victoria, and South
Australia, wheat-breeding is an important activity of the local Department of
Agriculture. Each State has a central station at which wheat-breeding is con-
ducted, and subsidiary farms at which new selected cross-bred varieties are
tested. At these centres considerable progress has been made in the production
of more prolific types by—

(1) The isolation of pure strains and mutants of high yielding capacity from
the locally grown types;

(2) The deliberate improvement of existing types by individual and mass
selection ;

(3) The introduction and acclimatisation of foreign wheats ;

(4) The improvement of selected local types by intercrossing and by crossing
them with acclimatised foreign types.

A summary of this work was submitted.

Farrer has conclusively demonstrated by cross-breeding that the production
of varieties of high prolificacy, of high milling and baking quality, and of a
high immunity from disease, is a practical certainty. The varieties ‘ Federation”
‘Bobs,’ ‘Cedar,’ and ‘Comeback,’ ‘Florence’ and ‘Genoa,’ may be taken as
illustrations in point.

There is reason for believing that the drought-resisting qualities of proved
Australian varieties could be greatly increased by using as foundation stocks
wheats grown for generations under extremely arid conditions. Certain crosses
of Durum and Indian wheats with prolific local types have resulted in the
production of early-maturing, spare-stooling, drought-resistant types bearing a
high proportion of grain to straw.

Modern genetic research has thrown considerable light on the mode of
inheritance of certain unit -characters in wheat, but most of the characters
hitherto studied are of little practical importance. The practical objectives
from an Australian standpoint are the raising of prolific, drought-resistant,
early-maturing types, immune from fungoid diseases. To these may be added
strength of flour and high milling quality. We require to determine what are
the various factors on which these important qualities depend, their mode of
inheritance, and how they can be brought under control and associated together
at the breeder’s will. ;

TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.

Joint Discussion with Section B (Chemistry) on Metabolism, opened by
Professor H. E. Armstrona, F.R.S.
Professor ARMSTRONG: In the time at disposal only broad issues could

be considered. Many attempts had heen made of late years to prove that
formaldehyde is the initial product of assimilation. Apart from the unsatis-

664 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

factory character of the evidence adduced, proof that it is present in the living
plant can never be proof that it has been formed in the up-grade process of
assimilation, as there is reason to believe that it is a constant product of down-
grade metabolism. However formed, its properties are such that it can never be
present in more than minimal quantities; moreover, the fact that proof cannot
be given that it is formed initially is of little consequence, as it is scarcely
required, there being no other way apparently of accounting for the assimilation
of carbon dioxide except the assumption that it is initially reduced to formic
acid and then to formaldehyde. As to the manner in which carbonic acid under-
goes reduction in plants, it is probable that water is ‘ electrolysed’ under the
influence of light and chlorophyll, the one product being oxygen, which is
evolved, perhaps, under the influence of a catalase, the other hydrogen, which
is gripped temporarily by the chlorophyll and then used in reducing the carbonic
acid. To assign a secondary part to chlorophyll and to regard iron salts as
the primary agents, as Moore has done, is to overlook all that is known of the
former substance and of the function of iron salts.

To account for the formation of optically active dextroglucose in the plant,
to take only one example, it is necessary to suppose that the polymerisation of
formaldehyde is a directed process: probably it is formed against a sugar
template, maybe under the influence of an enzyme. The enzymes, in fact, are
to be regarded not only as hydrolysts but also as the primary formative agents
of all directed metabolism. The manner in which they act reversibly may be well
illustrated by reference to the behaviour of lipase. (Curves were exhibited
showing the manner in which the synthetic and hydrolytic activities of lipase
come to an equilibrium in presence of various amounts of water; it is most
effective as a synthetic agent in the absence of water, a small proportion of
water having a great effect in reducing the synthetic activity of the enzyme.’)

The enzymes are rigidly selective agents. They appear all to be colloid
materials, and therefore cannot be regarded from the same point of view as
ordinary hydrolytic agents such as the acids; much confusion has been caused
by the introduction of complex mathematical considerations in explanation of
their action. Apparently they act at approximately linear rates, but as one or
more of the products of change exert a retarding influence, the apparent rate of
change is more nearly of a logarithmic order.

Though starch is the first obvious product of assimilation, there is no reason
to suppose that it is a necessary stage in the formation of the other carbohydrates
met with in plants, as in monocotyledons and not a few other plants it only
occurs in the guard cells and then only in minute amounts. Brown and Morris
have, in fact, argued that cane sugar is the primary product of carbohydrate
metabolism. A very thorough study of the problem is now being made at
Rothamsted by Mr. Davis and others which promises to be of importance,
especially as particular care is being taken to devise accurate methods of
analysis. In no case has starch been found in mangold leaves except at a very
early period, though cane sugar is always present together with invert sugar;
apparently cane sugar wanders directly from the leaf into the bulb; maltose has
never been detected, though specially looked for, so that it is probable that cane
sugar is formed directly, not from maltose.

Reference was made to the great importance to the agriculturist of exact
methods of analysis and of knowledge based thereon of the composition of
fodder crops: it was to be supposed that much could be done to improve the
quality of the various crops if once the general character of their metabolism
were established. Improvements in the methods recently effected at Rothamsted
were then briefly described—particularly the method which Mr. Davis had
introduced of estimating starch with the aid of Taka-diastase, whereby a mix-
ture of maltose with glucose is produced instead of a mixture of maltose
with dextrins of uncertain properties. To determine maltose with accuracy,
Mr. Davis uses yeasts which were known to act selectively on this sugar

- (Saccharomyces exiguus, S. Ludwigii, &c.). Incidentally, in the course of this
work, the important fact has been established that yeasts which do not hydro-
lyse maltose also cannot assimilate; the contrary results of previous workers

1 Cf. Armstrong and Gosney, Proc. Roy Soc. Series B, 1914.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 665

are to be explained by the presence of a protein impurity in the maltose used.
With the aid of such yeasts it has been possible to show that even in plants
such as the Potato, the Turnip, and the Nasturtium, which contain much starch
in their leaves, maltose is never formed as a down-grade product of metabolism.

Professor Armstrong took exception to Dr. Petrie’s conclusion that certain
plants contained hydrogen cyanide in the free state: he regarded its presence
as an impossibility and thought that probably in such cases the glucoside and
enzyme were not separated so effectively as they are in most plants, so that
they came together very readily on the cessation of metabolism.

(i.) Feeding Statistics and Starch Equivalents.
By Professor T. B. Woop, M.A., and G. Upyy Yuus, M.A.

The authors have made a statistical study of the results of about 400 feeding
trials collected and tabulated for the Highland and Agricultural Society by
H. Ingle.1 The trials were all carried out with oxen or sheep in Great Britain
before the year 1907. Some of them go back to the year 1839. Examination
of the results has yielded the following conclusions :—

1. When the diet of oxen or sheep is increased above maintenance require-
ments the law of diminishing return asserts itself, and successive increases in
the diet do not produce proportional increases in live weight.

2. As the diet is increased above maintenance requirements a smaller propor-
tion of each successive increase is converted into live weight, and consequently a
larger proportion is lost as heat.

3. When oxen or sheep in store condition are given a diet which supplies
considerably more food than is required for maintenance the proportion of the
excess of food above maintenance requirements which is converted into live
weight continuously falls as fattening proceeds.

4. From the above conclusions it follows that there is not a direct proportion-
ality between the amount of food above maintenance requirements calculated as
starch equivalent and the live-weight increase produced.

5. The figures from which Kellner’s starch equivalents were calculated show a
direct proportionality between the amount of starch equivalent above mainten-
ance requirements and the live-weight increase produced.

6. The discrepancy is explained by the fact that Kellner’s results were
obtained by feeding animals in store condition for short periods during which
they never approached what the butcher calls ripeness, whilst in the British
trials the animals were fed for several months until they were ripe for the
butcher.

7. It is by no means rare to find individual oxen which on an average fatten-
ing ration of 8-5 lb. of starch equivalent above maintenance requirements make
daily live-weight increases as large as 3 lb. or as small as 1 lb. The former
should give out 17,000 cal. per day, the latter 22,000 cal. per day, a difference of
about 25 per cent. It should be possible to detect differences of this order by
Ieasurements of skin temperature.

(ii.) Fattening Capacity and Skin Temperature.
By Professor T. B. Woop, M.A., and A. V. Hiun, M.A.

The authors have measnred the skin temperatures of eighteen oxen which had
been on a fattening diet for ten weeks at the Norfolk Agricultural Station.
The measurements were made by means of a thermopile connected to a sensitive
galvanometer. The following results were obtained: The average skin tem-
perature of eight animals which had during the last three weeks made average
daily increases in live weight of 2:7 per head was 69 scale divisions above air
temperature. The average skin temperature of five animals which had during
the same period increased less than ‘8 lb. per head per day was 78 scale divisions
above air temperature. The good doers had cooler skins than the bad doers by
nine scale divisions, which corresponds to approximately 3° C.

1 Jour. High. and Agr. Soc., 1909, 1910.

666 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

Further discussion :—

Prof. W. A. Ossorne: Investigation of skin temperatures has a quite
different significance when the shade temperature of the air is equal to the
normal temperature of the animal. In this case, even in the driest-skinned
animals the skin temperature is generally below that of the air. When the
shade temperature of the air is higher than that of the animal the skin tempera-
ture may be higher than that of the internal organs.

Thickness and texture of coat and thickness of skin are factors of some
importance.

Prof. B. Moore: In the photosynthetic processes by which aldehyde is first
formed the association of colloidal iron salts with the colourless organic portion
of the chloroplast plays a distinct part. The metabolic conversions occurring in
plants and animals from one type of carbohydrate to another are not difficult to
account for by simple enzyme action because the energy charges are so slight,
but the synthesis in the metabolic processes of protein and fat from carbo-
hydrates requires a linkage and co-ordination of an endothermic with an
exothermic reaction, such as has never been observed with a simple enzyme. For
such synthesis an adsorption of enzymes into the cell protoplasm is required so
as to furnish a colloidal regulating mechanism able to alter its activities from
one time to another, and to build up or break down according to the demands
of metabolism.

In certain invertebrates and fishes there is an excessively low rate of
metabolism, and a relatively enormous portion of food energy is thrown into the
metabolism of the sex organs in such animals, as compared with the somatic
metabolism.

Mr. G. P. Darnetz-Smitu: The first visible product of assimilation in
plants is starch, and the absence of visible starch in a plant does not show
that it is incapable of forming it, but that its metabolic processes and its rate
of translocation are so rapid that there is no need for starch to be deposited.
For starch is to be regarded, not as a first product of assimilation, but as a
substance that is thrown down temporarily by rapidly assimilating plants until
such time as the plant is able to deal with its translocation. Brown and Morris
regarded cane sugar as the first product of assimilation, but a critical examina-
tion of their experimental results fails to carry conviction.

As regards enzyme action confusion is introduced by comparing it with, for
example, the rate of hydrolysis produced by acid. It has to be remembered
that an enzyme is a colloid, and that the action of a colloid is determined by its
previous history. Unless the previous history of a colloid is known, its
action cannot be predicted; hence a portion of any particular colloid under
particular conditions will act in a different manner from another portion of the
same colloid (but with a different previous history) under the same particular
conditions.

Mr. D. McAtpine: The question whether chlorophyll has any action in the
green plant in the absence of sunlight is uncertain. Its photosynthetic activity
is probably slight, yet it is found where sunlight could not possibly penetrate,
as, for example, in the so-called fruit of the yew, the seeds of the lemon, and in
the conducting parenchyma throughout the tissue of the apple.

(ui.) The Distribution of Nitrogen in the Seeds of Acacia Pyenantha.
By Dr. J. M. Perris and Dr. H. G. Cuapman.

The seeds of a pycnantha which have been dried in the air contain 4'5 per
cent. of nitrogen. If the testa be removed the seed contains 5:5 per cent. of
nitrogen. The nitrogen is present partly as protein and partly as various organic
compounds.

The nitrogen present as protein forms 55 per cent. of the total nitrogen. The
protein soluble in water contains 26 per cent. of the total nitrogen; that soluble
in 10 per cent. NaCl 13 per cent. of the total nitrogen, and the remainder
could not be extracted. Protein soluble in alcohol is absent. Protein coagu-
lable by heat contains 10 per cent. of the total nitrogen.

The nitrogen present after precipitation with 80 per cent. alcohol amounts to
45 per cent. of the total nitrogen.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 667

Of the non-protein nitrogen, 10 per cent. is driven off by distillation with
magnesia and 18 per cent. is precipitated by phosphotungstic acid.

After hydrolysis of the solution of non-protein nitrogen with dilute acid for
two hours, the amount of nitrogen distilled over with magnesia is 10 per cent. of
the non-protein nitrogen, but if now the hydrolysis be repeated another 10 per
cent. of the non-protein nitrogen distils over. If hydrolysis be long continued,
the amount of nitrogen that can be distilled over with magnesia rises to over
30 per cent. of the non-protein nitrogen.

If the non-protein solution be hydrolysed for two hours with dilute acid, then
nitrous acid liberates nitrogen corresponding to 66 per cent. non-protein nitrogen.
If, however, the hydrolysis be repeated long enough the liberation of nitrogen by
nitrous acid diminishes to zero.

With Sorensen’s method of titration no fixation of formaldehyde by amino-
groups occurs.

The attempts to isolate amino- acids invariably resulted in the discovery of
traces.

The amount of purin nitrogen present is small, less than one per cent.

The following Papers were then read :

1. Bacterial Toxins in Soils. By R. Greta-Smrru, D.Sc.

If the soil-water is considered as a medium for the growth of bacteria, it
should contain not only the nutrients that favour bacterial growth but also the
waste products of their vital activity. And if we reason from what we know
about the growth of bacteria in other media, we should expect that some of
these waste products are injurious to the bacteria producing them. Further-
more, in a mixed flora, certain groups should produce injurious substances in
greater amount, and these should differ in degree in their action upon bacteria
of their own group or of other groups. For convenience, these injurious sub-
stances are called toxins. Certain investigators deny the presence of toxins
in soils, although they admit the presence of inhibiting substances. It is
difficult to account for the discrimination.

The multiplication of bacteria in the soil will among other conditions depend
upon the relative preponderance of the nutrients over the toxins; and, with
the other conditions remaining constant, an ultimate equilibrium should be
established between the nutritive and the toxic effects. An alteration of the
other conditions will disturb the equilibrium, and the bacteria will increase or
decrease until another balance is established.

In demonstrating the presence of bacterial toxins in soils, I have made use
of aqueous extracts of soils which after filtering through porous porcelain have
been seeded with known quantities of bacteria. Generally, Bac. prodigiosus has
been employed as a test organism. It is more sensitive than mixtures of soil
bacteria, and is easily grown, detected, and counted. Tests have shown that
extracts which destroy Bac. prodigiosus retard the growth of mixed soil-bacteria.
We are justified in considering that an extract which destroys Bac. prodigiosus
is also capable of destroying some of the soil-bacteria.

The bacterial toxins are not always easily demonstrated, as they are fre-
quently overshadowed by the soil-nutrients, but investigation has pointed out
some of the conditions under which they may not be expected to show a direct
action in soil-extracts. For example, they are destroyed by exposing the
soil to the sun, by heating the soil, by storing the soil in the air-dry condition ;
they decay rapidly in aqueous solution, and are destroyed upon boiling. They
are soluble in water and are washed out of the soil by rain. Direct evidence
of their presence should not, therefore, be expected in arid soils, in soils during
a drought or in soils after rain. Much of the so-called fertilising effect of the
sun may be due to the destruction of the soil-toxins. Indirect evidence of their
presence is easily obtained by boiling the soil-extract, seeding it with bacteria,
and comparing the growth with that obtained in the unboiled extract. A
greatly increased growth of bacteria is usually obtained in the boiled extract.
A direct diminution is only obtained under certain conditions. These have
not been fully investigated, but enough has been done to show that one of

668 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

these depends upon the ratio of the soil to the water used for extraction.
Equal parts of soil and water—that is, 100 grams 6f soil and 100 c.c. of water—
generally give the maximum toxic effect.

The toxic effect is not evident after rain, but becomes pronounced after a few
days of dry weather. Similarly, a soil which has been extracted with water,
and found to be toxic, will, upon further extraction, give a nutritive extract.
If the same soil, after extraction, be incubated at 22° for some time and then
extracted with water, the extract will be found to be toxic. Thus toxins are
developed upon incubating a nutritive soil.

While the extracts of soils show an enhanced nutritive effect after boiling,
those of the subsoil become more toxic. It appears, therefore, that there are
at least two kinds of toxins in soils—one, predominating in the soil, is thermo-
labile; the other, predominating in the subsoil, is thermostable.

The action of the volatile antiseptics upon soils is to so alter them that, while
before treatment they yielded extracts directly bacteriotoxic, after treatment the
extracts became nutritive. ‘Thus the partial sterilisation of soils, whether by
heat or by volatile antiseptics, causes them to give extracts, in which there can
develop a greater number of bacteria.

2. A Review of Work on Soil Inoculation.
By J. Goupine and H. B. Hurcuinson.

Since the introduction of pure cultures of nodule bacteria for soil inoculation
by Nobbe and Hiltner in 1895 a vast number of field experiments has been
carried out in different countries and with a great variety of inoculating
material.

The results of such experimental work were in the first instance most
discouraging, and it is only within the last few years that the conditions deter-
mining success or failure have been adequately recognised. During this time
the relations existing between the host piant and the nodule organism and
between the organism and artificial media used for cultivation in the laboratory
have been studied in detail, and in the light of these investigations it is not
surprising that failure attended much of the preliminary and often haphazard
field work. Experience has shown that it is not sufficient to have a pure and
active culture in order to attain success in soil inoculation, but that the soil
itself shall be suitable for the growth and continued existence of the introduced
organism, and that the supply of mineral nutrients shall not be the limiting
factor in the growth of the plant. Liming has been required in many cases,
and with a proper recognition of the now known essential conditions the number
of successful cases of inoculation trials has steadily increased during recent years.

Comparative work with pure cultures and inoculation by means of soil which
has previously carried a specified leguminous crop have shown in the majority
of cases the superiority of the latter, and cultivation in the laboratory has
latterly included the use of soil media or soil itself, since the organism appears
to retain its power of infection to a greater extent in this than in other media.

The use of pure cultures possesses advantages on the score of cheapness and
convenience, which are sometimes of distinct value, and recent work especially
has shown the danger attending transference of plant diseases in soil used for
legume inoculation. The relations attending infection of the plant and subse-
quent mutual existence are very complex, and future experimental work in
preparing cultures must aim at reproducing these conditions in order to permit
of the production of cultures in active growth and possessing great virulence.

Such work, however, involves accurate scientific control if it is to be of
permanent benefit to science and agriculture, and in itself would tend to check
the production of commercial cultures of doubtful origin and hypothetical value.

3. The Effects of Caustic Lime and of Chalk on Soil Fertility.
By H. B. Hurcuinson and K. MacLennan.

Bacteriological, chemical, and pot-culture investigations with the two forms
of lime have shown their action on the soil to be essentially different. The

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M, 669

former possesses the essential properties of a mild antiseptic, and if applied in
sufficient quantity is capable of giving rise to the usual phenomena of partial
sterilisation. When this point has been reached there occurs an initial decrease
in the numbers of bacteria, followed by large increases, the larger forms of
soil protozoa are killed, and there is a cessation or limitation of nitrate formation.
The form of available nitrogen in such soils is largely that of ammonia, which
leads to increased nitrogen content of plants growing in such soils.

Both above and below the partial sterilisation point the return of nitrogen
as ammonia and nitrate within the first year is directly proportional to the amount
of caustic lime applied, and if not assimilated by the crop is liable to loss by
leaching before the following crop appears. This is advanced as an explanation
of the unfavourable results sometimes observed in practice after heavy applica-
tions of caustic lime. Lime in this form and about the partial sterilisation limit
may be used for the suppression of insect pests in the soil. In common with
chalk or limestone it also serves to correct an unfavourable reaction of the soil,
thus ensuring more vigorous bacterial and plant growth.

Three new methods have been worked out to ensure better control of the use
of lime in field practice : (a) the determination of soil carbonates; (b) the deter-
mination of the amount of caustic lime necessary to induce partial sterilisation,
and to indicate the limit to which this form of lime can be applied without
adversely affecting the following crop; and (c) the estimation of the lime require-
ments of soils for purposes of neutralisation, whether by means of caustic lime
or carbonate.

While the estimation of soil carbonates may provide useful information in
some cases, the authors wish to lay especial emphasis on the desirability of
determining the lime requirements of the soil, since a soil may contain only
traces of carbonate and still not be in need of lime applications.

4. The Hstimation of Condition in Cattle. By J. A. Murray.

In this paper it was argued :

(1) That the verbal terms—fat, half fat, &c.—used to describe the condition
of cattle are vague and indefinite.

a That all the varying degrees of condition can be expressed only by numerical

values.

(3) That condition is measured by the ratio of live weight to size.
(4) That the size may be determined by the usual measurements of length and
girth.

(5) That the girth must be that of the animal in store condition. Under any
other circumstances some allowance must be made for the increase in girth due to
fattening.

(6) That the condition of typical store animals should be taken as 100, and that
of others pro rata.

The arguments are embodied in the formula :—

424°4 M

i{g- (My — 17) }

where C is the condition, M the live weight (in pounds), and g the length and girth
respectively (in inches).

This formula is at present tentative, and is merely intended to show that the
thesis is capable of practical application. The chief difficulty in the way of developing
it is the unreliability of the accepted methods of measuring length.

The paper was therefore mainly a plea for co-operation of cattle experts with a
view to (1) agreement in regard to the methods of measurement, (2) accumulation
of data relating to different types of animals.

670 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

BRISBANE.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 28.

The President delivered the following Address :—

Tue fact that this Address is to be delivered in the capital city of a State in
which semi-tropical, and even tropical, conditions prevail suggests some con-
sideration of the future of countries in which vegetative development, and
therefore the production of food, can attain such a level as is possible here.

At the outset let me remind you of two prime facts in the natural history of
man. In the first place all civilisation is based upon food supply; no other
industry is creative, and the wealth of a community might almost be measured
by the amount of time that remains at its disposal after it has secured, either
from its own land, or by exchange, the food it needs to live upon. Secondly, we
must look forward at no very distant date, as the life of nations goes, to the
exhaustion of those capital stores of energy in the world—coal and oil—on
which the current industrial system is based. How long the stores may last
is a matter of dispute, but 500 years is a liberal estimate, and we can be pretty
sure, in a world in which prophecy is notoriously unsafe, that nothing remains
to be discovered which can take the place of those savings from the energy of
bygone epochs that are represented by coal and oil. With the passing of
industrialism the importance of agriculture will grow, and while the world as a
whole will still be able to support the same number of people as are fed hy
agriculturists of to-day, great readjustments of the population will have to
be effected, according to the productive powers of the land in each country.
Should population continue to increase, and the spread of organised and stable
government ensures that it will grow, there must come a demand for the better
utilisation of the land, and for a higher production of food than at present
prevails; indeed, even in the last few years symptoms of this increasing demand
for food have been in evidence.

Let us see what the land can be made to do at the present time in the way
of supporting population, and for that we must turn to the Kast, where long
experience of the art of intensive agriculture goes hand in hand with an
optimum climate and a population of maximum density. Rural Japan is
reported to carry a population of 1,922 to the square mile, entirely supported
by agriculture, but maintaining in addition its quota of officials and indus-
trialists. Even this number is exceeded in China, where a farm of two-and-
a-half acres will support a family of eight to ten people, and where, in some
special cases, as on the island of Chungming, the population living wholly on
the land may rise nearly to 4,000 per square mile. Compared with these figures
the density of population on Western land is trifling. The United States is
said to maintain no more than 61 per square mile of its cultivated land,
England something over 90, Ireland about 120, and Belgium, perhaps the most
intensely cultivated of European countries, not more than 200 per square mile
of cultivation. Now, these enormous densities of rural population are accom-
panied by a very low standard of living; the people, if strong and healthy, exist
on the very margin of sustenance. To take a cash standard, an experienced
rural labourer in China cannot command more than 6d.a day, on which he will
support a family. But for this small pay of 6d. a full day’s work will be
obtained; indeed, such a day’s work as the white man would find it almost
impossible to give under the climatic conditions prevailing.

Such a state of continuous toil seems to be the necessary outcome of an
individualistic system of farming in countries with no great industrial outlets,
where the pressure of an increasing population results in continued subdivision
of the land. Of its kind Chinese agriculture is magnificent, as far as one can
judge from the accounts; the land is made to do an extraordinary duty, bearing
two or three full crops a year; waste is non-existent, and long experience has
taught the farmers to anticipate in practice some of the most recent discoveries
of science in the way of conserving and recuperating the fertility of the soil.
Though no statistics are available, the land seems to have been raised to its

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 671

highest level of productivity per acre, just as it has attained its maximum
population-carrying capacity.

Now the Australian, like other farmers in new countries, is often reproached
for the low yields per acre that he obtains—10 to 15 bushels of wheat per acre,
as against 32 in England, and rather more in Holland and Belgium. Unfavour-
able as is this comparison of Australia with Europe, still greater appears the
superiority of China and Japan, though it cannot be reduced to statistics. But
the Australian quite rightly replies by setting up another standard of com-
parison; not the production per acre, but the production per man is his
criterion, and on this basis the Australian farmer takes a very high position
indeed. Against the productivity of the land when labour is unlimited he
opposes the ideal of the productivity of the man when aided by machines and
unlimited land.

Organised large-scale farming supports far more people than the labourers
actually employed on the land; it buys machines and raw materials like
fertilisers, it pays rent and makes profits, all of which go to the support of other
people, who are at bottom fed and maintained by the production from the land.
I have calculated that the most highly cultivated farm with which I am
acquainted in Britain, a farm selling merely meat, potatoes, and corn, would
actually support people at the rate of over 1,000 per square mile, if they were
to live at such a low subsistence level as that of the Oriental small farmers.
The standard of living that in fact prevails is of course very different, but
nevertheless, when all the exchanges of commodities and services against food
are completed, that square mile of highly organised farm-land is the ultimate
support of a population comparable with that resident on Eastern land even
though the number of people actually tilling the soil is small enough.

But even if the number of people maintained by a given area under Western
conditions is far greater than would appear from those employed in cultivating
the soil, there must come a time when the pressure of an increasing population
will necessitate a much higher agricultural efficiency in the way of production
of food per acre. Now, if we attempt to meet this pressure by subdivision
of the land, attracted by the specious appearance of a large population sup-
ported on the soil, the operation of competition will force them down to such
a low standard of living as we find in China and Japan. A large number of
men on the land does not necessarily make for more food for the community,
because in practice we find that the standard of cultivation and production
per acre of the small holder is actually below that of the larger farmer in the
same class of business. For example, one thousand acres might be cultivated
by twenty men, so as to produce as much food as if it were divided up and
made to carry 200 men on five acres apiece; the community, considered as a
whole, is richer in the former case by the labour of 180 men, labour that can
be devoted to the production of other articles which the small holders would
have to go without. Clearly, if twenty men can grow a maximum of food on
the thousand acres, it is mere waste to employ 200 men about it, though, at
first blush, in the latter case, the land seems to be carrying ten times more
men. The only question is whether the intensive cultivation, which is more
or less forced upon the two hundred holders of five acres, can be obtained when
the area is cultivated, as a whole, by only twenty men. There is no lack of
evidence that it can, but the means by which such large-scale farming can in
the end beat mere grinding human labour, is by utilising to the full all the
resources of science, machinery, and organisation. In fact, when the world
becomes fully populated, the application of science to agriculture is the only
method by which the community can be saved from falling into the Oriental
condition of a community of labourers working incessantly for a bare subsistence.

Now, we may ask ourselves what remains for science to do towards the
improvement of agriculture. Practically everything. Agriculture is half as old
as man; centuries of experience, of trial and error, of slowly accumulated obser-
vations, are bound up in the routine of the commonest cultivation of the soil;
the science applied to agriculture is at the outside little more than a century
old, and so far has only partially succeeded in explaining and justifying existing
practices. It is still in the reign of first approximations to the truth; these
specious first approximations which so regularly break down when applied to

672 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

the real thing on a large scale, where the second or even the third terms really
dominate the issue. The farmer is fond of reproaching the scientific men with
the discrepancy between theory and practice; there should be none if the theory
is complete, but in such complex matters as the growth of plant and animal we
are yet very far from being able to bring into account all the factors concerned.
A shipbuilder, for instance, having built to a certain speed and measured off his
distance on the map, may reckon on making his port on a certain day; he finds
himself wrong, because of the existence of a current which takes a knot or
more off his speed. His theory was not wrong, only incomplete. Fuller know-
ledge may map the currents and their velocity, but even the new calculation may
be put out by some unexpected weather factor. Now the growth of a plant is
determined by an infinitely more numerous and less measurable series of factors
than the speed of a ship: small wonder then that the calculations based upon
them are apt to be so erroneous.

Imperfect as is our knowledge, yet we have progressed far enough to see in
what directions fruitful work may be done, and may plan our campaign of
research. In connection with the soil, for example, the big problem is probably
the prevention of the waste that goes on at an increasing rate as the soil becomes
more enriched by the accumulation of organic matter. Many soil bacteria, as
we know, deal with the compounds of nitrogen in the soil so as to set free
nitrogen gas from them, all of which actions are sheer waste of the most
valuable constituent of the soil, and to such an extent does this change take
place that we cannot, as a rule, expect to recover in the crop more than one-
half of the nitrogen contained in farmyard manure applied to the soil. Where
the soil is rich, and a high level of production is being arrived at, the per-
centage of waste may be even greater; for example, on the Rothamsted wheat
plot, which has received 14 tons of dung every year, only about one-quarter
of the nitrogen applied in the manure has been recovered in the crop, and less
than a quarter remains stored in the soil. When a hundred pounds of nitrate
of soda per acre is applied, nearly the whole of the nitrogen it contains will
be recovered in the increased crop; with an application of 200 lbs. there may
be a waste of 25 per cent. of the nitrogen, with still greater losses as the appli-
cation is increased. The loss is not due to mere washing out of soluble
materials, because it is greatest when the nitrogen is applied in organic manures.
Under existing conditions, high productivity in the soil is associated with a
high rate of waste, and nowhere is this more marked than'when cultivation is
carried on under tropical conditions, so that one of the chief difficulties of
tropical and semi-tropical agriculture is to maintain the stock of humus and
nitrogen in the soil. An illustration of the waste that so often goes on in the
soil is furnished in the practice of the cultivators under glass in England. For
the growth of cucumbers and tomatoes they are in the habit of making up a
very rich medium, half soil and half dung, but after a very few crops they are
no longer able to use this mixture profitably, but must throw it away and renew
their beds, though the rejected soil is still extremely rich in the elements of
plant food. The recent investigations at Rothamsted have shown that the
fertility of this ‘sick’ soil can be restored by merely heating it for an hour or
-two to a temperature approaching that of boiling water, the cost of which
operation is considerably less than that of renewing the soil. In this case the
uselessness of the used soil appears not to be due to thé destruction of the
nitrogen compounds, but to their retention in a condition unavailable for the
plant. The nitrogen compounds have to be broken down to ammonia or nitrates
before they can feed the plant; this process is effected by certain groups of
bacteria, the numbers of which are limited in the sick soil by the excessive
development of another group of soil organisms—protozoa, amcebe, &c., that
feed upon the bacteria.

We are only just beginning to take stock of all the changes in the soil
materials that are effected by living organisms, some necessary, some com-
petitors with the plant, some wasteful; the ultimate problem is to bring these
processes under control in the field as well as in the laboratory. The antiseptic
treatment of the land at large, in the way in which we can now clean up soils in
pots, may seem an impossible dream, but not more impossible than the pro-
duction of a heavily yielding weedless field of wheat would have seemed to

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 673

primitive man. Already much may be done to set up a better microflora and
fauna in the soil by improving its physical conditions. The good effects of such
processes as liming and drainage are largely due to the encouragement that is
thereby afforded to the valuable organisms. Soil inoculation with such neces-
sary bacteria as those which fix nitrogen when living in the nodules on the
roots of leguminous plants has been widely attempted, but with very little
practical success. The failures have generally been due to the fact that soils
from which the nodule organism is absent are without it because of some
chemical or physical defect; it is not sufficient merely to seed it with the
organism ; the soil itself must first of all be brought into a fit state to maintain
its existence. The best of grass seeds would be wasted unless the land on which
they are sown is first made clean and fertile. The amelioration of soils on
their physical side, by bringing clay and silt to the sands, sand and coarse
particles of various kinds to the clays, will eventually be taken up on a great
scale, now that engineering has made it possible to move earth wholesale by
cheaper means than by primitive spade and cart. I have seen a cold clay
carrying miserable pasture converted into good market garden land by nothing
more than the application of a thick layer of town refuse and ashes; only
organisation is needed to make such processes economic, even when the imme-
diate, and not the ultimate, return is reckoned.

From the point of view of manures we shall have to look forward to an
ultimate scarcity of nitrogenous fertilisers; the exhaustion of sodium nitrate is
only a question of time; the present sources of sulphate of ammonia will dis-
appear with the coal, and the water power which is now giving us nitrate of
lime and cyanamide will then be too precious to be used in making fertilisers.
Even if the new process for the synthesis of ammonia proved as economical
as is expected, we ought still to depend upon the natural processes of nitrogen
fixation, and make the farm self-supporting as regards nitrogen at a high level
of production. The clover crop in the rotation usually followed in England
will, under present conditions, gather in enough nitrogen for the growth of
about twenty-four bushels of wheat to the acre, an equal quantity of barley,
and twelve tons of turnips. How can we similarly maintain production at a
level of forty bushels of wheat, with other crops in proportion, yet without any
nitrogenous fertiliser from outside?

A more immediate problem of the same kind is before the investigator; all
‘around our great cities exist great market gardening industries, which have been
built up by means of the cheap supplies of stable manure that were to be obtained
therefrom, The market gardener close to London and as far afield as Bedford-
shire, rendered thin sands and gravels fertile by using forty tons or more of
London dung every year, but the advent of the motor car has curtailed, and will
eventually put an end to, that supply, in which case how is the market gardening
to be carried on? Nitrogen compounds and the other bare elements of plant food
can be bought, but humus is also necessary to get these thin soils to yield a
proper growth; what needs to be worked out is the cheapest and most effective
way of utilising leguminous green crops and the other nitrogen-fixing organisms
of the soil to maintain the fertility of such land, keeping in view the fact that it
cannot be thrown out of productive cultivation for any length of time. What is
needed is not a field experiment merely, but a discussion of a whole system of
cultivation on the economic as well as on the scientific side. This suggests the
general consideration that economic research in agriculture is still in its infancy,
How often do we find close at hand two farmers, both good practical men,
with entirely divergent views on the rotation to follow or the management of
their stock, one swearing by early maturity and a forcing diet, the other by
cheap if slow production. The advantage of one system over the other is not
a mere matter of opinion and personal idiosyncrasy, it is possible to reduce it to
terms of pounds, shillings, and pence. The prime necessity is the application to
farming of a system of costs book-keeping, such as prevails in a well-organised
business. It is possible to obtain such figures from a farm; the method is as yet
perhaps too complicated for the ordinary farmer to follow, but as an instrument
of investigation in the hands of a teacher at one of the agricultural colleges it
may be made to yield results of great value both to the individual farmer and to
all those who have to take more general views of agriculture.

1914. pap. 4

674 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

Returning to the purely scientific aspects of research, the whole of existence is
based upon the fundamental process by which the green leaf utilises the energy
of the light falling upon it to split up the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere
and transform it into those fundamental carbon compounds—sugars, starches,
&c., which build up the substance of the plant. The animal creates nothing; it
is only a transformer, and rather a wasteful one at that, of the compounds
initially built up by the plant. Now, though the leaf is thus the prime creative
force, it is yet a comparatively ineffective machine for dealing with the energy
contained in the light, for it does not succeed in storing up in the shape of plant
materials it produces as much as one per cent. of the energy that falls upon it as
light, and in bright, tropical light the percentage utilised is even less. A steam
engine, given a certain amount of energy in the shape of coal, turns out again
about one-seventh of it in the shape of useful work; a gas or oil engine is an
even more effective transformer. Can the duty of the leaf be increased so that it
shall effect a greater production of dry matter for the amount of light energy it
receives? We know very little as yet about even the sequence of chemical
changes in the leaf beyond the fact that we begin with carbon dioxide and water
and end with oxygen and some sort of sugar ; we are beginning to acquire know-
ledge as to the extent the rate of change is affected by the supply of light, carbon
dioxide, and water, and by the temperature. But we have now many examples
in chemistry of reactions being speeded up or rendered more complete by means
of some adjustment of the external conditions, so it is perhaps not too much to
expect that this fundamental process of carbon accumulation may also be tuned
up until the leaf becomes of greater efficiency than at present in producing tissue
from the materials and energy supplied to it.

Probably the most immediate successes are before the plant-breeder, now
that the application of the Mendelian theory has provided a method which
renders both speedy and certain the processes of crossing and selection whereby
the practical men of the past, working almost at haphazard, have already
effected such enormous improvements in our cultivated plants. Among cereals,
the qualities in demand, qualities which we know to be obtainable, are resistance
to disease, stiffness of straw, and a large migration factor. We want to get rid
of the plant-doctor, as it were; spraying and other prevention or curative treat-
ments are both costly and of limited efficacy ; the desirable method is to keep the
plant free of disease by means of a naturally resistant constitution, and by
establishing healthy conditions of soil and nutrition. As to stiffness of straw,
the incapacity to stand up is probably the chief cause which limits the yield of
corn crops in Britain wherever the farming is high. When a man keeps much
stock, and buys cake either for his bullocks, or to feed to his sheep on the
turnips, the land becomes so rich that the first corn crop will only stand up under
exceptionally favourable weather conditions, and the farmer, so far from buying
more fertiliser, cannot take full advantage of what is already in the soil. The
land is often rich enough to yield 60 bushels of wheat to the acre, but it is
exceptional that a crop of such weight will stand up so that it can be harvested
by a self-binder. Mr. Beaven, in this section, has already dealt with migration ;
clearly it is a matter of great importance to the plant-breeder. Though the
details have only been worked out for barley, the different varieties of any culti-
vated plant, wheat for example, are very much alike as regards their gross
productive power—1t.e., the whole material grown weighs much the same in a
dried condition. Even different crops produce much the same amount of dry
matter when grown under the same conditions, this gross productive power being
in all cases the similar product of the environment—i.ec., the result arising from
the supply of food, water, light, temperature, &c. But granted that the different
crops possess this same gross productive power, then their comparative usefulness
depends upon the greater or less completeness with which they transform the
crude material into products that may be used as food for man. In the cereals,
for example, we want as much as possible of the original stuff manufactured
by the leaf to be migrated later in the plant’s life into the seed; of the total
weight of the crop we want the largest possible proportion to be high-grade grain
and not low-grade straw. Mr. Beaven has shown that the various varieties of
barley do differ constantly in their proportion of grain to straw, and as, without

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 675

doubt, the same differences hold for other crops, this is a matter which must
be watched by the plant-breeder.

Cereals are not, however, the only materials upon which the plant-breeder
has to work; indeed, they are already among the most advanced of our domes-
ticated plants, and the other farm crops require great improvement before they
reach the level of wheat and oats. Sugar beet affords a most interesting case;
by selection the percentage of sugar contained in the root has been raised by
one-half. The total amount of material grown per acre remains, however, much
where it was, because of the difficulty—the impossibility in fact as yet—of testing
the yielding capacity of a seedling root, whereas its sugar contents can be
measured with ease. The same difficulty is seen among our other root crops; such
improvement as has been effected in the mangold, turnip, &c., has chiefly been in
the shapeliness and habit of growth of the root, these alone being the characters
that are apparent to the selector dealing with a group of seedlings. To some
extent these may be correlated with total yield, but how little may be judged
from the fact that the leng red mangold, one of the very oldest varieties, is still
the largest producer of dry matter and sugar per acre. The comparative yield of
cereal varieties may be tested by the growth of a few hundred plants under
rigorous conditions; some similar method will have to be worked out for root
and fodder crops, before the plant-breeder can make much headway with them.
Granted such a method, the plant-breeder has a fine, unexplored field before
him in the leguminous and cruciferous fodder crops, and again in the fibre
plants. Commercial flax, for example, is an entirely heterogeneous mixture of
varieties, which never appears to have been subjected to the most ordinary
selection. The fodder crops are matters of immediate importance, because the
more intensive cultivation of the western side of Great Britain, where the high
rainfall renders the growth of cereals a somewhat speculative industry, subject
to loss at harvest and difficulties in the spring preparations for sowing, depends
upon the elaboration of a system of farming based upon rapidly growing fodder
crops. At present these districts produce milk, meat, and store stock, mainly
from grass land that gets but little aid from the cultivator. The gross pro-
ductive power of such land is small, and under the plough can be enormously
raised, but arable farming has hitherto been avoided, except at times of abnormal
prices, because of the risks attending harvesting. With improved fodder crops
in place of grain a more profitable system of husbandry would replace the crops.
Again, a new country like Australia will have to evolve its own fodder crops to
suit the climate, and its own soil-regenerating plants.

Despite the fact that a given area of land will produce something like ten
times as much human food of a vegetable nature as of meat and milk, if
mere power of supporting life is considered, we may assume that the human race
will not for a long time, if ever, turn to vegetarianism. Absolute pressure of
population, supposing the maximum has to be supported that the land can be made
to carry, would put an end to the preliminary conversion of vegetable into animal
food, but it is probable that the dominant races will insist on remaining flesh-
eaters even if that necessitates the limitation of their own numbers. However,
the scientific man has at present little to say to this sociological question; his
business is to make the animal a more efficient converter of coarse vegetable
fodder into high-grade food. That there is plenty of room for development in
this direction may be inferred from the facts that Professor Wood has called
attention to in the paper he has recently submitted to this Section. What the
grazier calls a good doer will lay on as fat and flesh twenty per cent. of the
energy it receives in its food as against seven per cent. stored by a bad doer;
here is an enormous margin for improvement if the average cattle are only
brought up to the level of efficiency of the best. No one has yet worked out the
most economic rate of feeding for different classes of live stock, the type of
ration that will produce the largest amount of meat from a given weight of food,
independent of the rate at which the increase takes place.

Granted the dependence upon research of the agriculture of the future if it
is to meet the requirements of an increased population and a more advanced
state of society, how can the required investigations best be organised? We
may take it for granted that in some form or other the State must find the
funds; in this connection at any rate there are no prizes for the private worker

Pe Seay

676 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

such as would make agricultural research a tempting, even a possible, com-
mercial speculation. There is a very limited field for patents or royalties; the
breeder of a new crop variety can only exploit it with success if he has some
big commercial organisation behind him, and even then a very few seasons
place it in everyone’s hands. The solutions to most of the great outstanding
problems which I have outlined above could not be sold at a price, however
much they might improve the output of every farmer. Indeed, there is this
character about the advances which science may make in agriculture, and it
explains the lack of interest in research exhibited by many hard-headed farmers,
that the benefit comes to the community rather than to the individual. Farmer
is competing with farmer, and if production is raised all round the price is
apt to drop correspondingly, so that shrewd men who are doing very well as
things are, are very content with their limited vision, provided the general
ignorance remains unenlightened. However, we need not argue this point ; every
civilised country has accepted the necessity of maintaining agricultural research ;
even Great Britain, the last home of go-as-you-please, has fallen into line within
the last year or two.

Assuming that the State pays, shall the immediate organisation and control
of the work remain with the State direct, or be placed in the hands of semi-
official bodies like the Universities? The character of the work required must
settle this question. We may as well make up our minds at the outset that
agricultural research is a very complex affair, which is going to arrive at com-
mercial results very slowly. It deals with the fundamental problems of life
itself ; its problems mostly lie in the border country where two or more sciences
meet, the debatable land which the man of pure science distrusts and affects to
despise because there his clean and simple academic methods do not apply.
Hence we have to attract to research in agricultural matters minds of the very
best quality, men of imagination and determination, and give them scope and
freedom to make the best of themselves. Now it has been recently claimed
that the nation can only attract men of the necessary quality to research by
instituting some system of prizes that shall be commensurate with the rewards
that lie before the successful lawyer or business man who has embarked upon
some competitive commercial career. I entirely dissent from this view; the
quality of a man’s work is not to be measured by the results it happens to
attain, for results are often matters of luck, but least of all is to be measured
by the amount of public attention the results arouse. It is in the nature of
some kind of discoveries to excite the popular imagination, but these discoveries
do not necessarily involve more credit to the discoverer than many others whose
burial-place in this or that volume of ‘ Transactions’ is only known to a select
few. Once make publicity the criterion, and the scientific man is at the mercy
of the boom and the advertisement; a good newspaper manner is more valuable
than high thinking. Moreover, I would for the man of science say with
Malvolio: ‘I think nobler of the soul.’ Give him a living wage and proper
opportunities and he will give his best work without the added inducement of
a chance of making his fortune. The real point is the living wage, and this
does not mean the starveling price at which a man can be bought just after
taking his degree. At present the career of research has some of the aspects
of a blind-alley employment ; the young man enters on it with enthusiasm, only
to find ten years later that he has no market value in any other occupation and
that he is expected to continue on an artisan’s wage.

We have then to ensure the scientific man continuous employment; in suck.
special subjects as agricultural science presents, we cannot trust to pick him
for a particular job, and let him go when it is finished; there must be some
reasonable sort of a career in investigation. The State cannot simply pay for
results; men will not qualify for such precarious chances of employment. The
great results come as incalculably as the great poetry, their value is similarly
untranslatable into the cash standard, and though no provision of posts can
ensure a supply of the finest flowers of the mind, routine science has this
advantage over routine poetry, that it has some value and is even necessary
to bring to fruition the advances of the pioneers. And when the great mind
does happen to be born, he can only be turned to account if an organisation
exists within which he can find opportunities for work. Now such an organi-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 677

sation seems to be provided by the Universities rather than by the State. The
type of man who makes an investigator is apt to be markedly individual; he can
work better under the looser system of control that prevails in a University
than under the official hierarchy of a Government department. The methods of
research are anarchical, and ought to be continuously destructive of accepted
opinions; when a Government department takes an official point of view, it is
apt to insist on its being respected and not criticised by its officers on the
strength. It has happened within recent years that a scientific man in Govern-
ment employment has had to choose between his salary and his conscience, and
though University laboratories are not always temples of free thought, their
atmosphere is distinctly more open than that of a Government office. The type
of man most fitted for research is more attracted by a University than a depart-
ment; he wants his value to be measured by the quality of his scientific work,
rather than by his official adaptability. But the greatest objection to making
research a function of Government is that it is of necessity subjected to an
annual detailed justification of its expenditure to a non-expert legislative body.
When one reads the cross-examination of this or that investigator by the
Committee of Public Accounts of certain States which maintain departments of
agricultural research, one realises the hopelessness of expecting the slow, far-
reaching scientific work that ultimately counts from men who are subject to
such an annual criticism. The almost complete sterility of certain State organi-
sations for research on a great scale can be absolutely set down to the call that
prevails for an annual report of results which seem to pay their way; only a
talent for advertisement comes to the front under such a régime. Of course, a
State must maintain laboratories which undertake a certain amount of investi-
gation in connection with its duties in the control of disease, &c., but, though
it may be difficult to draw a defining line between research that arises out of
administration and research in pursuit of knowledge, the distinction is easy to
make in practice. For example, the State needs a veterinary laboratory for the
purpose of checking the conclusions upon which the administrative regulations
regarding this or that disease are based, and of testing serums, vaccines, and
the like, but it would prove false economy in the end to entrust to this official
institution the sole responsibility for investigations into animal diseases.
Another advantage that arises from entrusting agricultural research to the
Universities is that thereby one obtains the advice, and often the active co-
operation, of men in the departments of pure science. I have already indicated
how complex are the questions that agriculture raises; the man who is working
- out soil problems may find one day that he is brought to a standstill by some
physical or even mathematic difficulty he is not competent to deal with, on
another occasion he may wish to consult a geologist, or again a zoologist. No
soil laboratory pure and simple can afford to have men of all these qualifications
upon its strength, but if it is attached to a University, its men are naturally
in constant contact with other specialists from whom they may informally obtain
the assistance they need. A special purpose laboratory must suffer if it is
isolated from the general current of science, and this is particularly true of
agriculture with its many contacts, and the natural inclination to locate its
institutions in the country. Some link must be maintained between the research
institution and the practical farmer, not so much for the sake of the latter,
because he is rarely in a position to utilise directly, or even to understand,
the work of the investigation, but in order to keep the work real and non-
academic. Even from the purely scientific point of view the most fruitful lines
of research are those suggested by practical life; many effects that prove to be
of fundamental importance to theory, only become apparent in the large-scale
workings of the commercial undertaking. The contact with farming that the
research-worker needs should be provided by his association with the University
department that is teaching agriculture and advising the farmers of its district;
thus is established the connection that on the one hand brings the farmer’s
problems to the investigators, and on the other translates the investigators’
results into practical advice. As I see it, the ideal organisation of research
in agriculture is to associate a more or less specialised institution for the
investigation of a particular class of problem with a University possessing an
agricultural department, which is also charged with extension work by way

678 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

of lectures and advice within its own sphere of influence. How specialised the
institution may become must depend upon the numbers of Universities available,
but there is a rea] economy in specialisation, in inducing each institution to
throw its whole strength into one line of work, for Universities, like men,
cannot afford to be Jacks of all trades.

Many of my hearers may think I am sketching out a very ambitious and
extensive programme about which the only certainty is the creation of a con-
siderable number of salaried posts for men of science, but when I think of the
futilities upon which so much public money is spent in every country, I am
almost ashamed to justify the expenditure by pointing out that an increase of
ten per cent. in any one of the staple crops of a country, such an increase as is
well within the powers of the scientific man to effect in no great length of time,
would pay over and over again for the organisation I have indicated. Even it
the research went on for the sake of knowledge alone, every nation is able to
allow itself a certain amount of intellectual luxury. Moreover, to return to
my original text, it is only by the aid of agricultural science that the world is
ultimately going to be allowed to enjoy any luxuries at all; as the fundamentally
acricultural basis of society again becomes apparent, the one thing that will
save it from sinking down into a collection of families each wringing a bare
subsistence. from a tiny plot of ground will be the application of the fullest
knowledge to the utilisation of the land.

679

NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY OF THE AUSTRALIAN
MERTING.

PRELIMINARY ARRANGEMENTS.

The Australian Invitation.—The possibility of a British Association
Meeting in Australia was discussed there as early as 1884, and again in
later years, but the time was not yet ripe. The question was once more
raised, however, early in 1909, when Sir Charles Lucas, late of the
Colonial Office, was visiting Australia; and it was brought forward
publicly on May 3, 1909, at a meeting of the Council of the University
of Melbourne, by Dr. J. W. Barrett. As a result of his motion a
committee was appointed in that University to formulate a scheme and
take all necessary preliminary action. This committee, of which the
President-elect of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science (Professor Orme Masson) was Chairman, sought and obtained
the cordial approval of its proposals by the other Australian universities
and the leading scientific societies, and local committees were formed to
co-operate with it in Sydney, Adelaide, and other centres. It was
decided that the Commonwealth Government should be asked to
father the invitation to the British Association and to grant a sum of
£10,000 towards defraying the overseas expenses of the visit, that the
State Governments should be asked to give free passes over their rail- °
ways, and that hospitality and other expenses should be guaranteed by
local authorities and the general public. It was further decided that the
invitation should be given for 1913 or 1914, and that, following the
example of the South African Meeting in 1905, the Association should
not confine itself to one centre, but should visit each of the States in
turn.

Professor J. W. Gregory, who was visiting Melbourne, was
informed of the Committee’s proposals, and was thus enabled a few
weeks later to bring the project under the notice of the General Com-
mittee of the Association at the Meeting in Winnipeg (1909), where it
was informally discussed with encouraging results.

On December 16, 1909, a deputation, representing all the Australian
bodies interested, waited on the Prime Minister, Mr. Alfred Deakin,
who expressed cordial approval of the scheme, and promised to give it
strong support. When, shortly afterwards, there was a change of
Government, Mr. Andrew Fisher, who succeeded Mr. Deakin as Prime
Minister, took the matter up with equal cordiality, and under his
administration the proposals received the sanction of the Commonwealth
Parliament. The State Governments were also approached, and
promised their support, especially in the matter of the free use of the
railways. Finally instructions were given by the Prime Minister to
Sir George Reid, High Commissioner for Australia, and Professor Orme
Masson to convey the invitation from Australia to the Association, and

680 _ NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

they did so at the meeting of the General Committee held in Sheffield
on September 2, 1910.

In anticipation of the invitation, the General Secretaries of the
Association, in June 1910, had issued a circular letter addressed to
Members of the General Committee and other representative Members,
of professorial and similar standing, asking whether the recipients
foresaw any possibility of attending a meeting in Australia or not.
The proportion of Members who answered this inquiry in the affirmative
was sufficient to warrant favourable consideration of the invitation.
The General Committee unanimously accepted the invitation (after
some discussion in private), and chose the later year offered (1914),
having in view the consideration that the Association had twice in recent
years (1905 and 1909) met outside the United Kingdom.

Commonwealth Grant.—<As already indicated, the Commonwealth
Government guaranteed from the outset a substantial sum to be devoted
exclusively towards the expenses of the voyage overseas incurred by
representative scientific Members to be selected and invited by the
Council of the Association. The General Officers of the Association,
judging (as events proved, rightly) that a representative body could be
gathered together larger than that for which the sum originally proposed
would have afforded sufficient provision, took advantage of the occasion
of Their Majesties’ Coronation, when members of the Commonwealth
Government were present in London, to discuss this matter with them.
The suggestions then made from the point of view of the Association
were received in the most generous spirit, and the Commonwealth
Government subsequently increased its grant to £15,000, which was
‘placed at the disposal of the Association under no other condition save
that (in the words of a cablegram received by the High Commissioner
from his Government in November 1912, and communicated by him to
the Council of the Association) it was ‘ to cover passages of not less than
150 official representatives, including selected Dominion and foreign
scientists.’ The allocation of this sum formed, as will be presently
seen, the most important function of a Committee appointed by the
Council to deal with arrangements for the Meeting; it may be stated
here that the actual number of representative Members who benefited
under the grant was 155—approximately one-half of the Overseas
Party.

Letter to Universities—No great amount of preliminary work was
found necessary in London during the Council’s sessions in 1910-12,
though in June 1911 the Council authorised the General Secretaries to
address a letter to universities and other educational institutions in the
United Kingdom, requesting the authorities to do what lay in their
power to relieve of examining and other duties, in July and September
1914, any members of their teaching staff who might contemplate
attending the Australian Meeting. The response to this request was
favourable in the majority of cases, and very few instances came sub-
sequently to the knowledge of the Association officers of Members
prohibited by professional duties from accepting invitations to attend
the Meeting. A letter in similar terms was sent independently by the
Federal Council in Australia.

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 681

AUSTRALIAN ORGANISATION, 1912-13.

Local Committees and Officers.—Early in 1912 it was recognised
in Australia that more definite and official machinery was now required
for the organisation of the Meeting than had sufficed in the earlier
stages. After consultation with those already chiefly concerned, the
Prime Minister, Mr. Fisher, therefore gave instructions to

Professor T. W. E. David, C.M.G., F.R.S., Sydney,
Professor Orme Masson, F.R.S., Melbourne,
Professor E. C. Stirling, C.M.G., F.R.S., Adelaide,
Professor B. D. Steele, D.Sc., Brisbane, and

Sir J. W. Hackett, K.C.M.G., Perth,

to take the necessary steps. Each was asked to consult with the
Governor of his State, the Premier, and the municipal and university
authorities, and then to form a large General Committee for his State,
with special sub-committees and an executive committee, and to arrange
for the appointment of delegates, who, together with representatives
of the Commonwealth Parliament, should form a Federal Council or
central executive. At the same time the Prime Minister signified his
approval of a suggested programme and itinerary for the Meeting, of
the proposal mentioned above to increase the Commonwealth grant
from £10,000 to £15,000, and of a suggestion to appoint a responsible
official Organising Secretary. As a result of these instructions large
committees were formed and met in each centre, and public interest was
widely aroused. Each General Committee was under the presidency
of the State Governor, and the following executive officers were
appointed :—

New Soutu Watgss:
Chairman, Professor T. W. E. David, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Secrelary, J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.
Treasurer, H. G. Chapman, M.D.

VICTORIA :
Chairman, Professor Orme Masson, F.R.S.
Secretary, Professor Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Treasurer, Charles Bage, M.D.

Sourr AUSTRALIA:
Chairman, Professor E. C. Stirling, C.M.G., F.R-S.
Secretary, Professor Kerr Grant, M.Sc.
Treasurer, Thomas Gill, 1.8.0.

QUEENSLAND:
Chairman, Professor B. D. Steele, D.Sc.
Secretary, T. KB. Jones, B.A.
Treasurer, Professor H. J. Priestley, M.A.

West AUSTRALIA:
Chairman, Sir Winthrop Hackett, D.Sc., K.C.M.G., who was
succeeded later by the Hon. W. Kingsmill, B.A., M.L.C.
peat et Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc., W. Catton Grasby,

682 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

Besides these, many other individuals did invaluable work before
and during the Meeting as officers or members of executive or of special
sub-committees.

The Federal Council held its first meeting at Melbourne in Novem-
ber 1912, under the presidency of the Prime Minister, Mr. Fisher, with
Mr. M. L. Shepherd as Secretary. A smaller Federal Executive
(Professor Masson, Chairman) was then appointed, and the office of
Organising Secretary was offered to and accepted by Mr. A. C. D.
Rivett, D.Sc., of the University of Melbourne. Dr. Rivett’s work in
England during 1913, and subsequently in Australia, is referred to
elsewhere. For fifteen months he devoted himself entirely to the
duties of his office, and it is recognised by all concerned that the success
of the Meeting was very largely due to him. In June 1913 Mr. Joseph
Cook succeeded Mr. Fisher as Prime Minister, and acted as President
of the Federal Council until the close of the Meeting.

From the end of 1912 till the Meeting in August 1914 a great deal
of work devolved on the State Committees and on the Federal Council
and its Executive, and many meetings were held. There was constant
communication with the office of the Association in London and with
the Governments of the Commonwealth and the States. Some of the
chief matters dealt with are referred to below.

Local Costs of the Meeting.—Besides its contribution of £15,000
for overseas travelling, the Commonwealth Government defrayed all the
Organising Secretary’s expenses and those connected with the work of
the Federal Council. It also contributed largely to certain of the
official entertainments during the Meeting. The State Governments,
besides undertaking the whole cost of Members’ railway travelling in
Australia, contributed each a large sum towards the general expenses
of the local meeting.

Hospitality.x—In each State a special Committee undertook to
provide for the reception of each visiting Member as a guest either at a
private house or at a club or hotel. Apart from the executive officers
already named, the following may be specially mentioned in this
connection :—

Adelaide: Sir Samuel Way, Bart.

Melbourne: Mr. John Grice, Mr. D. J. Mahony.
Sydney: Lady McMillan, Mrs. Ashburton Thompson,
Brisbane: Sir Pope Cooper, Mr. F. Philpott.

Excursions.—These were planned and carried out by special local
Committees, with valuable assistance from the railway authorities and
from the Automobile Clubs. The following, with the Executive
officers, were mainly responsible for the Excursion programmes :—

Perth: Professor Woolnough, Mr. C. Andrews.

Adelaide: Mr. H. Angas Parsons, M.P.

Melbourne: Dr. J. W. Barrett, C.M.G., and Professor E. W.
Skeats, D.Sc.

Sydney: Mr. Justice Docker, Mr. F. C. Govers.

Brisbane: Sir Arthur Cowley, Mr. T. C. Troedson.

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 683

It is unnecessary to mention the many organisers and leaders of
separate excursions.

Railway Travelling.—A great deal of organisation was necessary to
provide suitably for the simultaneous transport of so large a party of
visitors in special trains, with sleeping accommodation and arrange-
ments for meals, between the capital cities of the different States, which
are separated by distances of many hundreds of miles. Arrangements
had also to be made for the collection and separate transport of Members
who arrived at various Australian ports apart from the main party, and
for the return of Members to various ports after the conclusion of the
Meeting. The handling and transport of large quantities of luggage
had also to be planned. In connection with all such work the Com-
mittees had invaluable assistance from the State Railway Commis-
sioners and their subordinate officers, and were specially indebted to
the Chief Victorian Commissioner, Mr. W. Fitzpatrick.

Facilities for Extended Travel.—Under this head may be included
some of the longer organised excursions which were carried out during
or immediately after the Meeting, such as those to the Broken Hill
Mines and to Tasmania. But in addition the Federal Council under-
took to provide facilities for any Member who might desire to devote
himself for a time to special scientific work in Australia. Advantage
was taken of this by not a few, though the War undoubtedly interfered
with the plans of many.

Accommodation for the Meeting.—All the Australian universities
placed their buildings unreservedly at the disposal of the Committees.
In the chief centres arrangements were made to utilise the great halls
as reception rooms, the Unions and club-rooms as luncheon rooms, etc.,
and to house each Section in a suitable lecture theatre with adjacent
committee rooms.

Work of the Sections.—Two local Secretaries were appointed for
each Section, one in Melbourne and one in Sydney, for the purpose of
providing suitable programmes of local work (as mentioned later) and
making other arrangements in consultation with the Recorders.

Handbooks.—A number of illustrated scientific handbooks were
prepared in view of the Meeting. The chief of these was the ‘ Federal
Handbook on Australia,’ consisting of a series of monographs written
by selected specialists. This volume was edited by the Commonwealth
Statist, Mr. G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., and published by the Common-
wealth Government. A separate volume on similar lines, but of more
limited scope, was issued by each State. A copy of each was presented
to every visiting Member, and most of them were distributed in London
beforehand. The Editors of the State Handbooks were :—

South Australia: Mr. D. J. Gordon and Mr. V. H. Ryan.
Victoria: Mr. A. M. Laughton and Dr. T. S. Hall.
New South Wales: Mr. R. H. Cambage and Mr. W. S. Dun.

The Western Australian and Tasmanian books were in the hands of
Committees. The Queensland book was a Government work published
some time previously.

684 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

Home ORGANISATION.

The Home ‘ Australian Committee..—By the time of the Dundee .
Meeting, 1912, an outline programme of the Australian Meeting was
in being, and in the subsequent session of the Council Australian
arrangements began to find an important place. In November 1912
the Council appointed a Committee, ‘ to assist the President and General
Officers in matters regarding the Meeting in Australia,’ consisting of
Professors A. Dendy, J. W. Gregory, A. Liversidge, and E. Rutherford,
to whom were subsequently added Professor W. Bateson and Professor
C. J. Martin, while from October 1913 onward the Sectional Presidents
appointed for the Meeting were also taken into consultation. This
‘ Australian Committee’ held fourteen meetings between December 1912
and March 1914. As has been indicated, its principal work was the
allocation of grants out of the Commonwealth Fund towards the overseas
expenses of Members. It was known to be the view of the Australian
authorities that the invited representative Members should be involved
in as little expense as possible beyond incidentals, and therefore it was
determined that grants should be made at a uniform rate of £100 (the
reduced return fare, first class, by the Suez route, excepting certain
special cases, such as that of invited members travelling from coun-
tries less distant than the United Kingdom from Australia, to whom
smaller grants were made. By February 1913 the Council had
already determined the names of a majority of the Sectional Presi-
dents whom it was intended to appoint for the Australian Meeting;
the names of certain other official and leading members of the ‘ Overseas
Party ’ (as it came to be termed) for that Meeting were already known,
and the Committee was thus able to allocate some part of the grants
forthwith. It then became essential that the Committee should be
informed how far the demand for grants was likely to exceed the supply.
In June 1913, therefore, members of the General Committee were asked
whether they would join the invited party if grants were offered them;
selection was found to be necessary from the list of names thus
obtained, and this task occupied the Committee during the ensuing
autumn, from the time of the Birmingham Meeting onward, while
later on it became possible to draw upon outstanding names in order
to fill vacancies which from time to time, through various individual
causes, occurred in the ‘ grantee’ list. No grant was left unfilled.

Foreign and Dominions Representatives.—Before leaving the
subject of the selection of the invited Members, reference may be made
to the invitation of representatives from foreign countries, the United
States of America, and British overseas Dominions other than Australia.
It was the wish of the Australian authorities (as appears from the cable-
gram quoted above) that the Overseas Party should include such repre-
sentatives; the list of Members of the Association (especially that of
Honorary Corresponding Members) supplied in itself a wide field for
invitation ; in addition, other names were suggested by the executives in
the various States of the Commonwealth, and others, again, by the
representatives of the various Sections of the Association on the Com-
mittee at home. It will be readily understood that the number of

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 685

invitations issued to foreign representatives was large in proportion to
the number of those who were able to accept, but eventually the Over-
seas Party included altogether 1 Canadian, 10 American, 3 South
African, 8 German, 1 Russian, 1 Polish, 2 Italian, 1 Swedish, and
5 Danish members and guests, and also 3 from British India.

Number of the Overseas Party.—Apart from the allocation of grants,
the question of the total number of the Overseas Party demanded careful
consideration. The Council had not the power, even if it had felt the
inclination, to impose any direct limitation upon the number of Members
attending the Meeting. On the other hand, the Australian authorities,
while offering very extensive facilities in the direction of free railway
travelling and hospitality up to a number largely in excess of the number
of the grantees and other Members specially invited, were obviously
compelled to take into consideration the number for whom it would be
possible to provide special trains and find hospitality. Moreover, it was
essential that the number and composition of the Overseas Party should
be known at as early a date as possible, in order that the local organisa-
tion might be carried out with a reasonable knowledge of the require-
ments of the party. A general circular concerning the Meeting was
therefore issued to Members in October 1913; replies from those who
intended to attend the Meeting were invited by November 1 (excepting
the case of Members residing abroad), and it was made clear that any
delay in replying might involve a Member in difficulties and incon-
yeniences for which no responsibility could be accepted. In December
1913 the Council decided that Members whose intimations of intention
to attend were qualified by doubt, or were received late, could be
guaranteed no special facilities in Australia, and that no new Members
should be enrolled for inclusion in the Overseas Party, except at the
discretion of the Committee, as in the case of an applicant whose
attendance might be deemed to be of special importance on scientific
grounds. It remained open to Members to proceed to Australia, and
take part in the Meeting, at their own risk so far as concerned the
facilities already mentioned: a few did so. But the provisions above
detailed succeeded in their object of ensuring that no serious difficulties
should be ultimately encountered by the Australian authorities in dealing
with the transport and accommodation of the party. No division of
the party was made into ‘ official ’ and ‘ non-official’ classes for purposes
of differential treatment in these- departments. The total number of
the Overseas Party was 300. No Associates were enrolled in England
for this Meeting.

Arrangement of Sectional Programmes.—The Council held a special
meeting on October 17, 1913, in order to appoint sectional officers,
and thus enable the Organising Sectional Committees to get to work ag
early as possible. It was agreed that as it would be barely possible,
in view of the great distance, for these Committees to receive and
consider papers offered by Australian scientific workers, local com-
mittees in Australia should undertake the responsibility of selecting
these, working on the rough rule that local communications should not
generally occupy more than one-third of the time available for sectional
work, though in such sections as Geology, Zoology, Geography,

686 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

Anthropology, Botany,--and. Agriculture this proportion might he
increased to one-half.

Special Membership Terms in Australia.—At the same meeting of
Council the General Treasurer brought forward proposals (which had
been referred to the Council by the General Committee Meeting at
Birmingham) regarding the cost. of membership subscriptions for
persons joining locally in Australia. These proposals, which were
adopted, laid down that for persons attending meetings in any two
or more centres the price of membership tickets should remain un-
altered, but that for persons attending at any one centre only the price
of new annual membership should be £1 only, including the right to
receive the annual volume free, and that there should be an Associate’s
fee of 10s., at Adelaide and Brisbane only. The main reason for these
special arrangements lay in the fact that at no one centre in Australia
would there be undertaken the equivalent of a complete programme of
a meeting under normal conditions. Any ticket issued in Australia to
a lady was made transferable to another lady under the same con-
ditions as those under which it was issued. That these concessions
were appreciated was proved by the very large local membership en-
rolled, to which reference is made later in this narrative.

Visit of the Australian General Organising Secretary to England.—
During the period from July to December 1913, during which the
majority of the arrangements hitherto discussed were undertaken, the
home officers and Council had the benefit of the presence and collabora-
tion of the Australian Organising Secretary, Dr. A. C. D. Rivett, who
was sent on a special mission to England in connection with the
arrangements. During his visit he was able to attend the Meeting of the
Association in Birmingham in September 1918, and thus to obtain a
full knowledge of the details of organisation under normal conditions.
He was also able to become personally acquainted with a large pro-
portion of the intending visitors to Australia. For the rest, he worked
in intimate relationship with the Assistant Secretary at the London
Office, and together they traversed, so far as possible, the whole field
of the organisation, with the guidance and approval of the General
Officers, the Committee, and the Council. The sum of their dis-
cussions was finally embodied in a memorandum, dealing in detail with
such topics as the arrangements to be made for the reception of the
party on arrival at each centre, with the character and method of
distributing to each member information lists advising of these arrange-
ments and directions as to transport, with the handling of baggage,
and in connection with this, and for other purposes, the allocation of a
distinguishing number to each individual member of the Overseas Party,
with the fitting and organisation of service in the Reception Rooms,
with the requirements of the Sections, with the division of work between
the London and the local offices in regard to the issue of tickets, pro-
erammes and other matter, and so forth. They also endeavoured to
define the various topics on which they would have to exchange in-
formation by mail during the period January to June 1914 (i.e., after
Dr. Rivett’s return to Australia), and in some instances the particular

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 687

mails by which such information should be sent were specified. These
plans, tentative as they were, succeeded so far that the use of the
cables was necessitated only six times from London to Australia and
five times in the opposite direction during the period named.

At the last meeting of Council before Dr. Rivett’s departure from
London (December 5, 1913), it was resolved that the thanks of the
Council be expressed to him for the assistance he had rendered in
connection with the arrangements for the Australian Meeting during
his visit to England, and to the authorities in Australia under whose
direction he had paid this visit.

The Assistant Secretary left London early in June 1914 to join the
General Organising Secretary in Australia, when they visited together
all the centres (except Perth) before the beginning of the Meeting,
as Dr. Rivett had already done on previous occasions.

Shipping Arrangements.—In the meantime the work of the officers
at home was concerned mainly with making up the Overseas Party
(as has been shown already), and those sections of it which were to
visit Western Australia in advance of the main body, and New Zealand
after the conclusion of the Meeting in Sydney. With the exception of
the arrangement with the Orient Company, which was originally made
by the Australian authorities, negotiations with the shipping companies
as to special fares and arrangements for Overseas Members had been
conducted, and continued to be so, principally from the London Office,
and may be briefly summarised here :—

(1) Via Suez, return, 1st class £100 (refund £35 if return half of
ticket unused). Second class £65. Orient and P. & O. lines (return
tickets interchangeable between these) ; also Norddeutscher Lloyd line.

(2) Via Suez outward; return via Malay Archipelago to Colombo
and Suez, Ist class £130. Burns, Philp and other lines locally through
Archipelago.

(3) Round the world via Atlantic, Vancouver, or San Francisco, and
Suez, £120; or via South Africa instead of Suez, £100. All trans-
Atlantic lines ; Canadian Pacific, Union Steamship Co, of New Zealand,
and Oceanic trans-Pacific services.

(4) North American routes, return, 1st class £115 10s.

1 Projected Visit to New Zealand.—An invitation was received in 1911
from the High Commissioner for New Zealand, on behalf of his Government, for
some of the Members visiting Australia to proceed to the Dominion, and it was
subsequently arranged, after consultation with the Australian authorities, that
a party should leave the Meeting of the Association at the conclusion of the
Sydney session, and proceed to New Zealand to take part in scientific meetings,
excursions, &c., together with representative Canadian and American men of
science invited by the Dominion authorities. A committee under the chairman-
ship of the High Commissioner, and including representatives of the Association,
selected in London a number of Members for invitation, and to receive grants in
aid of additional expenses incurred by the visit out of a fund provided by the
Dominion Government, while Professor T. H. Laby (of Victoria College,
Wellington) and others concerned themselves with arrangements in New
Zealand. But while the Meeting of the Association was in progress it was
announced that the arrangements for the visit to New Zealand had unhappily
proved in great measure abortive, owing to the effects of the European War.

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OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 689

(5) Vid South Africa, return, Ist class £75. Blue Funnel and
Aberdeen lines.

Various alternative routes were offered by the above and other
companies: it is unnecessary to detail them here, but it may be stated
that the companies generally met the requirements of the party very
liberally. The vessels and routes which carried the largest numbers
of Members on the outward journey were—(1) the Orient R.M.S.
Orvieto, sailing from London on July 3 vid Suez and arriving in
Adelaide on August 8, which also, by special arrangement with the
Company, carried most of the Western Australian advance party for-
ward from Fremantle to Adelaide; (2) the Blue Funnel s.s. Ascanius,
which, by special arrangement, sailed from Liverpool on June 22, vid
Cape Town, and called at Fremantle on July 28, conveying the majority
of the Western Australian advance party; (8) the Aberdeen s.s, Huri-
pides, which (making her maiden voyage) left London on July 1 and
called by special arrangement at Adelaide on August 7. Some Members
reached Australia by way of the Pacific and Sydney, and some made
extended stays in Western Australia or elsewhere, in advance of the
Meeting, for purposes of research.

Communications to Members.—As Members of the Overseas Party
were thus able to pursue their individual inclinations as to routes
for the outward voyage, and as it was essential to the organisation
that each Member’s route and date of arrival should be known, it
was necessary, during the early months of 1914, for the London Office
to request (if not to importune) the Members te state their inten-
tions. For the most part Members appreciated this necessity, and
only in isolated instances were the organisers at home and in Australia
compelled to make arrangements in ignorance of the actual intentions
of Members who failed to realise the inconvenience which they caused
by refraining from answering inquiries, or even neglecting to give infor-
mation that their intention to attend had been cancelled. In addition
to such inquiries it was necessary to furnish all or some of the Members,
during the period November 1913—June 1914, with vouchers for reduced
steamship fares, information concerning the visits to Western Australia,
Tasmania, and Broken Hill, and the projected visit to New Zealand,
invitations to join these parties, information concerning arrangements
with shipping companies, scientific investigations to be made during
the voyage, &c., and, at a late stage, programmes of final general
arrangements, and of sectional arrangements, together with a list of
the Overseas Party and the route adopted by each Member so far as
known, with which was incorporated a dated memorandum book cover-
ing the period of the stay in Australia. Membership tickets and special
luggage labels (bearing the Members’ distinguishing numbers) were also
issued from the London Office. Taking all these matters into considera-
tion, it is not impossible that some Members may have received during
this period as many as twenty-eight printed programmes or other circular
communications, in addition to individual correspondence with the office,
which attained (in some instances) substantial dimensions. Indeed, the
total number of programmes, circulars, letters, &c., issued from and

1914. WAY

690 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

received by the London Office in connection with the Australian Meeting
is estimated to have exceeded 24,000, and in this connection it is neces-
sary to remember that the London Office was only one of a number of
centres where official business connected with the Meeting was regu-
larly carried on. Some account of the work in these other (Australian)
centres may now be given.

AUSTRALIAN ORGANISATION, 1914.

On the return of the Organising Secretary from England in February
1914 an office was established in the Prime Minister’s Department,
Melbourne, which served to keep the work done in each capital city in
touch with that of the London office. Periodical visits were made to
the other States by the Organising Secretary.

Copies of the memorandum prepared in London by the Assistant
Secretary and the Australian Organising Secretary were circulated to
the responsible officers in each centre. Specific local conditions some-
times necessitated trifling alterations in the suggested scheme of
organisation, but for the most part the general plan was closely adhered
to, it being recognised fully by all executive officers that the advantage
of uniformity was very great, and would be particularly appreciated by
Overseas Members when moving rapidly from one capital to another.

Executive Committees, together with sub-committees dealing with
hospitality, excursions, and scientific business, met frequently after the
beginning of April. The main work of the Hospitality Committees, after
securing hosts, lay in the allocation of guests to hosts. As the time
of the Meeting approached it was, of course, inevitable that many
changes would occur in the list of visiting Members: the consequent
continuous readjustments in hospitality arrangements were sometimes
considerable. As will be seen later, this was particularly the case in
Brisbane, where the abandonment at the last moment of the Meeting
in New Zealand necessitated a rapid alteration of most of the
Committee’s arrangements.

The Excursions Committees, after settling the localities to be visited,
were required to determine the numbers of overseas and local Members
respectively, for whom provision could be made. The general prin-
ciple was accepted throughout that the excursions were primarily, and
in many cases solely, for the visitors. Thanks to the keenness of the
Members of the Overseas Party there were scarcely any cases of
arrangements failing through lack of visitors. Very great assistance
was rendered by Government officials throughout the work of all
Excursions Committees.

In each centre reports on the work of executive and sub-committees
were presented periodically to the large General Committees.

Local Membership.—It was fully recognised in Australia that the
possibility of the Association continuing during 1914-1915 its work of
financially aiding original scientific investigations depended largely upon
securing a long roll of local Members. This fact was made widely
known in the Press, and the determination was expressed that the
visit to Australia should not result in any lessening of the Association’s
activities. Even better results would have attended efforts to gain local

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 691

Members had there not been a temporary cessation of enrolments
directly after the outbreak of war.

Tur Mrrstina IN AUSTRALIA.
Western Australia.

Outward Voyages of Advance Party.—About seventy visiting
Members, who became known collectively as the Advance Party, visited
Western Australia for a stay in most cases of a week, but in some
of a fortnight or even longer, before the main party arrived in Aus-
tralia. Of those who stayed a week most arrived by the Blue Funnel
steamer Ascanius, which made a special call at Fremantle (the port of
Perth, W.A.) in order to land the party. A few arrived by the P. & O.
mail steamer (via Suez), which reached Fremantle on July 28, the
same date as the Ascanius.

A good deal of research definitely planned in relation to the Australian
Meeting was carried on during the voyage out by some members of
the Advance Party. On the Ascanius, for example, Professor W. G.
Duffield made observations on the variations in the force of gravity over
the ocean, and Professor W. A. Herdman examined and preserved
samples of the plankton from the surface waters running continuously
through fine silk nets, day and night, between Liverpool and Fremantle.
Both these researches were very materially promoted by the managers
of the Blue Funnel Line, who most generously fitted up a special
laboratory for each of these purposes and gave special facilities for
carrying on the work. Research was also carried out on other routes,
and on the return voyages.

Public Lectures, &¢., in Western Australia.—Some little delay in
the arrival of the Ascanius on July 28 interfered in some measure with
the arrangements for that day, but that evening Professor W. A. Herd-
man, F.R.S., was able to give the first Association lecture in the Museum
Lecture Hall at Perth, with His Excellency the Governor of Western
Australia, Sir Harry Barron in the chair, the subject being ‘ Why We
Investigate the Ocean.’ After expressing the gratitude of the visitors
for their reception in Western Australia and their appreciation of the
labour which had been expended throughout the centres to be visited, in
preparation for the Meeting, Professor Herdman approached the subject-
matter of his lecture principally from the point of view of the establish-
ment and development of marine fisheries, with especial reference to the
potentialities of Australian waters. He also discussed the investigation,
exploitation, and regulation of the fisheries of North-western Europe,
illustrating by means of lantern slides the methods there employed, while
another series of slides illustrated the reproduction and growth of the
more valuable fishes found in British waters, and their dependence upon
the more minute organisms forming the plankton of the ocean.

Subsequently official lectures were given in Perth as follows :—

July 31, at the Museum, Professor A. 8. Eddington, F.R.S., on
‘ Stars and Their Movements,’ the Lieutenant-Governor, Sir Edward
Stone, in the chair. The lecturer discussed the census of stars and their
classification according to age by means of their spectra, of which

Yew

692 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

o,, Mundaring

Kalamunda

Mt
Johnston
D'Entrecasteaux Pt

Scale of Miles
25 50

Principal Railways
Elevations above 1000 feet are tinted

1S g East 117 of Greenwich
.W Bacon &Co..ltd 127 8trand, London

5 Fig. 2.—Part of ,Western Australia, showing places visited by Members.

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 693

examples were shown on the screen. The doubling and the weight of
stars, the movements of the stellar system and its probable shape were
among other branches of the subject dealt with.

August 2, at the Literary Institute, Mr. H. Balfour on ‘ Primitive
Methods of Making Fire, and their Survival for Ceremonial Purposes.’
The first part of the lecture described the various methods whereby fire
is obtained by friction of wood among primitive peoples in various parts
of the world, and touched upon their possible origin and geographical
dispersal. The second part was devoted to the consideration of the
ceremonial retention of such primitive and obsolete methods by peoples
of more advanced culture, among whom the earlier processes have, for
ordinary domestic purposes, been superseded by improved appliances,
such as the flint and steel or the lucifer match. The production of
‘pure-fire ’ for use in religious ritual, ‘ need-fire ’ for averting epidemics
and other calamities, and ‘ new-fire’ as a means of promoting the
welfare of crops, &c., afford very numerous and widely dispersed
instances of the persistence in ceremonial fire-making of otherwise
obsolete methods, and this aspect of the subject formed the main theme
of the lecture, which was illustrated throughout with lantern-slides.

August 3, at the Museum, Professor A. D. Waller, F.R.S., on ‘ The
Electrical Action of the Human Heart.’ He gave a popular history of
the electro-cardiogram, describing how it occurred to him in 1887 to
use the limbs as electrodes leading off on opposite sides of the electrical
equator of the heart from his right hand and left foot to a Lippmann
electrometer, and watching the mercury column pulsate with his heart-
beat; extending these investigations by means of Einthoven’s string
galvanometer he devised a simple formula for calculating the axial angle
of the heart which is of physiological importance.

A lecture was also delivered in the Town Hall, Kalgoorlie, on
July 31, by Mr. C. A. Buckmaster (lately an Assistant Secretary of the
Board of Education) on ‘ Mining Education in England.’ The lecturer
gave an account of the efforts that have been made in England to provide
instruction in relation to metalliferous mining for day and for evening
students. Special reference was made to the founding and progress of
the Royal School of Mines, of the School of Metalliferous Mining
(Cornwall), and of the characteristics of these schools. Attention was
also drawn to the value the English experiments would possess in the
development of technical instruction in mining in Australia.

Various other lectures and speeches, of an unofficial character so far
as concerned the Association, were delivered by Members, here as
elsewhere, throughout the Meeting.

On the evening of July 29 the first graduation ceremony held by the
University of Western Australia took place in the ballroom at Govern-
ment House, His Excellency the Governor presiding. The Meeting
was addressed by Mr. Cecil Andrews, Pro-Chancellor, and honorary
degrees were conferred on the following members of the Overseas
Party :—Prof. Gunnar Andersson, Prof. W. Bateson,* Dr. F. W.
Dyson, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Prof. W. A. Herdman,* Sir H. Reichel,
Prof. A. D. Waller, Prof. J. Walther.*

(*In absentié.)

694 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

Sir Winthrop Hackett, K.C.M.G., first Chancellor of the University
and senior member of the Legislative Council, was similarly honoured
in absentid, and a number of other degrees were also conferred. Dr.
A. C. Haddon addressed the Meeting on behalf of the Association.

Field-work in Western Australia.—The principal object of the visit
to Western Australia, however, was to carry out work in the field,
mainly in the directions of botany, geology, zoology, and agricultural
investigation. A number of official excursions had been arranged to this
end, and among the localities and places visited by parties of the visitors
were the Irwin country, the Darling Range (Kalamunda, Lesmurdie,
Cannington, &c.); Mogumber, New Norcia (where Members were re-
ceived at the Benedictine Monastery), and Gillingarra; Albany and its
neighbourhood; Mount Barker, the Stirling Range, and Northam;
Busselton and the Yallingup and Margaret River caves; Mundaring
Weir; Kalgoorlie; and the Big Brook timber mills in the jarrah and
karri forests, and Bridgetown. Informal visits were also made to points
in the Darling Range and elsewhere in the neighbourhood of Perth.

Of scarcely less interest to zoologists and anthropologists were the
discussions which resulted from visits to the collections at the Museum
(under the direction of Messrs. Woolnough and Alexander), and
to those at the University made by Professor W. J. Dakin from
the Abrolhos Islands (the subject of a communication to Section D at
Sydney). Throughout the visit to Western Australia, although no
formal sectional meetings were held, the public lectures were well
attended, and the conferences with local men of science dealt largely
with questions of local research, and may confidently be expected to
result in the advancement of Science.

The great majority of the Advance Party joined the Orient R.M.S.
Orvieto at Fremantle, and sailed for Adelaide on August 4.

Adelaide, August 8-12.

Arrival at Adelaide: Railway Passes.—Apart from some individual
Members who had arrived at earlier dates, the first party to arrive at
Adelaide was that on board the Aberdeen s.s. Huripides, which berthed
at the Outer Harbour on August 7—the day previous to that on which
she was originally expected. The large party (some 140) on the R.M.S.
Orvieto followed on the morning of August 8. Both steamers were met
by some of the principal officers for the Meeting, and Members before
leaving the vessels were supplied with railway passes, which, by the
combined action and generosity of the Railway Commissioners in all the
States, enabled the whole of the Overseas Party to travel without charge
over Government railways throughout the Commonwealth, the passes
Pe valid from August 4 to September 18, and including sleeping

erths.

Information Lists: Conveyance from Stations, &e.—In the case of
each of the-parties landing from the steamers, compartments were
reserved on one of the special trains running, in connection with the
steamers, from the Outer Harbour to Adelaide. Each Member had

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 695

been supplied with an Information List containing particulars arranged
under the following headings :—

On the arrival of each party at Adelaide Station, cabs and motor-
cars, each bearing a distinguishing number, were in waiting, and
Members, being able to identify their conveyances from the numbers
in the Information List (and with the assistance of local officers who
were in attendance), were expeditiously conveyed to the addresses where
accommodation had been arranged for them. Their baggage (except-
ing hand-baggage) was dealt with, here and elsewhere, independently.
Contracts had been made with a firm of carriers in each centre to
collect and distribute baggage. The special luggage-labels bore the
Members’ distinguishing numbers in large figures, in order that the
carriers might be able readily to sort the baggage.

The same method of distributing both Members and their baggage
on arrival at each centre was relied upon throughout.

The Reception Room (Elder Hall) and Association Offices at Ade-
laide were established in the University.

The Meeting and the War.—It was known, not only in Australia
but also to the Members arriving at this date, that the British Empire
had become involved in war. The majority of Members of the Council
present in Adelaide therefore immediately met (on the afternoon of
August 8) in order to assure the Australian authorities of their acquies-
cence, on behalf of the Overseas Party, in any modification of the
programme which might be found desirable in these unhappy circum-
stances. Professors Orme Masson, T. W. Edgeworth David, and E. C.
Stirling were present, and, as official representatives of the Federal
Council and the Local Executives, expressed appreciation of the
thoughtfulness which prompted this assurance, but felt strongly that
the scientific and other business of the Meeting should proceed, even
if it were necessary to modify some of the social functions. A telegram
received by the President while this discussion was in progress, from
His Excellency the Governor-General, Sir R. Munro-Ferguson, sup-
ported these views :—

.‘T heartily welcome you and the Members of the British Asso-
ciation to Australia. Wish your arrival could have taken place in
a less anxious time, but trust that, in spite of the grave pre-occupa-
tion of the moment, your visit may be a happy one and fruitful in
good results.’

It may be stated here that this wish, so far as concerned the
visiting party, was amply fulfilled. Modifications consequent upon the
international situation were practically negligible, so: far as concerned
the Australian programme, although, as will be seen later, the plans
for the homeward journeys of many of the Members had to be changed.

696 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

Brinkenoretd

%
Wallaroo) Tina,

Ox¢Kadina

Te - .
<->” BStrathalbyn

We
eve Alex airing S
Victor ¢ aS X

Harbou:
55

Encounte
Bay

SOUTHERN OCEAN

Principal Railways === :
Elevations above 1000 ft. Scale of Miles
are tinted

Lonfitude East of Greenwich
G.W.Bacon & Co,Ltd. 127 Strand, London.

Fia. 3.—Part of South Australia, showing places visited by Members.

ausN0g/ayy) O]

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING, 697

Australian public men and private citizens did not allow ‘ the grave
pre-occupation of the moment’ to interfere in any perceptible measure
with their interest in the proceedings of the Meeting, and the hospitality
and community of sentiment which were everywhere encountered by
the visitors were possibly enhanced, certainly undiminished, by the
stress of these external circumstances.

The position of some of the foreign guests among the Overseas
Party gave rise to anxious consideration, but it may be recorded here
that all were enabled to participate in the Meeting.

Saturday, August 8.—In the afternoon (in addition to the meeting
mentioned above) a graduation ceremony was held in the Town Hall,
when honorary degrees were conferred upon the following Overseas
Members :—Prof. T. Hudson Beare, Prof. E. W. Brown, Prof. A. P.
Coleman, Mr, A. D. Hall, Prof. G. W. O. Howe, Prof. H. Jungersen,
Dr. C. F. Juritz, Sir Oliver Lodge, Sir Charles P. Lucas, Prof.
F. von Luschan, Prof. A. Penck, Prof. Elliot Smith, Prof. W. J.
Sollas. A degree was also conferred upon Prof. T. W. Edgeworth
David (Sydney). Prof. E. C. Stirling welcomed the visitors, and Sir
Oliver Lodge, in replying, read the telegram from the Governor-General
quoted above.

Motor-cars, generously provided by the Local Executive and private
residents, conveyed many Members (on this and the following days)
for drives through the city, into the hills (Mount Lofty, &c.), and
to other points of interest in the locality. In the afternoon a party
of geologists and chemists left for a visit to Port Pirie and Broken
Hill, which occupied most of them till the following Tuesday.

At 8.30 p.m. a Reception was held in the Town Hall by the
Government of South Australia. Speeches of welcome were delivered
by His Excellency the State Governor, Sir H. Galway, K.C.M.G.,
and by the Hon. A. H. Peake, State Premier; and Sir Oliver Lodge,
F.R.S., President of the Association, replied.

Sunday, August 9.—No official engagements were arranged. A
special afternoon service took place in St. Peter’s Cathedral.

The Adelaide Municipal Tramways Trust despatched special cars,
and, as already indicated, private motor-cars were also available for
the purpose of informal excursions in the neighbourhood of the city.

At 8.15 p.m. Professor E. C. K. Gonner delivered a Citizens’
Lecture in the Town Hall on ‘ Saving and Spending,’ under the
auspices of the South Australian branch of the Workers’ Educa-
tional Association. The lecture dealt with the processes involved in
saving and spending, and their ultimate effects upon the community,
with particular reference to the ways in which and the objects for
which people save. The chair was taken by Mr. T. Ryan, President
of the Branch, and the lecture was followed by speeches from Sir
Oliver Lodge and Professor W. Bateson.

Monday, August 10, was devoted to excursions. It may be stated
in regard to excursions generally, not only from Adelaide but elsewhere,
that they were arranged primarily with an eye to the scientific interests 2

7 The excursions are briefly summarised in the following diary: a dis-
cussion of the special scientific interests of some of them will be found in
later pages.

698 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

of the visiting Members, and did not afford opportunity for any large
proportion of the local Members to take part in them. Recognising
this generous attitude on the part of the local organisers and Members,
the General Secretaries of the Association addressed a circular letter
to Members of the Overseas Party in Adelaide, inviting them to take
advantage to the utmost of the official excursion arrangements.

A general all-day excursion took place to Angaston and district.
Luncheon was provided by Mr. Charles Angas in the Agricultural Hall
at Angaston. Mr. Glynn, Commonwealth Minister of External Affairs,
proposed the toast of the visitors, and Sir Oliver Lodge replied. Sir
H. R. Reichel proposed the health of Mr. and Mrs. Angas. Motor-
cars were provided by residents to convey Members on short drives
in the neighbourhood. A limited party visited the vineyards and
cellars of Messrs. Seppelt, at Seppeltsfield, and lunched there. On
the return journey the Chateau Tanunda Company’s wine-cellars at
Tanunda were inspected, and tea was provided by the Company. A
botanical excursion by motor to the hills near Adelaide was conducted
by Professor T. G. B. Osborn; and Professor E. C. Stirling led an
anthropological excursion to Milang, Lake Alexandrina, where a party
of aborigines was seen. Mr. W. Howchin conducted a geological ex-
cursion, lasting over August 10 and 11, by motor to the Sturt River,
Hallett’s Cove, Inman Valley, and Sellicks’ Hill, the party spending
the night at Victor Harbour.

In the evening of August 10 at 8. 30, Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S.,
President, delivered a discourse on ‘The Ether of Space.’ His Excel-
lency the Governor, Sir H. Galway, K.C.M.G., presided. The
lecturer described the properties of the ether of space as the omni-
present connecting medium, and maintained its complete reality, in
spite of its intangible and generally insensible character. He dis-
cussed the relation between ether and matter, and urged that the
experimental elusiveness of the ether was a natural consequence of
its uniformity and of the universality of its functions. A vote of
thanks to the lecturer was proposed by Professor E. C. Stirling,
C.M.G., F.R.S., and seconded by Professor T. W. Edgeworth David,
C.M.G., F.RB.S.

Tuesday, August 11.—Further excursions took place: to Rose-
worthy Agricultural College, under Mr. A. J. Perkins, Director of
Agriculture; and to Mannum (a botanical excursion by motor, under
Professor T. G. B. Osborn), while opportunities were again provided
to visit the hills by motor, luncheon and tea being kindly furnished
at a number of private houses in the Mount Lofty district.

A luncheon to some sixty visiting Members was given by the
Commonwealth Club. Sir J. Downer was in the chair, and speeches
were delivered by him and by Professor W. Bateson, Sir E. Schafer,
Sir C. P. Lucas, and Professor J. Perry.

An Evening Discourse was given at 8 p.m. in the Town Hall by
Professor W. J. Sollas, F.R.S., on ‘‘ Ancient Hunters,’’ Sir Oliver
Lodge presiding. The lecturer emphasised the results of recent re-
search in dispelling exaggerated notions as to the antiquity of known
remains of the human race, and discussed the correlation of the

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 699

p«leolithic races of Europe with existing hunting tribes—e.g.,
Australian, Bushman, Eskimo—and the early development and rapid
progress of the human race in the arts. A vote of thanks was pro-
posed by Dr. Verco, President of the Royal Society of South Australia,
and seconded by Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.

A telegram of welcome to the Association from Mr. Cook, Prime
Minister of the Commonwealth, was read from the chair: ‘ Heartiest
of welcomes to the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
and warm felicitations on its first meeting in Australia. We are greatly
honoured in having as our guests so many distinguished torch-bearers of
truth, and from so many lands, May the light you bring continue to
shine through the mists which momentarily have settled upon the
world.’

The Right Worshipful the Mayor of Adelaide, Mr. A. A. Simpson,
held a Reception (in lieu of the Ball which had been arranged) in the
Exhibition Building.

Wednesday, August 12.—Sectional Presidential Addresses were
delivered in the Town Hall :—

At 10 a.m. Sir Charles P. Lucas, K.C.B., K.C.M.G. (Section E,
Geography).

At 11.30 a.m. Mr. A. D. Hall, F.R.S. (Section M, Agriculture,
Part I).

Railway Arrangements.—The Overseas Party, accompanied (as it
was throughout) by a few official and other inter-State Members, left
Adelaide in the afternoon by three special trains at 2.37, 3.30, and
6 p.m. Sleeping-berth accommodation was provided on this and all
subsequent night-journeys for every Member, berths having been pre-
viously allocated by the organisers, and the Members informed of their
places by means of the Information Lists. The scheme of these lists
was broadly the same throughout: thus the Melbourne Information
List, distributed in Adelaide, contained the following particulars :—

Melbourne, August 13-19.

Thursday, August 18.—The special trains arrived at Spencer Street
Station, Melbourne, shortly before eight o’clock, nine o’clock, and noon
respectively.

The business of the Meeting was carried on for the most part in
the University of Melbourne, the Reception Room being established
in the Wilson Hall, while the Sectional Meetings were held in lecture
theatres or other rooms, as follows :—

Section

A—Natural Philosophy Department.

B—Chemistry Department.

C—Geology Department.

700 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

Section
D—Biology Department.
E—Physics Room, Teachers’ College.
F—Main Hall, Teachers’ College.
G—Engineering Department.
H—Anatomy Department.
I—Physiology Department.
K—Philosophy Room.
L—Art Room, Teachers’ College.
M—Medical Theatre.

Luncheon and tea were served in the Union Building, where smoking
and ladies’ rooms, &c., were also provided. The Secretarium was
established in the Grand Hotel, Spring Street.

Members were requested to attend at the Reception Room during
the afternoon, to make final arrangements with regard to excursions.
A representative of the Melbourne Excursions Committee, however,
had attended in the Reception Room at Adelaide, and thus many
Members had been able to make their applications in advance: the
same principle was adopted throughout, a Sydney representative attend-
ing for this purpose at Melbourne, and a Brisbane representative at
Sydney.

The Council met at 4 p.m., and the General Committee at 4.30 P.m.,
in the Biological Department.

In the afternoon a number of Members were entertained by an
exhibition of boomerang-throwing given by Dr. Harvey Sutton and
others.

In the evening a Reception was given at Federal Government House
by Their Excellencies the Governor-General and Lady Helen Munro-
Ferguson.

Friday, August 14.—In the morning the Sections met, and in five
of them (Mathematics and Physics, Chemistry, Zoology, Economics,
Physiology) presidential addresses were delivered.

In the afternoon a graduation ceremony was held in the Melba Hall
of the University at 2.15, when honorary degrees were conferred upon
the following members:—Professor C. G. Abbot, Professor H. E.
Armstrong, Professor W. Bateson, Professor W. M. Davis, Dr. F. W.
Dyson, Sir Thomas H. Holland, Professor Luigi Luiggi, Professor
W. J. Pope, Professor A. W. Porter, Sir Ernest Rutherford, Sir E. A.
Schafer, Professor J. Walther.

Later in the afternoon a Civic Reception was given in the Town
Hall by the Lord Mayor (Mr. Hennessy) and citizens of Melbourne.

At 8.30 p.m., in the Auditorium, the Presidency of the Association
was assumed by Professor William Bateson, F.R.S., in succession to
Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., who introduced the new President. Professor
Bateson delivered the first part of his address, and a vote of thanks was
proposed by His Excellency the Governor-General (Sir R. Munro-
Ferguson) and seconded by His Excellency the Governor of Victoria
(Sir Arthur Stanley).

Saturday, August 15, was devoted to excursions, visits being paid
to Ballarat, Bendigo, Bacchus Marsh, Marysville, Emerald, Warburton,

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 701

National Park, the Macedon district, and Werribee. At Ballarat the
party were the guests of the Mayor of the City, Mr. Brokenshire, and
the Mayor of Ballarat East, Mr. Pittard. Some of the Members pro-
ceeded to Creswick to inspect the Government plantations and nursery,
and were the guests of the Minister of Forests at luncheon, the Premier,
Sir A. Peacock, presiding in the unavoidable absence of the Minister.
At Bendigo the Mayor, Mr. Andrew, and others received the party.

The party visiting Bacchus Marsh alighted at Ballarat Plateau and
descended to the Werribee River, where the glaciated floor, conglo-

Mooroopna °,
ushworth
fe)

eC
N

from Adelaide

See

fo.

Williamstow eS, = burt Sea pees

\ Werribee IE

La Trobe

Bass Strait

Principal Railways :

Elevations above 2,000tt. Scale cf Miles
are tinted (a ae)

46 ongitude East of Greenwic
GWBacon & Ga!*+4 127 Strand tandan

Fria. 4.—Part of Victoria, showing places visited by Members.

merate, &c., were examined; the gorge was then ascended and the
Ordovician dykes, glacials, &c., were inspected. The party then
drove to Bacchus Marsh.

The Marysville excursion lasted from Saturday to Monday, and
included a journey by motor through Lilydale, up the Valley of the
Yarra, to Healesville and the adjacent elevated district, with its forest
of giant eucalyptus; on the road thence to Marysville the Blacks’
Spur was crossed at a height of about 1,800 feet.

702 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

The Emerald excursion included a visit to Ferntree Gully, and
took the visitors over the interesting narrow-gauge railway through
the hilly bush country by Belgrave and Paradise. At Warburton and
Cement Creek also pine forests and tree-fern gullies were seen, and the
visitors were entertained by Mr. Jas. Cuming, who afforded them
opportunity to inspect the saw-milling and allied industries in operation
near Warburton.

The National Park excursion lasted from Friday night till Monday,
the varied flora of the park and the granite and other geological features
of Wilson’s Promontory and the adjacent mainland being inspected.
It had been intended to reach the promontory by a Government
steamer, but as this was required for other purposes the journey was
made overland, and involved riding over a considerable distance.

The excursion to the Macedon district introduced visitors to an
area of great geological interest, on account especially of the newer
basalt plains of Keilor and the trachytic and other volcanic features in
the vicinity of Macedon.

At Werribee (an excursion primarily of agricultural interest) the
Central Research Farm was inspected, and the Members were addressed
by Mr. Hutchinson, Minister of Agriculture, and Dr. 8. S. Cameron,
Director of Agriculture.

At 8 p.m. Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S., delivered a Citizens’ Lecture
in the Town Hall on ‘ The Making of a Big Gun,’ the Lord Mayor of
Melbourne presiding.

Sunday, August 16.—No official arrangements were made for this
day. A considerable number of Members were away on extended
excursions. Special services took place, or special sermons were
delivered, in several of the principal churches in Melbourne.

Monday, August 17.—Some sectional work occupied the forenoon.

At 4 p.m. Professor E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., delivered in the
Auditorium a Discourse on‘ Mimicry.’ The lecturer dealt with cryptic
resemblance, or that form of mimicry the purpose of which is conceal-
ment, with the sematic or advertising uses of colour, and with other
forms of imitation, illustrating his. remarks by examples from animal,
fish, insect, and plant life, and then went on to consider those forms of
true mimicry where a harmless insect is protected by the resemblance
it has acquired to some other form having distasteful qualities. The
President presided, and a vote of thanks was proposed by Professor
W. Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S., and seconded by Professor
A. Dendy, F.R.S.

In the evening a Reception was given by the Government of Victoria
in the Public Library, National Gallery, and Museums. The Premier
and Lady Peacock, the President and Mrs. Bateson, the President of
the Legislative Council (Mr. J. M. Davies), Dr. and Mrs. Leeper, and
the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly (Sir F. Madden) received
guests in the Stawell Gallery.

Tuesday, August 18.—The Sections continued their work this
morning, and some carried their sessions on into the afternoon.

In the afternoon a Reception was given by members of local
scientific societies in the Botanical Gardens.

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 703

The Lord Mayor of Melbourne (Mr. Hennessy), President of the
Overseas Club, and other members of its Council, waited upon
Professor Bateson at Federal Government House in order to presen‘
him as President of the Association with an address of welcome from
the Club.

At 8.30 p.m., in the Auditorium, Dr. F. W. Dyson, F.R.S.,
Astronomer Royal, delivered a Discourse on ‘ Greenwich Observatory.’
He discussed the history of the Observatory, its work, and the labours
of some of his predecessors in office; a number of astronomical photo-
graphs were shown and explained. A vote of thanks was proposed by
Professor Orme Masson, F.R.S., and seconded by Mr. P. Baracchi,
Government Astronomer.

At 8 p.m., in the Town Hall, Professor H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.,
delivered a Citizens’ Lecture on‘ Explosions,’ His Excellency the State
Governor presiding.

Wednesday, August 19.—Sectional work was continued in the
morning, but the time available was limited by the hour fixed for the
ileparture of the party from Melbourne for Sydney.

Railway Arrangements.— The departure took place at 2.15 p.m. A
very heavy train of the finest rolling stock, including observation and
dining cars and drawn by two locomotives, conveyed the party as far
as Albury, where a break of gauge occurs between the railways of
Victoria (5 ft. 3 in.) and of New South Wales (4 ft. 84 in.). The
Members were the guests of the Victorian Railway Commissioners
at afternoon tea and dinner on this train.

At Albury Members were transferred to three special sleeping-car
trains.

Changes in Homeward Steamship Sailings.—It had become known
by this time that the three ships by which the majority of the
Members had travelled out (the Orvieto, Ascanius, and Huripides), and
by which many intended to return, had been requisitioned, among
others, for Government purposes (conveyance of troops, &c.) in con-
nection with the war. Mr. Atlee Hunt, of the Commonwealth
Department of External Affairs, and the representatives of the ship-
ping companies concerned, gave the executive officers of the Associa-
tion every help in ensuring that definite information in this matter
should be furnished to Overseas Members as soon as available. The
official arrangements for the visit of a party of Members to New
Zealand had been cancelled (as narrated elsewhere). It therefore
became necessary to the organisation that a further inquiry should be
made of Members as to any change in their plans regarding their stay
in and departure from Australia. This inquiry was made by means of
a printed form distributed in the train between Melbourne and Albury.

Overseas Members’ Contribution to Australian Patriotic Funds.—
It had also been decided, at a meeting of the General Officers on
August 15, that Members in the Overseas Party should be given an
opportunity of subscribing to one of the Patriotic Funds then being
raised in Australia, and in this connection also advantage was taken
of the gathering together in one train of practically the whole party to

704 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

make this proposal known and begin the collection. The total sum
ultimately collected, and forwarded to His Excellency the Governor-
General after the close of the Meeting, amounted to 614l. 8s.°

Sydney, August 20-26.

Thursday, August 20.—The special trains arrived at Sydney between
9 and 10 a.m. In the morning and afternoon Members visited the
Reception Room. As at other centres, all the business of the Associa-
tion, except evening lectures, was carried on at the University. The
Great Hall sefved as the Reception Room. The Sections made use of
lecture theatres or other halls as follows :—

Section
A—Physics Department.
B—Chemistry Department.
C—Geology Department.
D—Zoology Department.
E—Pathology Theatre.
F—Surgical Theatre.
G—Engineering Building.
H—Anatomy Theatre.
I—Physiology Lecture Room.
K—Latin Lecture Room.
L—Mathematics Lecture Room.
M—vVeterinary Science Lecture Room.

For certain joint and other meetings the Union Hall was used.

3 The following letter of acknowledgment was received from His Excellency

the Governor-General :—
9th September, 1914.

Dear Proressorn BATESON,—

1 have to-day received your letter dated the 6th instant, and accompanying
which is a cheque for 611/. 6s.,+ representing the combined contributions by the
Members of the Overseas Visiting Party of the British Association to the
Patriotic Fund now being raised in Australia.

I need hardly assure you that this most kind and generous contribution
by the visiting Members of the Association will be most deeply and warmly
appreciated by all sections of the people of Australia, not so much because
it represents a very substantial addition to the Fund referred to, but rather
on account of the community of spirit and of sympathy it indicates.

In view of the fact that each State in the Commonwealth has a distinct
Patriotic Fund of its own, it has been decided, after careful consideration,
that the fairest and most satisfactory method for the distribution of the
sum that has been forwarded will be to divide it equally amongst the various
States, a decision which, it is hoped, will meet with the approval of those
who have so liberally contributed to the relief of Australian fellow-countrymen.
1 am accordingly despatching 1007. to the Executive Authority administering
the Patriotic Fund in each capital, together with a copy of your letter and of
the list of names of subscribers.

I am,
Yours very sincerely,
(Signed) R. M. Fercuson.

The President,

British Association for the Advancement of Science.

[+t The balance was forwarded later.]

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 705

Smoking and refreshment rooms were established in the University
Union Building, and refreshments were also served in the Refectory.
The Secretarium was established in the Australia Hotel, Castlereagh
Street.

On August 20, at 8.380 p.m., in the Town Hall, the President,
Professor W. Bateson, F.R.S., delivered the second part of his Address,
His Excellency the Governor of New South Wales, Sir G. Strickland,
presided, and a vote of thanks was proposed by Sir William Cullen
and seconded by Sir E. A. Schifer, ex-President.

Friday, August 21.—The Sections began their sessions in Sydney,
Presidential Addresses being delivered in those of Geology, Engineering,
Anthropology, Botany, and Education.

At 1 p.m. a luncheon was given at the Town Hall to the Overseas
Members and others by the State Government. The toast of ‘ The
British Association’ was proposed by the Premier, Mr. Holman. Pyo-
fessor Bateson replied, and Sir Oliver Lodge proposed the toast of
“The Government and Ministry of New South Wales.’

Later in the afternoon His Excellency the Governor of New South
Wales, Sir Gerald Strickland, G.C.M.G., gave a Garden Party at
* Cranbrook,’ Rose Bay.

At 8.30 p.m., in the Town Hall, Professor G. Elliot Smith, F.B.S.,
delivered a Discourse on ‘ Primitive Man.’ The President presided.
The lecturer discussed in some detail the remains of primitive man of
the Pleistocene and later periods, referring especially to the supposed
Pleistocene skull the discovery of which in the Darling Downs had
been described earlier in the day in the Anthropological Section. He
discussed and illustrated the evolution of mankind, and the links con-
necting the brain of man with those of lower animals. A vote of
thanks was proposed by Sir Everard im Thurn, K.C.M.G., and
seconded by Sir T. Anderson Stuart.

Saturday, August 22, was devoted to excursions.

A party leaving Sydney on Friday night, and returning on Sunday
evening, visited the Federal Territory, Canberra (the site of the Federal
capital), and the Burrinjuck Dam. Other places and districts of interest
which were visited by Overseas Members were—Coonamble and Wal-
gett (for the Western plains, the wheat belt, and the pastoral industry) ;
the Jenolan Caves and the fine limestone ravine scenery of the Blue
Mountains at Wentworth Falls, Katoomba and Blackheath ; Narramine
(where arborglyphs were inspected); the Murrumbidgee irrigation area
at Yanco; the Hawkesbury Agricultural College; the Hawkesbury
River and Newport districts; the National Park and Port Hacking ;
Bulli and the Cataract Dam; and the electrolytic works at Port Kembla.
A geological excursion visited West Maitland and the lower Hunter
district and coal-field.

Further references to the excursions from Sydney will be found
among the notes on scientific work which follow this narrative.

At 8 p.m., in the Town Hall, Professor Benjamin Moore, FE-R.S.,
delivered a Citizens’ Lecture on ‘ Brown Earth and Bright Sunshine,’
the Lord Mayor presiding. Here, as elsewhere, the arrangements were

1914. ZZ

706 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

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OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 707

undertaken by the Workers’ Educational Association. The lecturer
dealt with the process of evolution from inorganic bodies. He showed
that under the influence of bright sunshine the brown colouring matter
(iron oxides) of the earth was capable of stirring up energy and forming
organic compounds which then served as a substratum for the evolu-
tion of the simplest living organisms. :

Sunday, August 23.—No official engagements were arranged. Some
of the longer excursions were proceeding. In the cathedral and other
places of worship special sermons were delivered.

Monday, August 24.—Excursions were continued. Some of the
Sections held Meetings in the afternoon. At 8 p.m. in the Lyceum
Theatre, Pitt Street, Prof. Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S., delivered a
Discourse on ‘ Atoms and Electrons.’ Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.5.,
ex-President, presided. The lecturer summarised the history of doc-
trines concerning the unit of matter from ancient times to the present,
and then led up to some of the alternative forms of the modern elec-
trical theory of the constitution of the atom, giving reasons for his
own preference for the view of a central positively charged nucleus
surrounded by a number of negative electrons revolving in astronomical
orbits round it, the number being closely connected with the appropriate
atomic weight or position in Mendeléef’s series. Professor Pollock
proposed a vote of thanks to the lecturer. A ball was given at the
Town Hall by invitation of the Right Hon. the Lord Mayor (Alderman
Richards).

Tuesday, August 25.—All the Sections met in the morning, and
some continued their sessions in the afternoon. The Committee of
Recommendations met in the Senate Room at 2.30 p.m. An excursion
in Sydney Harbour was given in the afternoon by invitation of the
Commissioners of the Harbour Trust.

At 8 p.m. in the Town Hall Professor H. H. Turner, F.B.S.,
delivered a Citizens’ Lecture on ‘Comets.’ The chair was taken by
Mr. Meredith Atkinson.

A Conversazione offered by the Senate at the University was can-
celled owing to the death, on the previous day, of the Chancellor of the
University, Sir H. N. MacLaurin. Honorary degrees were to have
been conferred on the following Members :—Prof. W. Bateson, Prof.
F. O. Bower, Prof. E. G. Coker, Prof. A. Dendy, Prof. E. C. K.
Gonner, Prof. W. A. Herdman, Sir Everard im Thurn, Prof. B. Moore,
Prof. J. Perry, Prof. E. B. Poulton, Prof. H. H. Turner. These
degrees were conferred subsequently in absentid.

Some of the members of the Overseas Party (to the number of
26), who, owing to the war and the cancellation of the sailing of the
R.M.S. Orvieto, found it incumbent upon them to hasten their depar-
ture from Australia, left Sydney this evening by train in order to join
the P. & O. R.M.S. Malwa, homeward bound, at Adelaide. .

Some of those who left thus early (by this or other routes) had
originally intended to proceed to Brisbane; on the other hand, some
who had intended to visit New Zealand, where the official arrangements
had been abandoned, now desired to be included in the Brisbane party.

22 2

708 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

These eleventh-hour alterations created a difficult situation for the
Executive at Brisbane, but it was ably and generously dealt with.
Members now desiring to be included in the Brisbane party were
allowed, so far as possible, to take the places of those who no longer
desired inclusion, the party (of 182 members) being kept at or about the
total number originally arranged for. Members of the Brisbane Execu-
tive attended at Sydney and worked with the general organisers in
rearranging the party: the allocation of railway accommodation for the
journey north from Sydney had to be recast, and the Brisbane Execu-
tive had in the short time available to make many new dispositions
in regard to guests and hosts, but they were able to distribute complete
Information Lists on the special trains in ample time before Brisbane
was reached. Of that section of the party which did not proceed
to Brisbane some stayed in Sydney or made other independent arrange-
ments; a few, under the informal leadership of Sir E. Rutherford,
F.R.S., visited New Zealand.

Wednesday, August 26.—Some of the Sections met in the morning.

The first special sleeping-car train left for Brisbane at 12.40 and
the second at 1.50 p.m. Dinner was served at Singleton, where the
President and other official Members (travelling on the first train) were
received by the Mayor.

Brisbane, August 27—September 1.

Thursday, August 27.—The trains reached Wallangarra, at the fron-
tier between New South Wales and Queensland, about 7.25 and 8.5 a.m.
respectively. Here breakfast was provided, the Members, at this meal
and luncheon at Toowoomba, being the guests of the Queensland
Government. Tickets for these meals had been distributed on the
trains during the previous day’s journey, together with ribbon-badges
which constituted free passes over the tramways in Brisbane. A
break of gauge occurs at Wallangarra, the Queensland Government
lines being of 3 ft. 6in. gauge. Members continued their journey from
this point in two special trains, which reached Brisbane at 5.33 and
6.15 p.m. respectively. The party was accompanied from Wallangarra
to Toowoomba by the General Traffic Manager at Toowoomba, and
thenceforward by the Deputy Commissioner for Railways. The Deputy
Mayor of Toowoomba (Mr. T. A. Price) welcomed official Members
as the first train passed. By the courtesy of the railway officials,
the second train made two short stops, enabling passengers to alight
while passing through the fine scenery of the ranges near Toowoomba.

Friday, August 28.—The Reception Room was established in the
former Government House, now occupied by the University.

At 10 a.m. in the Albert Hall Mr. A. D. Hall, F.R.S., delivered
the second part of his Presidential Address to Section M (Agriculture),
dealing in particular with tropical agriculture, and at 11.30 a.m. in the
same place Professor E. W. Brown, F.R.S., Vice-President of Sec-
tion A (Mathematics and Physics), delivered an address in the Depart-
ment of Cosmical Physics.

In the afternoon some of the official and other leading Members were

709

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING.

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710 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

entertained to luncheon by the Senate of the University. Mr. R. H-
Roe, M.A., Vice-Chancellor, was in the chair, and the President,
Professor Bateson, expressed the thanks of the Members. Opportunity
was given for short excursions through Brisbane by tram-car. The
Worshipful the Mayor held a Civic Reception in Bowen Park.

A small party left Brisbane for Dulacca (returning on the following
Sunday evening) to inspect the experiments being conducted there by
Dr. Jean White for the extermination of the prickly pear.

In the evening, at 8.30, discourses were given in the Centennial
Hall by Professor H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S., on ‘The Materials
of Life,’ and in the Albert Hall by Professor G. W. O. Howe on
‘ Wireless Telegraphy.’ At the first the President was in the chair.
Professor Armstrong discussed the part played by chemistry in the
investigation of his subject, and showed how simpler compe nds of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen were built up into the more
complicated substances found in the plant; he then traced the breaking
up of these in digestion and the further formation from simpler sub-
stances of the more complex materials of the animal’s body. Professor
B. D. Steele proposed a vote of thanks. :

Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., presided at the discourse by Professor
Howe, who, after explaining the principles of the subject, traced their
practical application in the development of the various systems of wire-
less telegraphy. A number of lantern slides were shown, illustrating
the construction of modern high-power stations. Sir A. Cowley pro-
posed, and Professor Luigi Luiggi seconded, a vote of thanks to the
lecturer.

Salurday, August 29, was devoted to excursions. Opportunity was
afforded for visits to the Ipswich railway workshops and the vicinity
of the town; to Nambour and the Blackall Range (an excursion
arranged for and taken advantage of by a large party, amounting to
some two-thirds of the visiting Members); to the Glass House Moun-
tains, to visit which a small party left the special train to Nambour and
proceeded on foot to the summit of Mount Ngun Ngun and to the
bottom of the cliffs on Mount Crookneck, rejoining the special train on
its return; through the Cleveland district, south of the Brisbane River,
and to Mount Coot-tha, a view-point within the metropolitan area.
At Nambour the Moreton Central Sugar Mill was inspected, and at
luncheon the visitors were welcomed by the Mayor of Nambour and
the Maroochy Shire Council. The Range and the Maroochy river were
subsequently visited, and tea was served on the return to Nambour.
A longer excursion undertaken by some of the Members was that to
Gympie Goldfield, the party being the guests of the Corporation of
Gympie, and returning to Brisbane on Sunday morning.

Sunday, August 30.—As elsewhere, no official arrangements were
made for the Sunday. At night, however, a few members left for
Mount Morgan Gold and Copper Mine (420 miles from Brisbane), an
excursion which lasted until Thursday morning, September 3.

Monday, August 31.—In the morning an excursion was made by
steamer down the Brisbane River to the meat-works situated thereon.

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. “1l

In the afternoon the Hon. the Premier of Queensland gave a garden
party in the University grounds. In the evening, at 8 p.m., Dr. A. C.
Haddon delivered a Citizens’ Lecture, in the Exhibition Hall, on
‘ Decorative Art in Papua,’ the Mayor of Brisbane presiding.

At 8.30 p.m., in the Centennial Hall, Sir Edward Schafer, F.R.S.,
ex-President, delivered a concluding discourse on ‘ Australia and the
British Association.’ In the course of his lecture, which was of a
valedictory character, he drew a comparison between the inhospitable
conditions encountered by James Cook when he led the first scientific
expedition on board the Endeavour from Great Britain to the shores of
Australia, and the conditions of high civilisation and the warm welcome
which the visiting Members of the British Association found. He
briefly traced the history of the Association, and showed how the
advancement of science, which is its object, had rendered the visit
to Australia possible. He dealt with the need for encouraging scientific
research, with especial regard to the possibilities of the future in
Australia. The President took the chair, and the Lieutenant-Governor
of Queensland (Sir Arthur Morgan) and Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., pro-
posed and seconded a vote of thanks to the lecturer. Both the Presi-
dent and Sir Oliver Lodge took occasion to express the deep gratitude
felt by every visiting Member for the magnificent reception accorded
to the party throughout Australia, and for the unremitting labour by
which the many residents in Australia who had been concerned in the
organisation of the Meeting had ensured its success; in this connection
the speakers paid an especial tribute to the work of the General
Organising Secretary, Dr. A. C. D. Rivett, and Mrs. Rivett.

Letter to the Australian Press.—On the conclusion of the Meeting
the following letter was addressed to the Press in Perth, Adelaide,
Melbourne, Sydney, and Brisbane :—

Mo the BiGditor Older yes saseeeececes

Sir,—The meetings of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science in Australia, at the five capital cities of Perth, Adelaide,
Melbourne, Sydney, and Brisbane, have been brought to a close, and
we desire, before leaving the country, to make public expression of our
gratitude to the people of the Commonwealth, on behalf, as we feel
confident that we may, of the whole party of some three hundred
members who have made the journey from overseas.

From the moment when the invitation to hold our meetings here
was extended to the general committee of the Association at the
Sheffield meeting in 1910, by Sir George Reid, on behalf of the
Commonwealth Government and Professor Orme Masson, Chairman of
the Federal Council, we have met with nothing but goodwill and
earnest collaboration from all the authorities which have been concerned
in the arrangements made for our visit and meetings. The Common-
wealth Government placed a large sum at the disposal of our Council
as a contribution towards the expenses incurred by upwards of
150 of our members in making the voyage. The Governments of the

(le NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

various States have contributed freely towards the expenses involved
by the very elaborate and complete arrangements made locally for the
meetings, and have, moreover, provided each overseas member with a
pass over their railway systems covering a period of six weeks, while
their Railways Commissioners have made admirable provision for the
transport of our large party between the different centres of meeting,
and in connection with excursions during our stay at these centres.
Moreover, in dealing with many intricate details of or ganisation, both
before and during the meeting, we have been always ‘able to rely on
the cordial advice and help of representatives of the Government both
in this country and at home. The establishment of a central office for
the purposes of organisation in Australia, in the Commonwealth Govern-
ment buildings in Melbourne, under the conduct of Dr. A. C. D. Rivett,
has proved to be the wisest method of ensuring constant and thorough
collaboration with our own permanent office in "London during the past
eighteen months, and between the many authorities in Australia, and
has cuaranteed that uniformity of organising work in the various centres
which has contributed so largely to ‘the successful working of the meet-
ing as a whole. The Universities in the five centres have placed their
buildings unreservedly at the services of the Association, and municipal
and other authorities owning buildings have been no less generous.

To all those of our polleeues oan helpers in Austral; who as
chairmen or members of the Federal Council, general committees,
executive committees, and hospitality committees, as local secretaries
and treasurers, as organisers of excursions, information stewards,
assistants in the reception rooms, or in other capacities, official and
unofficial, have freely taken upon themselves labours, often arduous
and prolonged, in connection with the meeting, we venture to offer
this general expression of our heartfelt thanks; we cannot hope to do
justice in every case to individual effort. The hospitality, both private
and public, which has been extended to visitors throughout the’ journey
has exceeded any possible expectation.

Finally, we desire to acknowledge very gratefully the extraordinary
public interest which has been aroused in the proceedings of the meet-
ing, and, moreover, has been maintained in face of the lamentable
events which have occurred in Europe during our stay here. A prac-
tical illustration of that interest is afforded by the fact that a much
greater number of members has been enrolled for this Australian meet-
ing than for any previous meeting in the history of the Association.
The importance of a large local membership to the interests and
advancement of science, which is the sole object of the Association, has
already been explained, and is clearly very well understood, in Australia.
We need not labour the point, but may conclude by assuring the people
of Australia that the announcement of a grand total for the meetings, in
all centres, of more than 4,700 members‘ forms, in our view, a fitting

4 The exact number of Overseas Members and local Members and Associates
was 4,930. The local enrolment was made up as follows—Adelaide, 599; Mel-
bourne, 2,017; Sydney, 1,780; Brisbane, 234.

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 713

climax to a meeting of unparalleled interest to the visitors, and, we
venture to hope, of value to the country in which it has been held.-
We are, Sir, Yours, &c.,
W. Bateson, President,
JOHN Prrry, General Treasurer,
a _ s Tere \ General Secretaries,

O. J. R. Howarrtn, Assistant Secretary.
British Association for the Advancement of Science, Sept. 3.

Homeward Voyage.—-After the conclusion of the Brisbane session
the party became further divided. Of nearly 100 members who did
not immediately return south about forty waited in Brisbane for the
Burns Philp s.s. Montoro, which sailed on September 3 for Northern
Queensland, Java, and Singapore. Others made various individual
arrangements. A party of 88, however, was conveyed south by a
special train leaving Brisbane on September 1 at 8.30 a.m., and reach-
ing Wallangarra in the evening, where members were transferred to a
special sleeping-car train, which reached Sydney shortly after noon on
September 2. Beyond this point no further special transport arrange-
ments were required. Sixty-three of the Members sailed from Australia
on the P. & O. R.M.S. Morea, which left Sydney on September 5,
Melbourne on September 8, and Adelaide on September 10, but these
members made individual arrangements as to joining the ship, and
some did so at each of the three ports named.

Visit to Tasmania.—A party of twenty-one Members, under the
leadership of Professor T. Thomson Flynn, visited Tasmania, leaving
Melbourne by the s.s. Loongana on September 5, and arriving at
Launceston on September 6. At Launceston the Museum and the
Cataract Gorge were visited, and on September 7 the party proceeded
to Hobart by rail. On September 8 receptions were held at the Town
Hall, the Museum, and the University, and an official luncheon at
Government House was given by His Excellency the Governor of
Tasmania, Sir W. Ellison-Macartney, and Lady Ellison-Macartney.
In the evening Dr. G. T. Moody lectured on ‘ Some Commercial Aspects
of Education.’ On September 9 Mount Wellington was visited, and
on September 10 several other excursions took place in the neighbour-
hood of Hobart. On September 11 the party proceeded to Maria Island
on the east coast, where geological, zoological, and botanical collections
were made and dredging was carried out in the neighbouring sea. On
September 13 the kitchen middens at Little Swan Port were explored,
and the party returned to Hobart, the principal part of the programme
having been completed. The zoologists, however, remained, and
Professor Dendy gave an address to the Royal Society of Tasmania on
‘ Progressive Evolution.” Dr. W. M. Tattersall gave a public lecture
on *‘ The Depths of the Sea.’ On September 16 the zoological party
proceeded to the Great Lake and carried out collecting in the lake and
its neighbourhood, returning to Hobart on September 22.

714 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

Table of Distances.—The following approximate figures may be of

interest :—
England [London] to :— Statute Miles.

Adelaide via Suez (all sea) 12,740

Do., overland to Mediterranean 11,700

Adelaide via South Africa 13,895
England [Liverpool] to :—

Sydney via Vancouver 14,529
Fremantle-Adelaide (sea) 1,356
Adelaide-Melbourne (rail) 483
Melbourne-Sydney (rail) 5824

725

Sydney-Brisbane (rail) : :
The weather was fine practically finstahout the meeting.

Noves on Screntiric Work IN AUSTRALIA.

Throughout the sessions in the various centres, in addition to the
official meetings and excursions, special meetings, discussions and
expeditions, informal as well as formal, were arranged by local men of
science for particular groups in the Overseas Party. On such occa-
sions (among which may be included the visits paid to University
laboratories, museums and other institutions by many of the party)
problems for investigation were pointed out and plans for future
research were suggested, of value to hosts and guests alike, and it is
not improbable that some of these informal conferences may have as
great a direct effect upon the advancement of Science in Australia as
the more public Meetings of the Association. As the Report volume
does not elsewhere offer any occasion to indicate the work done in these
directions, a summary may be given here, with reference to the Sec-
tions whose interests were specially concerned. The list of Research
Committees appointed on the recommendation of the Committee of
Recommendations meeting at Sydney will show that in many depart-
ments of Science, under several Sections, important suggestions for
research were given effect.

In Section A, owing to the unfortunate absence through ill-health
of the President, Professor Trouton, his address was read by Professor
A. W. Porter. The attendance at the Sectional Meetings was good at
both Melbourne and Sydney ; and specially large audiences gathered to
hear the discussions on ‘Atoms and Molecules’ (jointly ° * with Sec-
tion B: opened by Sir E. Rutherford, followed by Professors Pope,
ous Kerr Grant, Hicks, and others, with Sir O. Lodge in the
chair), on ‘ Antarctic Meteorology ’ (opened by Dr. Simpson, followed
by Canta Davis, Mr. Gold, and others), and on ‘ Wireless Telegraphy ’
(opened by Sir O. Lodge). Sir E. Rutherford’s paper was also of
special interest. A paper by Mr. Baracchi, Government Astronomer
of Victoria, on the proposed site for a Solar Observatory on Mount
Stromlo was of particular interest to the Astronomers, and the Prime
Minister of the Commonwealth (Mr. Cook) received a deputation * of

°'The Astronomer Royal, Professors ‘Turner, Eddington, Duffield, and
Nicholson, Mr. C. G. Abbot, of Washington, Sir Oliver Lodge, introduced
by Professor Masson. Mr. Deakin and Mr. Hunt, Government Meteorologist,
were also present.

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 715

astronomers and physicists on this project, and accorded them a favour-
able hearing. In Sydney the local branch of the British Astronomical
Association requested, through the President, Dr. Roseby, a visit from
the Astronomers ; and the Astronomer Royal, Professors E. W. Brown,
Eddington, Nicholson and Turner and Mr. C. G. Abbot attended and
addressed the meeting. The Sydney branch of the Mathematical Asso-
ciation also invited some visiting mathematicians to address them ;
Professors Perry and Turner responded to Professor Carslaw’s invita-
tion. The different State observatories (Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne
and Sydney) and Mr. Tebbutt’s private observatory at Windsor,

N.S.W., were all visited by several astronomers, and as a result of
friendly discussion of problems and difficulties, invited by the directors
of the observatories, several memoranda were drawn up by the visitors.

The geologists of the party in Western Australia, under the local
guidance “of Professor W oolnough, visited the Irwin River to examine
the Permo-Carboniferous clacial beds, marine beds and coal measures,
the Darling Ranges to see the crush-conglomerates of Pre-Cambrian
age, the Stirling “Ranges with their highly contorted quartzites of un-
known age, and finally the goldfields of Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie. At
the time of the Adelaide meeting a party of geologists and chemists
visited Port Pirie and Broken Hill for the purpose of seeing the occur-
rence of the ores and the methods of working and smelting. Another
party at the same time visited the Sturt River to see the Cambrian
elacial beds, and explored the Permo-Carboniferous glacial beds and tle
archeeocyathine limestones of Hallett’s Cove, and ‘finally the granitic
rocks in the neighbourhood of Victor Harbour. From Melbourne the
geologists went to Macedon to examine the alkaline igneous rocks and
to Bacchus Marsh for the Permo-Carboniferous glacial tillites lying
upon striated surfaces of older rocks.

From Sydney there were excursions of both geological and biological
interest to the Blue Mountains, which afforded the geologists an oppor-
tunity of studying the leading features of the geological structure of
New South Wales and the remarkable elevation which this, in common
with many other parts of the Continent, experienced in late Tertiary
or post-Tertiary times. An examination was also made of the Jenolan
Caves, which are typical examples of stalactitic cayes in limestone of
Silurian age, one of the interesting features of which was the remains
of an aboriginal skeleton embedded in the stalagmitic floor. The excur-
sion to West Maitland and Newcastle gave an opportunity of examining
the productive coal measures of the State.

At Brisbane two of the most notable excursions arranged for
geologists were those to the Glass House Mountains, a series of
trachytic voleanic necks rising abruptly from the plain, and to Ipswich
to examine the Trias-Jura coal measures and associated volcanic rocks.

Some of the most noteworthy points that impressed the geologists
from Europe were the remarkable extent on the Australian Continent of
Permo-Carboniferous glaciation, the evidence of comparatively recent
extensive elevation, the well-preserved plains of erosion at different
geological horizons, and the evidences of glaciation as early as the
Cambrian epoch.

716 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

At each centre visited the zoologists of the party were in close touch
with the professor of the subject at the University and other local
workers, and many of the excursions, both those in the official pro-
gramme and others of a more informal character, were arranged so
as to show the visiting specialists as much as possible of the Australian
fauna.

At Perth, in addition to the definitely zoological excursions to the
Yallingup caves and to the Mundaring Weir, Professor Dakin arranged
to take a few of the zoologists to visit points of interest on the Darling
Range, where Peripatus and other important organisms were found.

From Adelaide parties of zoologists made observing and collecting
trips to Lake Alexandrina, Victor Harbour on the coast, the Mount
Lofty Range, and elsewhere, at all of which objects of interest were
seen and much material collected which may lead to research.

At Melbourne the local naturalists arranged several short trips in
the neighbourhood to study the birds and the land fauna generally ;
while at Sydney the excursions were naturally rather of a marine
biological character. Professor Haswell and Dr. S. J. Johnstone
organised a collecting party in Port Jackson in order to explore from a
steam launch the wonderfully rich invertebrate fauna exposed at low
tide in various parts of the harbour.

From Sydney, again, the various excursions to the Blue Mountains
and the Jenolan Caves gave zoologists the opportunity of collecting
such rare and interesting forms as Peripatus and land Planarians and
of seeing many of the characteristic birds and insects of the country ;
and the same may be said of some of the excursions from Brisbane.

At the Museums and University laboratories of Perth, Adelaide,
Melbourne, Sydney, and Brisbane informal discussions and conferences
took place with the Museum Curators and other local naturalists, which
led to the formation of Research Committees or to plans for future
work on Australian problems.

In connection with the marine fauna, the question of more fully
exploring the Australian fisheries was under consideration at several
centres, and it seems probable that a more thorough investigation of
the coastal waters and their contained plankton, by modern oceano-
graphical methods, will be undertaken at an early date. Another out-
come of informal conversations was the resolution brought before the
Committee of Recommendations for adoption by the Council of the
Association welcoming the project to convert a portion of Kangaroo
Island in South Australia into a Government Reserve for the protection
of the fast-disappearing native land fauna.

The facilities given to members of Section E (Geography) to study
on the spot various types of land-forms in Australia were especially
valued by those whose interests lie mainly in physical geography.
Others had the opportunity of observing the influence of geographical
factors, notably temperature and rainfall, upon the more important
forms of economic activity in the country. The visit to Western
Australia and the excursions to Yanco, Bendigo, and Gympie were of
especial interest. Some members took advantage of their stay in the
different capitals to make themselves acquainted with the literature
relating to the discovery and early settlement of the Continent.

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 717

Probably the communication to the Anthropological Section which
will be regarded as of greatest scientific importance was the exposition
by Professors David and Wilson, at Sydney, of the highly mineralised
skull of an Australian man, probably of Pleistocene date. This skull,
which shows certain features in common with that of the Sussex Pilt-
down skull, was found some thirty years ago on the Darling Downs, and
Professor David was fortunately able, on an excursion subsequent to
the Meeting, to find the original discoverer of the skull and obtain exact
particulars as to the locality and mode of occurrence.

Opportunities were given wherever possible to allow the anthro-
pologists to see for themselves the aborigines and their craftsmanship.
Thus, from Adelaide, under the guidance of Professor Stirling, a party
went to Milang on Lake Alexandrina to inspect a number of men,
women, and children from the Mission Station, including some full-
blooded aborigines. These gave displays of dancing, boomerang-
throwing, hut-building, and basket-making, and some of the party
collected information in regard to cat’s-cradle games and native
genealogies.

The anthropological collections in the Museums at Melbourne,
Sydney, Adelaide, Brisbane, and Perth were naturally of great interest,
and under the guidance of the curators and other local anthropologists
there were important discussions and critical examination of specimens
by experts, which will doubtless lead to further research.

In the Melbourne Museum the magnificent collections of Australian
stone implements, especially brought together for the occasion by
Messrs. Kenyon and Mahony, as well as the ceremonial objects collected
by Professor Spencer, were on exhibition during the meeting, and were
the subject of careful examination and discussion. Much of the more
productive scientific work of the anthropologists naturally consisted in
informal conferences with the local workers, and it was hoped that as
one of the results of such consultations it might be possible to obtain
from the Federal Government the assistance which is necessary for the
prosecution of further research in the fast-disappearing cultural anthro.
pology of the tribes in the Northern Territory.

Field-work naturally played a large part in the botanical pro-
gramme. At Perth an extended expedition to Albany, lasting for the
greater part of a week, gave opportunities for studying the characteristic
vegetation of the arid districts of Western Australia. From Adelaide
there were three important excursions arranged specially for botanical
work—one to study the Salicornia Scrub and the mangrove swamps
of the coastal region, one to the Mount Lofty Range to see the fern
gullies and the scrub of the higher levels, and the third to Mannum.

The botanical excursions from Melbourne arranged by Professor
Ewart included one to Emerald for the fern gullies, while a smaller
party went on to visit Dr. MacArthur’s station to inspect the methods
of orchard planting. Another party was taken to Warburton to inspect
a characteristic ‘ big-tree ’ region and study the ecology of the district.

From Sydney, in addition to the excursions to the Blue Mountains
and to the Jenolan Caves district, of great interest to botanists as well
as geologists, there were a number of smaller informal excursions under

718 NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY

the guidance of Professor Lawson to study the botany of the Port
Jackson neighbourhood, including the National Park. Another
important botanical party, under the direction of Mr. Maiden, visited
the Bulli Pass and the Cataract Dam, passing through interesting
country and a rich fern vegetation. Mr. Maiden also conducted the
botanists over the Sydney Botanic Gardens and gave a special exposition
of the Herbarium.

Of special botanical interest was the excursion from Brisbane to
Nambour and the Blackall Ranges, showing sugar-cane cultivation and
many ferns, aerial orchids and other characteristic plants of the upland
gullies.
¢ Before the regular work of the Association began several members
of the Agricultural Section took the opportunity of gaining some
acquaintance with the special conditions of farming prevailing in
Australia.

The chief questions that occupied the attention of the Section both
im session and out of doors were dry farming, irrigation, and the breed-
ing of cereals. In South Australia dry-farming methods were receiving
a searching test because of the prevailing drought. Notwithstanding,
the wheat after fallow showed little sign of flagging, and impressed
everyone by its brilliant green colour. Visits were paid to the Rose-
worthy Experimental Farm in South Australia and the Werribee Farm
in Victoria. At both places experiments were in progress to illustrate
the effects of various cultivations and of taking a fodder crop before
the wheat. This raises one of the most important problems. in
Australian wheat-growing, the maintenance of the fertility of the soil
under continuous cropping. At present it is contended that the system
of alternate wheat and fallow, still more so the rotation of wheat,
stubble grazed by sheep, fallow, does not result in any diminution of
the nitrogen content of the soil. Accurate data, however, are lacking,
and as it is difficult to understand how the normal recuperative actions
in the soil should be sufficient to maintain the stock of nitrogen it is
desirable that this question, fundamental for the future of Australian
farming, should be submitted to rigorous examination. Dry-farming
problems were discussed generally by the President, and in a valuable
paper by Dr. Lyman Briggs, who summarised the extensive investiga-
tions on the water requirements of plants that have recently been
carried out at various stations in the Great Plains of North America.
Several of the points brought out—the comparatively low water require-
ment of the millets and sorghums and the great variation in the water
requirements of various strains of lucerne—are likely to become of
practical value. As regards irrigation, in addition to the discussion at
Melbourne, the Members of the Section visited the small irrigation
colonies on the lower Murray, the colonies at Bacchus Marsh and
Werribee, near Melbourne, and the great Yanco settlement in New
South Wales, where a meeting was also held and papers read. On the
subject of cereal-breeding a fruitful discussion took place in Sydney.
Mr. Beaven brought out the importance of what he terms the migration
factor, not only in determining the yield of a given variety, but also
as a means of picking out the high-yielding varieties among the great

OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING. 719

number of seedlings with which the breeder always has to deal. It was
pointed out that the value of several of Farrer’s wheats must be due
to their high migration factor. Farrer’s work was discussed at some
length, and the President of the Association pointed out how he w orked
on “Mendelian lines in pre-Mendelian days, in that he bred his stocks
from individuals picked out in the second and succeeding generations
of cross-breds.

Dairying is an industry of great importance in Australia, and
received considerable attention in the Section by means of discussions on
milk yields and milk records, and on the current types of milking

machines, without which dairying can hardly be carried on in Aus-
tralia. Some of the members of the Section interested in this side
of the work spent a large proportion of their available time amongst the
dairying in the coastal “districts of New South Wales and Queensland,
and were greatly impressed by the labour-saving devices that have
there been adopted. The problems of wool character and wool inherit-
ance were raised both in the meetings and in the field, and though it
will be long before so complex a character is brought under control,
the question did receive some elucidation which may serve as a basis
for future work.

The members of the Section owe a particular debt of thanks to the
Agricultural Departments of the various States; in every case special
arrangements were made for them, individually and collectively, so that
each man had the opportunity of seeing the local work in which he was
most interested.

RESOLUTION BY THE COUNCIL.

At the Meeting of the Council of the Association held in London on
November 6, 1914, it was resolved :—

‘ That the Council of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, at its first Meeting in London since the return of Members from
Australia, desires to place on “record its high appreciation of the generous recep-
tion given to the Members of the Overseas. Party throughout the Commonwealth
by representatives of the Governments of the Commonwealth and the States,
and by other authorities and Australian citizens generally, on the occasion of
the Meeting of the Association in Australia in 1914. The Council hereby
expresses its grateful thanks for the hospitality, privileges and concessions
extended so freely to visiting Members, and also for the willing and valuable
collaboration of all those who undertook so successfully the work of organisation
in Australia in connection with the Meeting.’

720 VISIT OF MEMBERS TO HAVRE.

VISIT OF MEMBERS OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION TO
THE MEETING OF L’ASSOCIATION FRANCAISE POUR
L’AVANCEMENT DES SCIENCES, LE HAVRE, 1914.

It was reported to the Council in November 1912 that a letter had
been received from Dr. A. Loir, Director of the Bureau d’Hygiéne, of
Havre, and Local Secretary for the Meeting of L’Association Frangaise
pour l’'Avancement des Sciences in Havre in 1914, intimating that that
Association and the municipality of Havre desired to invite as guests
leading Members of the British Association who might not be attending
the Meeting in Australia, and that all Members not attending that
Meeting would be welcomed at the Meeting of the French Association ;
also proposing that the Conference of Delegates should meet in Havre.
Information had also been received from Dr. Loir that a Local Com-
mittee, including some of the principal British residents in Havre, had
been formed for the reception of Members of the British Association if
the above invitation were accepted. The Council resolved that the
invitation be cordially accepted, in general terms, and that details of the
arrangements be left in the hands of the President and General Officers,
with the assistance of the following Committee: Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. Vernon Harcourt, and Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell. The Committee
was empowered to add to its number.

It was decided in 1913, after discussion by the Corresponding
Societies Committee, the Conference of Delegates at the Birmingham
Meeting, the General Committee and the Council, that the Conference
of Delegates should meet at Havre in 1914.

Report to the Council of the British Association of the Committee for
the Havre Meeting of l’Association Francaise pour l’Avancement des.
Sciences.

The Committee have to report that the Havre Meeting of the Association
Frangaise pour l’Avancement des Sciences was held at Le Havre from the
27th to the 31st of July. Owing to the political situation it was found neces-
sary to curtail the duration of the Meeting somewhat.

About forty Members and Associates of the British Association attended, and
received a most cordial reception from their French confréres; several of them
were also very hospitably entertained during the Meeting.

The final list of delegate officials from the British Association was as
follows :—

Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., Premier Delegate.

Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B.

Dr. J. G. Garson, Chairman of the Havre Committee.

Dr. F. A. Bather, D.Sc., F.R.S., Delegate of the Museums Association.
Professor A. H. Reginald Buller, Ph.D., University of Manitoba.

At the General Inaugural Meeting Sir William Ramsay gave an eloquent
address in French, which was much appreciated by the audience.

Two meetings of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies were
held; the first under the presidency of Sir Edward Brabrook, who in the absence

VISIT OF MEMBERS TO HAVRE. 721

of Sir George Fordham, the Chairman of the Conference, read the address
prepared by the latter. The ordinary business of the Conference was proceeded
with. The second Conference was held under the presidency of M. Ray, and the
organisation of French societies was discussed.

At the concluding general meeting Sir William Ramsay again addressed the
meeting, and returned thanks on behalf of the Members of the British Association.

Several papers were contributed to the proceedings of Sections by Members
of the British Association. An important discussion took place on ‘ Units of
Measure,’ and the question was asked whether the British Association would be
willing to consider the matter and co-operate with the French Association.

No report of the Havre Meeting would be complete without allusion to the
splendid work done in connection with it by Dr. Loir, the Local Secretary. To
him the British Association visitors are very greatly indebted for his attention
to their welfare and assistance during their stay at Havre.

The Committee also gratefully acknowledge the assistance and attention to
the Members and Associates by H.B.M. Consul at Havre, Mr. C. V. Churchill.

The best thanks of the Association are due to Sir William Ramsay for his
services as spokesman and the efficient manner in which he discharged the duties
of premier delegate.

The Committee recommend that the thanks of the British Association should
be formally transmitted to the French Association for this opportunity of
friendly and fraternal co-operation between the scientific men of both countries,
and to Professor Gautier, the President, M. Jules Siegfried, Deputy, the
Maire of Havre, and Dr. Loir.

The above recommendations were carried out by order of the Council.

1914. 3 A

722 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. W. WurtakeR (Chairman), Mr. WILFRED
Marx Wess (Secretary), Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Hpwarp
BRABROOK, Sir H. G. ForpuHam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal
EK. H. Grirrirus, Dr. A. C. Happon, Mr. T. V. Honmgs,
Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. A. I. Lewis; Rev. T™ BR. RB.
STEBBING, and the PRESIDENT and GENERAL OFFICERS.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue Committee recommends that the Museums Association should be
made an Affiliated Society.

Sir George Fordham has promised to preside at the Conference of
Delegates to be held at Havre at the invitation of the French Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, and to give an Address on ‘ The
History of the Endeavour to Co-ordinate the Work of Local Scientific
Societies in Great Britain.’

The Committee recommends that the following subjects should be
discussed at the Conference :—

‘Local Natural History Societies and their Publications,’ and ‘ The
Question of the Compilation of an Index to the latter.’ The first sug-
gested by the Hertfordshire Natural History Society, to be introduced
by Mr. John Hopkinson, and the second to be discussed by Mr. William
Cole and Mr. Henry Whitehead on behalf of the Essex Field Club.

The Committee wishes to express its thanks to Mr. W. P. D.
Stebbing for his services as Secretary, which he has had to relinquish
owing to his absence abroad. The Committee asks to be reappointed,
and applies for a grant of 25].

Report of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies
held at Havre on Tuesday, July 28, 1914, by invitation of the
Association Francaise pour l’Avancement des Sciences.

Chairman.—Sir Grorce Forpuam, J.P., D.L.
Vice-Chairman.—Sir Epwarp BraBrook, C.B., Dir.S.A.
Secretary.—WiuLFRED Marx Wess, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.

In the absence of Sir George Fordham, Sir Edward Brabrook, the Vice-
Chairman, presided, and the Corresponding Societies Committee was represented
by Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. John Hopkinson, and the Secretary, Mr. Wilfred
Mark Webb. There were also present several Members of the British Asso-
ciation, other than delegates, as well as representatives of the French Associa-
tion, including Dr. Loir, the Local Secretary.

Sir Epwarp BraBrook thanked the French Association for the Advancement

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 723

of Science for having invited the Conference of Delegates to meet at H
then proceeded to read the Chairman’s Address on = Dra

The History of the Endeavour to Co-ordinate the Work of Local
Scientific Societies in Great Britain.

More than thirty years have now elapsed from the period when an attempt
was first made to group the local scientific societies of Great Britain and Ive-
land round the British Association, and to co-ordinate their work of local
research and investigation on settled lines with that of the Association. It is
possibly, therefore, an appropriate time for reviewing shortly, in the form of a
presidential address, the results of this movement, and the success it has
achieved. The initiative in this matter is due to Mr. John Hopkinson, then as
now the moving spirit of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society, who, in a
letter printed in ‘ Nature’ on August 5, 1880, suggested a Conference of officials
and annual delegates of local scientific societies during the meetings of the
British Association. Such a meeting, small and informal, was held during the
British Association week at Swansea; in August 16380, when twelve representa-
tives were present from nine societies. Mr. Hopkinson was chairman of the
meeting, and the following resolutions were adopted: That this Conference
recommends that at future meetings of the British Association the delegates
from the various scientific societies should meet with the view of promoting
the best interests of the Association and of the several societies represented ;
that Mr. Hopkinson and Mr. H. George Fordham be a Committee to carry out
the views expressed at this Conference, and report to the Conference of Dele-
gates to be held at York in 1881, in accordance with the foregoing resolution.

In the result, four successive annual conferences were held: at York (1881),
at Southampton (1882), at Southport (1883), and at Montreal (1884). They
were arranged by a small Committee, and the expenses were met by contributions
to a fund formed for the purpose by the delegates themselves. The interest in
this movement was a growing one, and at the meeting in Montreal thirty-eight
societies were represented by thirty-one delegates. During the five years of
voluntary activity in this matter—to 1884—many circulars and notices were
printed and issued to societies, and representations were made to the British
Association itself in furtherance of the idea of co-operation upon which these
preliminary Conferences were based. The minutes of these early Conferences
and the discussions and reports they include, with some manuscript addition,
as the copies now in my hands have been completed, make up twenty-two pages
of octavo. In similar form a ‘circular referring to subjects recommended for
investigation by local scientific societies’ issued by their Committee runs to eight
pages. These thirty pages of print and manuscript contain a great many in-
teresting discussions and many valuable suggestions, and give the summarised
history of the movement in its early and unofficial stage.

It would not serve any useful purpose to analyse now these discussions of
the suggestions made, and I do not propose to do so, but it seems well to draw
attention to the effort made in the period 1880-1884, and to found upon it as the
historical basis of what has been since developed.

The first stage of the official activity of the British Association in connection
with local scientific work and organisation was naturally one of inquiry. An
investigation was set on foot through a Committee of the Association appointed
in 1882 and reporting in the following year on the lines of what had already
been done unofficially, in order to obtain exact and complete knowledge of the
number of scientific societies in the United Kingdom which could be properly
classified as ‘local,’ their constitutions, the number of their members, and their
objects, and in particular of the character, form, and frequency of their
publications. It turned out to be an exceedingly tiresome one, but in the end
the number of societies of a local character of sufficient consequence and
stability to warrant their being recorded in the list prepared, was found to
be about 190, as to which the information obtained was grouped in eight
columns. The following paragraphs from the report of 1883 may be recalled :
“The local societies differ widely in character. Those which are established
in large towns, and are not particularly well situated for carrying on systematic

3A 2

724 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.,

local investigations, are often of high scientific rank, and their affairs are
administered in a business-like manner by a regular staff. On the other
hand, there are numerous smaller societies and field clubs, scattered over the
country, which are excellently situated for conducting local investigations,
and are in many cases doing valuable work, but of which so little is generally
known that it has often been difficult to discover their official addresses.
In some parts of the country the smaller societies either group themselves
into what is practically a federation, or else affiliate themselves to some
large society in their district, and the Committee think that if the local societies
could more generally be induced to group themselves round what might be
described as local sub-centres, it would not be difficult to devise methods of
uniting the representatives of those sub-centres in the performance of interest-
ing and important duties during the meetings of the British Association, with
the final effect of establishing systematical local investigation throughout the
country, and uniformity in the modes of publishing the results. The recom-
mendations of the Committee will tend wholly in this direction, because,
although they have considered many plans of fulfilling their instructions in a
direct manner, no plan recommends itself to them as superior to this indirect
method in its capacity for producing valuable and durable effects. It can
hardly be doubted that numerous systematic investigations of a local character
will continue to be carried on, and that their successful prosecution would
result in important gains to science. Neither does it appear doubtful that the
successful prosecution of such investigations by the smaller local societies would
be greatly encouraged and facilitated by the general interest shown in their
work by the more influential societies in their neighbourhood, by a watchful
oversight, a readiness to discuss and publish results, and by the personal in-
fluence of their leading members. The Committee offer the recommendations
they are about to make in the trust that they will serve to remind the more
important local societies of the high and useful function they are able to per-
form by entering into friendly and helpful relations with the small and scat-
tered societies of the respective districts, and by offering themselves as their
scientific representatives wherever representations may be necessary.’
Subsequently, at a meeting of the General Committee of the Association held

in London, on November 11, 1884 (by adjournment from Montreal), Rules
proposed by the Council, upon the recommendations of the Committee of
1882-3 were finally adopted, and incorporated with the Rules of the Asso-_
ciation. In accordance with the new rules a ‘ Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee,’ consisting of (as then printed): Mr. F. Galton (Chairman), Professor
Williamson, Captain D. Galton, Sir J. D. Hooker, Professor Flower, Professor
Boyd Dawkins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr. Garson, Mr. J. Evans, Mr. J.
Hopkinson, Mr. Meldola, Mr. Whitaker, Mr. Symons, and Mr. Fordham
(Secretary), was appointed by the Council, and thereafter the whole of the work
previously carried on, or attempted, by a voluntary body became a part of the
official machinery of the Association, and the history of the official relations
of the British Association and local scientific societies is found in successive
annual reports of the Corresponding Societies Committee. These commence in
1885. In that year the Committee publish the first list of societies recom-
mended by them for admission to the Roll of Corresponding Societies, 39 in
number, a selection from amongst 52 applications. They also issue an Index
List of Papers published during the previous year by these societies, arranged
in groups according to the subjects referred to the various sections of the
Association. The Index List in this form has been continued to the present
time. In the Report for the following year (1886) are incorporated the proceed-
ings and a report of the discussions which took place in the two Conferences of
Delegates held during the meeting of the Association. The form of publication
of this Annual Report and of the matter it contains has been since followed
systematically. It would be impossible to summarise the whole series of these
Reports within any reasonable compass, but some salient points may be noticed,
As regards the number of societies officially associated with the British Associa-
tion and the work it carries on the following figures may be given. In 1886
the societies which nominated delegates for the Conference numbered only 24; in.
the following year they were 32. At the end of the first decade, in 1896, they had

-~]
~)

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 25
risen to 49. In 1906, when an additional class of corresponding societies had
been created, they rose again to 72. In 1912 and 1913, when only those
delegates who were present at a Conference were recorded, with the societies
they represented, the figures are 52 and 55 respectively. This shows actually
a progressive improvement throughout the whole period in the interest taken
in the annual Conference and its work. In the same period the list of
societies enrolled under the rules as Corresponding Societies is: in 1886, 36; in
1887, 38; in 1896, 66; in 1906, 80; in 1912 and 1913, 114 and 107. Thus the
system set up in 1884, as since modified from time to time, seems to have
obtained at least the success of an increasing numerical support for the idea
of co-ordination of local scientific work through such a central body as the
British Association. As regards the discussions at the Conferences and the
various suggestions made, as well as the work done centrally in the endeavour to
promote the co-ordinated activity of local societies, one is struck in reading
through the annual Reports, as published from 1886 onwards, with their great
value and interest. In every form, and with all possible suggestions, and a
mass of valuable practical knowledge, those discussions have been carried
on through the whole period. If the fruits of this consideration of the possi-
bilities of the case had been at all in proportion to the labour and ability
bestowed on the elucidation of the various subjects discussed, the advance in
the utility to science of the local societies would be very great indeed. In 1904
the Chairman of the Conference, in reviewing the situation at that date,
remarked that the results of the labours of the Conferences of the Delegates of
Corresponding Societies ‘have scarcely been commensurable with the expectations
of those who instituted this body, or with the possibilities of the situation.’
Now, ten years later, and speaking as one of those who took part in the creative
stage of the present system, I am obliged to adopt the same opinion. It is
certain that this system has been built up with care, and with a cordial desire
to make it an efficient and helpful machine for the purposes contemplated so far
as the officers of the British Association are concerned, and with the active and
zealous assistance of the members of the Corresponding Societies Committee.
It seems equally clear that, scattered throughout the membership of the local
societies, are a considerable number of persons who have welcomed the efforts of
the British Association in this direction, and have done their best to support
them from the side of their societies. From the very beginning the weakness of
the secretarial staff of the local societies has apparently been the difficulty in
the way of success. It is hard to see how this difficulty can be got over. It is
probable that here and there the local work of societies has been directed and
stimulated, chiefly, no doubt, through the personal action of the delegates
themselves.

Having regard to the value of many of the addresses and communications
submitted to the annual Conferences, covering as they do the whole ground of
the possible useful activity of local societies, it would seem almost worth con-
sidering whether the publication of a selection from these materials, grouped in
some systematic form, could not be undertaken, so as to create a kind of code for
the guidance of local societies in their activity.

One very valuable and important work carried on in connection with the
grouping of Corresponding Societies is that of the compilation of an annual
Index List of their scientific publications. I endorse the observations on this
point which are to be found in the Report of the Corresponding Societies
Committee for 1898: ‘As the great majority of the societies, the main purpose
of whose existence is local scientific investigation, are now on the list of
Corresponding Societies, the Index of their most important papers approximates
to completeness more and more each year as a record of local work.’ Whatever
else may happen, it is to be hoped that this annual List may continue to be
prepared and published by the British Association.

IT am far from thinking that the attention called to the relations of local
societies to general scientific work during the long series of meetings held since
1882 has been useless or ineffective. I believe that in general much good has
been done throughout the country, and I am sure there is much yet to do in
this direction.

Dr. J. G. Garson said that since the Conference had been officially recognised

726 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

he had been Chairman twice, and had held the office of Secretary. He
endorsed Sir George Fordham’s opinion with regard to secretaries. He thought
that honorary work was badly done, and that the duties which secretaries of
societies were called upon to carry out should be divided.

Mr. T. Suepparp (Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union) proposed that the Confer-
ence send its best thanks to Sir George Fordham for his Address, which seemed
a useful summary of the work of the Conference of Delegates.

On one point he wished to join issue with Dr. J. G. Garson, who had stated
that honorary secretaries were usually bad secretaries. He knew of several,
both paid and honorary, and his experience was usually not in favour of the
paid official. He certainly found that an honorary secretary was enthusiastic,
and had his heart and soul in the work, and worked well; while, as soon as
he received a payment, his duties savoured of ‘ work, and he lost interest in
them. In the room were Mr, John Hopkinson, Mr. Lower Carter, Mr. Mark
Webb, and others, whose work was certainly well known and was honorary.

Principal Wirron Davies (University College, Bangor) seconded the vote
of thanks to Sir George Fordham, and asked whether it was possible for the
committee of a museum to send a Delegate to the Conference of Corresponding
Societies.

The subjects chosen for discussion were (1) ‘ Local Natural Histories and
their Publications,’ (2) ‘The Question of the Compilation of an Index to the
Latter.’ The first was introduced by Mr. John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., in
the following paper entitled :—

Local Natural History Societies and their Publications.

The first essential in opening this discussion is perhaps to define its title so
that the discussion may be neither too diffuse nor too restricted. I use the term
‘Natural History’ in its widest sense, as covering the whole of Nature on,
beneath, and immediately above the surface of our earth, and therefore including
geology and meteorology. The term ‘local’ restricts the inquiry to societies
which are formed to investigate the Natural History of a particular area, such
area in England usually being a county. When the county is large, a number of
local societies, having their own independent organisation, may federate, forming
one composite society such as the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union; and the several
societies in a number of counties may also do so, for example, the South-Eastern
Union of Scientific Societies.

I would therefore restrict the term ‘ Local Natural History Society’ to those
formed to investigate the Natural History of their locality, and no others I
submit have a raison d’étre. How then can this object best be accomplished ?
It would be impossible to form such a society without suitable material; men or
women who study Nature. To bring them together the subscription should not
be high, nor should there be any distinction of class. All naturalists, whatever
their social position may be, should be welcomed and should be invited to bring
before their society the subject of their special study. The next essential is an
efficient secretary, who, besides having the general management of the society,
should study its members, pick out the workers, and induce them to lay the
results of their investigations before the society. At first the result may be
desultory, but in course of time it will probably become more and more systematic.
Thus one member may be induced not only to take meteorological observations
but also to undertake the duty of meteorological recorder, collecting the observa-
tious of others, and in every county or nearly so there is a more or less numerous
army of rainfall observers. Another may act as geological recorder, describing
sections and photographing them, especially those of a temporary nature. Yet
another may be an ornithologist, the camera here again being most useful, and he
should be induced to give to the society an annual report on the birds which not
only has he observed himself, but also including the observations of his corre-
spondents. The most popular of the annual reports of the Recorders of the
Hertfordshire Natural History Society is that of the Recorder of Birds, not only
of our present Recorder, but each one for the last thirty-five years has been so.
In botany an effort should be made to compile a flora of tke county, phanerogamic
and cryptogamic, if there is not one of somewhat recent compilation already in

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 727

existence, and if there be such a flora the duty of the Recorder would be to keep
it up to date by his own observations and those of his correspondents. These are
merely somewhat random examples of what a local society should do. .

In but few localities, however, can such a society entirely rely upon active
workers ; there must be drones in the hive to supply the necessary funds by their
subscriptions and to add to the numbers attending the meetings, and for them it
will be necessary to provide popular lectures, which are now almost invariably
illustrated by lantern-slides. In selecting such lectures regard should be had, so
far as possible, to make them, while entertaining, conducive to serious study, so
that there may be from time to time drafted from the army of drones recruits to
swell the less numerous company of workers. The field meetings should be
designed to investigate some special subject, for instance, the geology, botany, or
some branch of the zoology of a district, under competent guidance, and while
they should never be allowed to degenerate into picnics or mere pleasure parties,
there is no reason why an occasional invitation of hospitality should be refused.

In a fairly large society the workers may be sufficiently numerous to form
sections, each with its Recorder or Secretary, but it is only in very large ones
that the sections should hold meetings to which the members generally are not
admitted.

It is scarcely necessary to add that one of the objects of the Society should be
the formation of a library of works on Natural History, especially of mono-
graphs or books which will enable species to be identified.

These brief remarks may suffice to promulgate a discussion on the general scope
and management of a Local Natural History Society, and I therefore proceed to
the second part of my title, the Publications of such societies. This I will con-
sider, ard I should like to be discussed, entirely from the point of view of a
bibliographer. The question is, therefore : How can the publications be rendered
most useful and most easily referred to and quoted by inquirers on the subjects
of which they treat? The Editors of many, if not of most of the Local Natural
History Societies of the British Isles, appear to strive to make this most difficult.
Therefore I will briefly, and as I have not the time at my disposal to give my
reasons in detail, it may appear dogmatically, lay down certain rules which I
think should be strictly adhered to.

However much or however little is printed in a year, a volume with consecu-
tive pagination, or it may be with two series of pages, one with Arabic numerals
for the transactions or papers published, and the other with small Roman or italic
numerals for the proceedings or accounts of the meetings, should eventually be
produced, and this volume must not be so thin as to tempt two or more being
bound in one, nor so thick as to require its being divided when bound. From
300 to 600 pages is perhaps the greatest latitude which should be allowed to a
volume, but much will depend upon the thickness of the paper and the number of
plates. It is immaterial whether two or more such volumes are produced in a
year, or whether one volume takes several years to complete. This volume must
have a title-page with the date of its completion and place of its publication, a
table of contents at the beginning and an index at the end, and somewhere within
it, that is, not only on the covers of the parts which it comprises, the date of
publication of each part (month and year), with the numbers of the pages of
which each part consists. It can then be ascertained at a glance in what part
any paper appeared and the date of its publication. It is also advisable that
after the table of contents there should be a list of the plates and of the text-
figures, in each case showing their position in the volume.

When authors are supplied with separate copies of their papers the original
pagination must be maintained, and in such copies, not only on their covers, must
be printed the name of the publication, which may be abbreviated, and the
volume, part, and date (month and year). As copies of papers may be cut out of
a volume it is an excellent plan, now adopted in the ‘Transactions of the Hert-
fordshire Natural History Society,’ to print in small type, at the end of each
paper, on the bottom of the page, the above particulars, which need not occupy
more than one line and look best in italics. If that be done, what a bibliographer
requires to know cannot be lost.

There are very few of these conditions, I may perhaps call them rules, which
are generally observed in the publications of our smaller natural history societies.

728 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Many such call their publications ‘Annual Reports.’ They may consist of not
more than one or two sheets octavo (sixteen or thirty-two pages), each Report
being separately paged. It may take ten or twenty to form a volume sufficiently
thick to bind. As usually they have neither table of contents nor index, to ascer-
tain whether a volume thus made up contains a paper on a certain subject nearly
every page has to be turned over. There is as a rule no indication of the date of
issue, and this is also usually the case with the separate parts of more pretentious
publications, which may be called ‘ Journals,’ ‘ Transactions,’ or ‘ Proceedings,”
at least after the covers have been removed, copies without the covers bound in
being then absolutely useless to a bibliographer. Sometimes the index appears
at the beginning, when one naturally looks for it at the end, such index occasion-
ally being called ‘ Contents.’ An index is, of course, alphabetical, and it is
advisable that there should be only one, and not separate indexes of names,
places, and subjects. | Contents should comprise a list of the papers in the
sequence in which they appear in the volume.

There is only one other point to which I desire to call attention, and that is
the nature of the contents of the publications of a Local Natural History
Society. The papers printed should be almost entirely those giving the results
of original work, and, at least in a small society, for the sake of economy, as
little space as possible should be given up to such things as rules and lists of
members. It will usually suffice when a volume, as already defined, extends over
several years, as is frequently the case with a small society, to give such things
once only in each volume. Let me give you examples: one will suffice of the
wrong way and two of the right way, and I may absolve myself from libel if I
do not give the name of the society which transgresses. Its last publication is
called ‘Annual Report and Proceedings.’ It is paged 1-48, not forming part of
a volume. Except on the cover there is no date nor place of publication. Its
chief contents are the Rules and Library Rules; Additions to Museum and
Library ; Financial Statement; Hon. Secretary's, Curator’s, and Sectional Secre-
taries’ Reports; and Lists of Members, past Presidents, and Associated Societies.
The only additions to our knowledge of the Natural History of its locality are
contained in a few pages of the Sectional Secretaries’ Reports. The subscriptions
of its members exceed 2007. per annum.

As examples of what I think should be published I will take the last part of
the ‘ Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society,’ the Society of
which our present Chairman, Sir H. George Fordham, is now President, and the
last part of the ‘Journal of the Hastings and St. Leonards Natural History
Society ’ issued under the main title of the ‘ Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist.’
The Herts Society’s ‘ Transactions’ form Part 3 of Vol. XV., running from
p. 105 to p. 192, and contain the following papers: Mimicry and Protective
Resemblance (being the former President’s Address) ; The Building of a Mille-
pede’s Nest (illustrated) ; Hertfordshire False-scorpions ; Note on the Occurrence
of Palmodictyon viride in Hertfordshire; The Crustacea of West Herts; The
Weather of the year 1912 in Hertfordshire; On some Strata recently exposed in
the Railway Cutting between Oxhey and Pinner; Notes on Birds observed in
Hertfordshire during the year 1912; Hertfordshire Gentians ; Botanical Observa-
tions in Hertfordshire during the years 1911 and 1912; Report on Land and Fresh-
water Mollusca observed in Hertfordshire in 1912; Recent Discoveries of Pre-
historic Horse Remains in the Valley of the Stort (illustrated) ; Witches’ Brooms
on the Beech; The Weight-lifting Powers of Wasps; and Report on the Pheno-
logical Observations in Hertfordshire for the year 1912; with eight pages of
Proceedings, xvii-xxiv. The papers were read between October 1912 and
November 1913, and not one can be taken out without all which a bibliographer
requires to know being on it, for at the bottom of the last page of each paper is
the line 7'rans. Hertfordshire Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. XV., Part 3, May 1914.
The Society is only a small one, the subscriptions of its members scarcely
ere to 507. per annum. It has published an excellent ‘ Flora of Hertford-
shire.’

“The Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist’ runs from p. 91 to p. 142 of
Vol. II. The contents of the part are : Autobiographical Note by the Rev. E. N.
Bloomfield (with portrait) ; Pioneer Work on the Fauna and Flora of the Hastings
District ; Annual Notes on the Local Fauna and Flora ; Note on Mycene Crocata,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 729

Fries; On the Recent Incursion of Waxwings; On the Arrival of Summer
Migratory Birds in the Hastings District, 1893-1913; Rare and Unique Sussex
Oligochets; A Cross-channel current at St. Leonards; and Wealden Floras: an
admirable selection of local papers. There is, however, one slight omission,
that is, a headline to each page, which should give the title, abbreviated when
required, of each paper, and there is one very serious error : the date on the cover
is correctly given as July 14, 1914, but the only date inside, on the first page,
is April 18, 1914, so that were the cover removed that would be assumed to be the
date of publication. There are important new records of species the correct date
of the publication of which is essential, and this antedates them by three months.

I need only add that I shall be pleased to hear any comments on my views.
Though you may think that I have been rather severe in my strictures on those
who unduly augment the labours of a bibliographer, I hope you will admit that I
have been so a bon droit.

The SecReTary announced that no communication had been received from
the Essex Field Club which had suggested the compilation of an index to the
publications of Local Scientific Societies.?

Dr. F. A. Barner (Museums Association) welcomed the practical suggestions
of the author with regard to methods of publication. They were essentially
the same as those made some twenty years ago by a British Association Com-
mittee on Zoological Bibliography and Publication, and distributed widely.
One point, however, was not dealt with by the author, namely, the distribution
of authors’ copies in advance of publication; as to this, practical suggestions made
by the Committee had been adopted by many societies, including eventually
the British Association itself. The proposal to form a general index did not
seem of a value commensurate with the labour. Each volume, of course, should
be indexed, but for the rest the indexes and analytical bibliographies already
being produced (e.g., Zoological Record) should suffice. He would refer dele-
gates to a report on the proper method of making up books recently issued by
the Library Association and reviewed in Zhe Museums Journal.

The CHartrman said he agreed with the author, and would go still further
by suggesting that in all cases a paper should begin on an odd page. He
thought that the publication by local societies of their work would always be
necessary, inasmuch as, for want of space, that work could not be adequately
recorded by central or general societies. He proposed a vote of thanks to Mr.
Hopkinson, which was unanimously accorded.

Mr. T. SHepparp spoke on the question of the publication of a general index,
with some doubt as to its practicability. The work was so very enormous.
With regard to Yorkshire alone, he had been busy with an index now for over
three years, and when completed for the Yorkshire Geological Society it would
probably cost well over 1007. Many societies had already prepared an index
to their publications when they had covered a number of years. These, and the
well-known general indexes, and bibliographies issued from time to time, should
suffice.

Dr. F. A. Batuer regretted that, by the rules of the British Association, a
premium had been placed on the issue of publications, and thought that aid
would be valuable to and valued by the smaller societies, which often did good
work but wisely refrained from needless publication. As for the collection of
publications made by the British Association, it would be of more value to
scientific workers if it could be transferred to the Library of the British Museum
(Natural History), which experienced great difficulty in obtaining very many of
these local reports.

Mr. Joun Hopkinson (Hertfordshire Natural History Society) could not
admit Dr. Garson’s contention that good work was not done gratuitously. He
was familiar with the methods of management of many of our provincial
societies, and could testify to the self-sacrificing devotion of their secretaries
to the duties of their office; some of the best original work was also done by
amateurs, especially in geological investigations. He could assure Dr. Bather
that the British Association did not ignore the smaller non-publishing societies ;

1 A paper by Mr. William Cole, A.L.S., and Mr. Henry Whitehead, B.Sc.,
has since come to hand and is appended.

730 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

for in addition to the Affiliated Societies which publish the results of original
local investigation, there are Associated Societies which need not so publish,
but must consist of at least fifty members, and have been established not less
than three years. The Delegate from an Affiliated Society must be a Member
of the Association, that from an Associated Society may be an Associate, and
although they had not quite the same privileges, all met on equal terms at the
Conferences,

The meeting concluded with a vote of thanks to the Vice-Chairman for

presiding.
A Bibliography of the Publications of Local Scientific Societies.

We venture to place before the Conference some suggestions for a piece of
work which might be undertaken by the Committee of the Conference, on behalf
of the British Association, to the great benefit and encouragement of the numerous
amateur naturalists in the country, and a work which would even be useful to
students and practical workers in science of higher pretensions. It is that a
full bibliography of all papers contained in the Transactions and Journals of
Local Scientific Societies of Great Britain and Ireland should be compiled and
published. The value of such a work has forcibly suggested itself during the
collation and binding up of the extensive series of these publications contained
in the library of the Essex Field Club. It was abundantly evident how much
information, the result of painstaking research, lies practically buried in these
Transactions and Journals, information which cannot be obtained from any other
sources. A classical instance may be mentioned of Mendel’s work lying un-
known for over thirty years.

Methods.—Some suggestions as to methods may be put forward. The
British Association should supply index-slips to each society. The societies
should undertake to catalogue (under Subjects and Authors) by means of such
slips, the more important papers and notes which have been published in their
Journals during the whole course of their existence. In doing this it should be
borne in mind that even short papers may be of great importance as containing
local facts or giving suggestions for future work. And the active officers of
each society would be the best judges of the value of such papers and notes.
The index-slips should then be forwarded to an expert bibliographer appointed
by the British Association.

Each society should also furnish full information as to the titles and mode
of publication of their Journals and other works published by them, together
with notification of such libraries as are known to contain these books.

The bibliography might be published in two forms :—

(1) Ordinary book form printed on both sides of the paper.

(2) Slip-index form.

By means of the second mode of publication each society would be able to
obtain an index of its own publications separately from the complete biblio-
graphy. As many societies have acquired extensive libraries by exchange, such
a bibliography as the one suggested would be an invaluable adjunct to their
catalogue of publications. Each society whose publications are thus indexed
might be asked to subscribe for at least one copy of the bibliography, and
inasmuch as this would serve in many cases as an index catalogue to their own
libraries, doubtless a very considerable number of individual members would
also subscribe. And a great number of public libraries, and libraries of
societies, both here and in America, would also subscribe, so that in all
probability the publication of the bibliography would pay for itself.

Although scientific periodicals other than those published by societies have
been excluded from our scheme, the publishers of important scientific journals
should be approached in order to see if it would be possible to extend the
bibliography in this direction,

We merely put these terse suggestions forward as a basis for future dis-
cussion. The full working out of the scheme could be elaborated later. But
we are fully impressed with the importance and interest of the work.

Wm. Corse, Hon. Secretary and Curator of
the Essex Museum of Nat. Hist.
HENRY WHITEHEAD, Assistant Curator.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. ijt

A number of Corresponding Societies at the invitation of the Committee
kindly sent copies of their publications, which were exhibited during the meeting
of the French Association for the Advancement of Science, and were ‘subsequently
handed over to Dr. Loir.

The following Delegates attended the Conference and signed the attendance
book :—

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society . . . . . «. W. Mark Webb, F.L.S.
Essex Field Club 2 Sie a eee toes en Webby bles:
Glasgow Natural History Society ; . Mrs. Ewing.
Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club John Hopkinson, F.G.S.
Hull Geological Society . : . T. Sheppard, F.G.S.
Hull Scientific and Field Naturalists’ Club . . . T. Sheppard, F.G.S.
London: Quekett Microscopical Club . . . . C.F. Rousselet.
London: Selborne Society . . . . =. . Wz. Mark Webb, F.LS.
Manchester Microscopical Society . . .. . Mark L. Sykes, F.R.M.S.
South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies . . . A.W. Oke, F.G.8.
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union . - . . +. =. YT. Sheppard, F.G.S.

ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.
Balham and District Antiquarian and Natural

History Society . Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B.
Hastings and St. Leonards Natural History Society « George Willson.
Lewisham Antiquarian Society - . Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B.

School Nature Study Union . . . . =. ~~ Wz. Mark Webb, F.L.S.
Watford Camera Club . é : A F ~ John Hopkinson, F.G.8.

Dr. F. A. Bather, F.R.S., representing the Museums Association, also attended
the Conference.

On July 31 Dr. Garson, Mr. Hopkinson, Mr. Rousselet, Mr. Sheppard, and
Mr. Webb attended a joint meeting of the Education Section of the French
Association and the Conference of Delegates of the British Association called
to consider the advisability of instituting a Conference similar to the British one.

Professor Jutien Ray presided.

The following subjects were discussed :—

I. Co-ordination of the Work of Local Societies.

Dr. Lorre explained the arrangements and the objects of the meetings held
in connection with the British Association by the Delegates of Corresponding
Societies.

He asked that the French Societies should be represented on the Council of
the French Association for the Advancement of Science. Up to the present, this
had not been the case. The French Association sent lecturers to the societies.
With the Congress of learned Societies this is not the end in view.

Mr. Horxtinson (Hertfordshire Natural History Society), complying with the
_ request of the President, gave a brief outline of the origin and early history of
the Conferences of Delegates. He said that when he became a member of the
British Association (in 1871) the President of any scientific society publishing
Transactions, or in his absence a Delegate representing him, might claim to be a
member of the General Committee at the meeting he attended, and the names of
those whose claims were admitted, and of their societies, were printed separately
in the list of members. It occurred to him that it might be to the advantage of
the societies, and perhaps also of the Association, if these Delegates could meet
to discuss matters relating chiefly to the management of their societies and the
original work which might usefully be done by them, but as the rule stood if
their Presidents were present their Secretaries could not be Delegates, and it was
most important for the Secretaries to meet. Therefore at the ‘meeting in 1879
he suggested to the Council of the Association the admission, as a member of the
General Committee, of the Secretary of any duly qualified society as well as the
President, and this suggestion being favourably received, a new ‘rule adopting it

Wa2 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

was duly passed. The first Conference was held at Swansea in 1880, and at this
a Committee, consisting of Sir George Fordham and himself, was appointed to
arrange for future Conferences. These were held, unofficially but with the
sanction of the Council, at York in 1881, Southampton in 1882 (when Professor
Meldola was added to the Committee), Southport in 1883,-and Montreal in
1884. After this a Corresponding Societies Committee was officially appointed to
manage the Conferences of Delegates, and the rules were altered, reducing the
number of Delegates from each society to one, who need not be either President
or Secretary of his society.

During the period of the unofficial Conferences, in 1882, a ‘ Circular referring
to Subjects recommended for Investigation by Local Scientific Societies’ was
issued to the Corresponding and other Societies. This included the work of
three Committees of the British Association and three subjects investigated by
other societies or by individuals. In 1890 the Hertfordshire Natural History
Society issued a circular extending that list, but omitting one Committee which
had concluded its labours. This list was as follows :—A. Investigations con-
ducted by Committees of the British Association : 1. Temperature of Surface-
water. 2. Underground Waters. 3. Erosion of Sea-coast. 4. Erratic Boulders.
5. Geological Photography. 6. Disappearance of Native Plants. 7. Fresh-
water Fauna and Flora. 8. Pre-historic Remains. B. Investigations conducted
by other Societies or by Individual Observers: 1. Rainfall. 2. Phenological
Phenomena. 3.-Injurious Insects. 4. Archeological Survey of England. In
each case brief instructions to observers were given, and also the names and
addresses of those to whom the results were to be communicated. This circular,
copies of which were sent to most of our provincial ‘societies, appears to have
done much to direct their attention and their energies into useful channels. He
might add that the Corresponding Societies entered con amore into the project,
each Society or Delegate subscribing 2s, 6d. per annum for the cost of the first
five Conferences, chiefly expended in printing reports of them which were sent
to all the societies.

Mr. Hopkinson then said that he would leave to Dr. Garson the duty of
explaining the organisation of the Conferences of Delegates by the Corresponding
Societies Committee as an official department of the British Association from the
year 1885, and he concluded his remarks with an expression of gratification at
the courteous request of the Association Francaise that we would explain our
methods to them, and the compliment implied by this request.

Dr. Garson then gave some further details supplementing what had been said
by Mr. Hopkinson, and pointing out the advantages derived by the Affiliated
Societies.

Dr. Lorr and Professor Ray: This is the object to be pursued in France ;
we ought to follow the lead of the British Association and report what has been
said at the Conference to the various French Societies.

II. The Question of Units.

Monsieur J. Hennier raised the question with regard to the changes which
were to be made in the French Units.

Dr. Garson spoke of the recent introduction of the metric system in England
into biological and medical investigations.

Mr. Hopxryson said that the British Meteorological Office had recently
adopted the metric system in the publication in the ‘Monthly Weather Report’
of certain meteorological observations. From May 1 this year barometer read-
ings were given in centibars and millibars (to the tenth of a millibar), rainfall
observations in millimetres, and wind velocities in gales in metres per second.

Mr. Witrrep Marx Wess, at the request of the meeting, undertook to ask
the Council of the British Association to give an opinion direct or through the
appropriate Committee on the changes in the French system on receiving details
of the same.

The result of the meeting was that it was decided to arrange a Conference at
the meeting of the French Association in 1915 as nearly as was possible on the
lines of the British one.

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REPORTS

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REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

736

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1914.

738 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

Catalogue of the more important Papers, especially those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by the Corresponding Societies
during the year ending May 31, 1914.

*,* This Catalogue contains only the titles of papers published in the volumes or
parts of the publications of the Corresponding Societies sent to the Secretary of the
Committee in accordance with Rule 2.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. .

Arnsuiz, M. A. A Variation of Cheshire’s Apertometer. ‘Journal Quekett Mic.
Club,’ x11. 287-290. 1914.

Axernourst, 8. C. A Changer for Use with Sub-stage Condensers. ‘ Journal Quekett
Mic. Club,’ xu. 277-278. 1914. ;
Some Observations concerning Sub-stage Illumination. ‘Journal Quekett

Mic. Club,’ x1. 301-308. 1914.

Beattie, Prof. J. C. Further Magnetic Observations in South Africa. ‘Trans.
Royal Soe. of 8. Africa,’ Iv. 9-56. 1914.

True Isogonics, Isoclinals, and Lines of Horizontal Intensity for the North-
Western parts of the Union of South Africa and for part of Great Namaqualand
for the Epoch July 1, 1908. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ rv. 57-63. 1914.

Buitman, H. F. The Weather at Burnopfield during 1908. ‘Trans. Vale of Der-
went Nat. Field Club,’ 1 159-169. 1913.

Burnin, Dr. W. Becxit. Polarized Light. ‘Report Brighton and Hove N. H.
Phil. Soc.’ 1912-13, 7-9. 1913.

CapMan, Prof. Jonun (N. Staffs. Inst. Eng.). Notes on the Effect of Temperature
in Mines in Great Britain. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtv. 509-518. 1913.

Cuant, C. A. An Extraordinary Meteoric Display. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
of Canada,’ vit. 145-215. 1913.

Further Information regarding the Meteoric Display of February 9, 1913.
‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vit. 438-447. 1913.

—— The Motions of the Stars. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vur. 21-35.
1914.

CHESHIRE, FrEDERIC J. Two Simple Apertometers for Dry Lenses. ‘Journal
Quekett Mic. Club,’ x11. 283-286. 1914.

CotuieR, H. B. Meteorites. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vu. 313-322.
1913.

CorNnwaLL Royat PotytEcunic Society. Report of the Observatory Committee.
26 pp. ‘Report Royal Cornwall Poly. Soe.’ 2 (N.s.). 1914.

Craw, James Hewat. Account of Rainfall in Berwickshire—year 1911. ‘ History
Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ xxt. 321. 1913.

Account of Temperature at West Foulden—year 1911. ‘ History Berwick-

shire Nat. Club,’ xx1. 322. 1913.

Account of Rainfall and Temperature in Berwickshire—year 1912. ‘ History
Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ xx1r. 44-45. 1914.

CRESSWELL, ALFRED. Records of Meteorological Observations taken at the Observa-
tory, Edgbaston, 1913. ‘ Birm. and Mid. Inst. Sci. Soc.’ 28 pp. 1914.

Dawson, W. Bett. The Tides of Hudson Bay. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of
Canada,’ vii. 98-107. 1914.

Day, T. Cutuprert. Some Astronomical Problems. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N. Mic.
Soc.’ vir. 38-46. 1913.

Dennina, W. F. Notes on the Great Meteoric Stream of 1913, February 9. ‘ Journal
Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vir. 404-412. 1913.

—— Apparent and Real Size of Meteors. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,
vir. 108-11]. 1914.

Fawcett, THomas. The Boundary Survey between Canada and the United States
East of the Lawrence River. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vit.
323-339. 1913.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 739

Garrert, Dr. J. H. The Climate and Topography of Cheltenham and its near
Neighbourhood. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvi. 137-155. 1913.
Harpy, V. C. Meteorological Observations at Oundle School, 1912. ‘Journal

Northants N. H. Soc.’ xvir. 136. 1913.

Harper, W. E. The Orbit of 88d Tauri. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
vil, 242-245. 1913.

Harvey, Eveanor Beatrice. The Fourth Dimension. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit.
Sci. Soc.’ xt. 5-17. 1913.

Hensnaw, R. Stevenson. Returns of Rainfall in Dorset in 1912. ‘ Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F. C.’ xxxrv. 186-199. 1913.

Hersurn, P. H. The Hampstead Observatory and its Work. ‘South-Eastern
Naturalist for 1913,’ 1-8. 1913.

Hopaxin, Dr. Tuomas. Presidential Address: ‘The Weather. ‘Report Royal
Cornwall Poly. Soc.’ 2 (N.s.), 59-63. 1914.

Hopkinson, JonN. The Weather of the Year 1911 in Hertfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts
N. H. 8. F. C. xv. 33-48. 1913.

The Flowing of the Hertfordshire Bourne. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F. C. xy.
67-70. 1913.

—— The Weather of the Year 1912 in Hertfordshire. ‘ Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F.C
xv. 137-152. 1914.

Innes, R. T. A. Note on the Newcomb Operators used in the Development of
the Perturbative Function. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ m1. 337-339. 1913.

Jack, J. R. The Illumination of Microscopic Objects. ‘Annals Andersonian
Nat. Soc.’ tv. 34-37. 1914.

Jonss, The late CHaRLES. Meteorological Notes for the Year 1912. ‘Trans. Ealing
Sci. Mic. Soc. for 1912-1913,’ x1. 1913.

Kine, W. F. The New Reflecting Telescope for the Dominion Observatory.
‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vir. 216-228. 1913.

Ktorz, Orro. Location of Epicentres for 1912. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of
Canada,’ vir. 229-241. 1913.

—The Undagraph. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vu. 414-419.
1913.

Lawson, Granam C, Meteorological Report. ‘Trans. N. Staffs. F. C2 xiv.
131-138. 1913.

Meteorological Report. ‘Trans. N. Staffs. F. C. xivim. 101-108. 1914.

Lopez, GrorcEe A. (Midland Inst. Eng.) The Effect of Increased Atmospheric
Pressure on the Height of the Gas-cap. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtyv1. 311-316.
1914.

Lucas, Josrpu. Tidal Observations at St. Leonards Pier. ‘ Hastings and East
Sussex Naturalist,’ 11. 56-63. 1913.

McDiarmip, F. A. Errors in Longitude, Latitude, and Azimuth Determina-
tions—I. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vim. 85-97. 1914.

McGratu, Jonn F. A Question of Priority in Originating a very Important Astro-
nomical Method. Rcemer or Horrebow ? ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
vit. 36-40. 1914. .

McLaren, Tuomas. The Construction of a Sundial. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat.
Sci.’ v. 1383-141. 1914.

Marxuam, C. A., and R. H. Prmavesi. Meteorological Report. ‘ Journal Northants
N. H. Soc.’ xv. 45-48, 96-99, 132-133, 145-148. 1913, 1914.

Mavunper, E. Water. Early Astronomy. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for 1913,’
36-60. 1913.

Meyrick, E. Summary and Tables of Meteorological Observations, 1912. ‘ Report
Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 61, 67-76. 1913; No. 62, 49-70. 1914.

Monox, H. 8. The Great Meteor of 9th February, 1913. ‘Journal Royal Astr.
Soc. of Canada,’ vir. 112-116. 1914.

Morris, Joun (N. England Inst. Eng.). Notes on Gob-fires and Blackdamp, &c.
‘Trans. Inst Min. Eng.’ xtvu. 195-203. 1914.

Murr, Dr. Tuomas. Note on an Overlooked Theorem regarding the Product of
Two Determinants of Different Orders. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8S. Africa,’ m1.
271-273. 1913.

Note on Clebsch’s Theorem regarding the Second Set of Jacobians derived from

n +1 Homogeneous Integral Functions of ” Variables. ‘Trans. Royal Soc.

of 8S. Africa,’ mm. 393-397. 1913.

3B2

740 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Netson, Epwarp M. On a New Method of Measuring the Magnifying Power of a
Microscope. ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm. 239-244. 1913.

— An Improved Form of Cheshire’s Apertometer. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’
XII. 281-282. 1914.

—— On the Measurement of the Initial Magnifying Powers of Objectives. ‘ Journal
Quekett Mic. Club,’ x1. 295-300. 1914.

NeEtson, Rosert (N. Staffs Inst. Eng.). Electricity: The Continuation of a Short
Paper addressed to Colliery Managers. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvym, 115-122.
1914.

Paterson, JoHN A. Simon Newcomb—His Life and Work. ‘Journal Royal
Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vir. 389-403. 1913.

PickERING, Wit14M H. A Simple Method of Determining the Time. ‘ Journal
Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vi. 273-275. 1913.

PuaskettT, J. 8. The Solar Union. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vit.
420-437. 1913.

— A Great Reflector for Canada. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ v1.
448-455. 1913.

Preston, ArrHurR W. Meteorological Notes, 1912. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich
Nat. Soe.’ rx. 543-550. 1913.

Notes on the Great Norfolk Rainstorm of 25th and 26th August, 1912. ‘Trans.
Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ 1x. 551-557. 1913.

Rampact, A. A. Characteristics of the Weather at Oxford in 1913. ‘ Report
Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc. 1913,’ 41. 1914.

—— Summary of the Weather during 1913, from Observations at the Radcliffe
Observatory, Oxford. ‘Report Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc. 1913,’ 42. 1914.
RopeeEr, Atex. M. Abstract of Meteorological Observations, Perth, 1912, and
Remarks on the Weather. ‘ Proc. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. cexxvii.—cexxx.

1914.

Ruper, W. A. Doveras. On Variations in the Magnetic Declination at Bloem-
fontein. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ m1. 357-363. 1913.

On the Daily Range of the Atmospheric Potential Gradient at Bloemfontein,
and the Influence of Dust-storms. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ rv. 75-87.
1914.

RUTHERFORD, JoHN. Weather and other Notes taken at Jardington during 1912.
‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ 1. (Third Series), 211-221,
1913.

—— Astronomical Notes, 1912. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A.
Soc.’ 1. (Third Series), 278-284. 1913.

Sours Wates, Royau Instrrvrion or. Meteorological Journal, June 1912-May
1913. ‘Report Royal Inst. South Wales, 1912-1913,’ 46-57. 1913.

Stewart, Lovis B. The Form and Constitution of the Earth. ‘Journal Royal
Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vim. 1-20. 1914.

Stewart, R. MetpRum. The Expression of Pivot Errors by a Formula. ‘ Journal
Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vir. 283-286. 1913.

—— A New Form of Clock Synchronization. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
vit. 287-291. 1913.

—— The Fundamental Principle of Least Squares. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of
Canada,’ vit. 359-362. 1913.

—— A Theorem in Least Squares. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vi. 363-
370. 1913.

SurcnirFE, W. H. An Unknown Source of Light. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci.
Soc.’ x1. 23-25. 1913.

Surron, Dr. J. R. A Note concerning the Physical Significance of the Mean Diurnal
Curve of Temperature. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ m1. 187-194. 1913. ~

—— A Note on the Earthquakes of the South African Tableland. ‘Trans. Royal
Soc. of S. Africa,’ mz. 195-197. 1913.

A Preliminary Survey of the Meteorology of Kimberley. ‘Trans. Royal Soc.
of S. Africa,’ mr. 205-229. 1913.

TuHornTON, Prof. W. M. (N. England Inst. Eng.) The Comparative Inflamma-
bility of Mixtures of Pit-gas and Air, ignited by Momentary Electric Arcs. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng. xtvr. 112-124. 1913.

Timms, JoHN. Presidential Address: Colour Photography. ‘Report Barrow
Nat. F.C.’ xx. 51-52. 1913.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 741

Turner, ArtHuUR B. Two Old Unsolved Problems of Astronomy. ‘Journal
Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vir. 276-282. 1913.

Van Bresprecr, G. The Astronomical Works of Olaus Reemer. ‘Journal Royal
Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vit, 342-358. 1913.

Watrorp, Dr. E. Meteorological Observations in the Society’s District, 1911 and
1912. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xtv. 1-38. 1913.

Warr, AnprEw. Rainfall Records of the Southern Counties for the year 1912.
‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ 1. (Third Series), 220-221.
1913.

Wincent, H. F. Presidential Address : Colour Photography. ‘ Rochester Naturalist,’
Iv. 365-369. 1914. '

Wryuitt, T. F. A Method of Measuring Goaf Temperatures. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xtvi. 559-562. 1914.

—— The Absorption of Oxygen by Coal. Part I. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xivt.
563-578. 1914.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Brownen, G. The Chalybeate Spas (so-called) of the Bournemouth Clifis. ‘ Proc.
Bournemouth Nat. Sci. Soc.’ v. 92-96. 1914.

Frereuson, Prof. Jonn. Some Early Treatises on Technological Chemistry. Supple-
ment IV. ‘Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xxiv. 149-189. 1913.

Lampioucs, F. E. E., and A. Murten Hirt. The Slow Combustion of Coal-dust
and its Thermal Value. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 629-646. 1913.

Lomax, James. Further Researches in the Microscopical Examination of Coal,
especially in relation to Spontaneous Combustion. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xiv. 592-631. 1914.

Stewart, Joun. Yeast. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. 163-172. 1914.

THomeson, BeEBy. Peculiarities of Waters and Wells. ‘Journal Northants N. H.
Soc.’ xvi. 79-87, 101-118, 137-140. 1914.

Section C.—GEroLoey.

Barke, F. Geological Report. ‘Trans. N. Staffs F. C.’ xnvm. 98-100. 1914.

Brastrey, Henry C. The Storeton Find of 1912. ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’
xi. 307-310. 1913.

—— Note on a Map of the Faults in.the Neighbourhood of Storeton made by the
late Mr. G. H. Morton, F.G.S. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ xt. 311-316. 1915.

BrapsHaw, C. On the Occurrence of Calcite Crystals in a Coal Pit. ‘ Proc. Sheffield
Nat. Club,’ m. 43-44. 1914.

BRENTNALL, H. C. The Mound. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 61, 23-29.
1915.

Broom, Dr. R. On some Fossil Fishes from the Diamond-bearing Pipes of Kimber-
ley. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ mr. 399-402. 1913.

Browne, A. J. Jukes. The Lost Land of Torbay. ‘Journal Torbay N. H. Soc.’
1. 287-296. 1914.

BuiierRwet, R. G. A. A Section of the Cliffs near Newbiggin-by-the-Sea, in
whichis exposed a Gravel Bed containing Chalk Flints. ‘Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc.
of Northumberland, &c.’ Iv. 61-66. 1914.

Burton, J. J. Geological Notes on Great Ayton. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,
368-370. 1913.

Carter, W. Lower. Geology at the British Association [Birmingham, 1913],
“The Naturalist for 1913,’ 385-389. 1915.

Ciarke, W. G. Some Barnham Paleoliths. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of Hast Anglia,’
1. 300-303. 1913.

Cuttny, Rev. Marruew (edited by). Geological Letters and Notes. ‘ History
Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ xxr. 276-288. 1913.

Given, Dr. J. C. M. Man’s Place in the Geological Record. ‘Proc. Liverpool
Geol. Soc.’ x1. 277-294. 1913.

Grace, Geo. Glacial Geology of the District around Barrow. ‘Report Barrow
Nat. F. C. xx. 56-60. 1913.

Gray, Francis Wrii1aM (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Coal-fields and the Coal-industry
of Hastern Canada. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xivr. 23-60. 1913.

742 | | REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Hats, H. H. Flint Harpoon-Barbs. ‘Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’
1. 306. 1913.

HarGreaves, J. A. Fossil Footprints near Scarborough. ‘The Naturalist for
1914,’ 154-156. 1914.

Harris, A.W. Some Notes on the Geology of the Antarctic. ‘ Proc. Liverpool
Geol. Soc.’ x1. 299-306. 1913.

HIBBERT, T., and L. RicHarpson. The Water Supply of Cirencester, Gloucester-
shire. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvii. 175-184. 1913.

Horwoop, A. R. The British Trias; A Delta Formation. ‘Trans. N. Stafis
F. C.’ xtvir. 100-130. 1913.

Hurt GEouogican Society. A Catalogue of the Hull Geological Society’s Library
and of the Geological W orks in the Central Public Library, Albion Street, Hull.
‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soc.’ vi. 173-222. 1913. .

Hunt, ArtHuR R. Kent’s Cavern:’ Some Doubts and Difficulties. ‘ Journal
Torquay N. H. Soc.’ 1. 267-271. 1914.

Irvine, Rev. A. Recent Discoveries of Prehistoric Horse Remains in the Valley
of the Stort. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F. C.’ xv. 177-181. 1914.

Jones, T. A. Notes on Recent Excavations in Lime Street and Church Street,
Liverpool. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ x1. 295-298. 1913.

JuKES-BrowneE, A. J. The Making of Torbay. ‘Journal Torquay Nat. Hist.
Soc.’ 1. 205-211. 1913.

Kipner, Henry. Geological Notes. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F. CY” xv. 65-66.
1913.

—— On the Strata recently exposed in the Railway Cutting between Oxhey and
Pinner. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F.C.’ xv. 153-154. 1914.

Kirrogz, J. R. Outline of Geological Observations in North-East Londonderry
collected during the progress of revision work. ‘ Report Belfast Nat. F. ©.’ vi.
634-663. 1913.

Lapworts, Prof. CHartes. The Glacial Boulders at Bournville, Birmingham.
‘Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvi. 163-170. 1913.

Moir, J. Rem. Flint Implements of Man from the Middle Glacial Gravel and the
Chalky Boulder Clay of Suffolk. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 307-
319. 1913.

Morean, Lieut.-Col. W. Liu. Bacon Hole. ‘Report Swansea Scientific Soe.
1912-1913,’ 74-86. 1913.

NeEwatt, R. 8. Stone Implements from Millstream Station, Western Australia.
‘Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 303-305. 1913.

Orv, Dr. Wiu11Am T. The Geology of the Bournemouth to Boston Cliff Section.
‘Proc. Bournemouth Nat. Sci. Soc.’ v. 118-135. 1914.

Preston, Henry. Clay-balls and Striated Pebbles from Bunter Sandstone, Notts.
‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 79-83. 1914.

Ricuarpson, L. Memoir explanatory of a Map of a part of Cheltenham and Neigh-
bourhood, showing the Distribution of the Sand, Gravel, and Clay. ‘ Proc. Cottes-
wold Nat. Field Club,’ xvur. 125-136. 1913.

—— A Deep Boring at Kemble. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvmi. 185-
189. 1913.

Rupier, F.W. The Geology of Hampstead. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for
1913,’ 19-26. 1913.

Scunty, G. C., and A. R. E. Watxer. Note on Spodumene from Namaqualand.
‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ Iv. 65-67. 1914.

SEWELL, J. T. Coast Erosion at Whitby. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 113-114.
1914.

SHEPPARD, GEORGE. The Kellaways Rock of South Cave, East Yorkshire. ‘The
Naturalist for 1913,’ 359-361. 1913.

SHEPPARD, T. Teeth of Diplopodia (Pseudodiadema) versipora. “The Naturalist
for 1914,’ 144. 1914.

Bibliography. Papers and Records published with respect to the Geology
and Paleontology of the North of England (Yorkshire excepted) during 1913.
“The Naturalist for 1914,’ 161-166. 1914.

SmytHE, Dr. J. A. The Glacial Geology of Northumberland. ‘Trans. Nat. Hist.
Soe. of Northumberland, &c.,’ Iv. 86-116. 1914.

Stokes, Dr. Henry. On Irish Elk and other Animal Remains found at Howth
and Ballybetagh, Co. Dublin. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxi. 113-118. 1914.

CORRESPONDING SOCIE'TIES. 743

Srores, Dr. Marre C. The Red Crag Shell Portrait, and Report of the Special
Committee thereon. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 323-332. 1913.

Sturee, Dr. W. Auten. The Bearing of the Drayson Theory on the Problems
presented by Striated Neolithic Flints. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’
I. 254-296. 1913.

Travis, C. B. Presidential Address: Newer Conceptions of Karth-Crust Move-
ments. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ x1. 251-265. 1913.

Geological Notes on recent Dock Excavations at Liverpool and Birkenhead.
“Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ x1. 267-275. 1913.

Waker, W. T. The Boulder Clay of North Wirral. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’
xi. 317-324. 1913.

Waumstey, Lionet. Coast Changes at Robin Hood’s Bay. ‘The Naturalist for
1913,’ 280-282. 1913.

Wittrams, Noau T. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.) Notes on the Geology of Shansi,
and the Coal Industry in Northern China. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xy. 451-
465. 1913.

Section D.—Zoo.oey.

ADKIN, Rogert. Varietal Names as applied to the British Lepidoptera. ‘ Proc.
South London Ent. N. H. Soc., 1912-13,’ 1-6. 1913.

Labelling Entomological Specimens. ‘ Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soc.,
1912-13,’ 7-12. 1913.

Axenurst, 8. C. A Trap for Free-swimming Organisms. ‘Journal Quekett Mic.
Club,’ x1r. 279-280. 1914.

ArmisTEAD, Witson H. Solway Nature Notes. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Gallo-
way N. H. A. Soc.’ 1. (Third Series), 157-167. 1913.

Asu, F. W. The Nature. and Origin of Secondary Sex Characters. ‘Trans. N.
Staffs F. C.’ xnvu. 79-93. 1913.

Baeyaut, Ricuarp S. Notes towards a Knowledge of the Clyde Myriapoda. ‘ Glas-
gow Naturalist,’ v. 89-92. 1913.

—— A Synopsis of the British Symphyla, with Descriptions of New Species. ‘ Trans.
Nat. Hist. Soc. of Northumberland, &c.,’ rv. 17-41. 1914.

Notes on Pauropoda, with a brief Description of a New Species of Brachy-

pauropus. ‘Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. of Northumberland, &c.’ tv. 59-60. 1914.

Further Records of some British Symphyla, with Description of a New Species.
‘Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. of Northumberland, &c.’ tv. 171-176. 1914.

—— The Woodlice (Terrestrial Isopoda) of Northumberland and Durham, with
Keys to the Genera and Species. ‘Trans. Vale of Derwent Nat. Field Club,’ 1.
94-115. 1913.

— The Myriapods of the Derwent Valley. ‘Trans. Vale of Derwent Nat. Field
Club,’ 1. 116-128. 1913.

and W. Lronarp Turner. Preliminary List of Spiders, Harvestmen, and
Pseudo Scorpions found in the Derwent Valley. ‘Trans. Vale of Derwent Nat.
Field Club,’ 1. 129-151. 1913.

Bayrorp, E. G. Coleoptera in Yorkshire in 1913. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 51—
54. 1914.

Beit, AtFrep. ‘Choneziphius Moorei.’ A New Species of Fossil Ziphiod Whale
from Walton-on-Naze, Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xvi. 105-106. 1913.

Bennett, W. H. The Coleoptera of the Hastings District. ‘Hastings and East
Sussex Naturalist,’ 1. 85-90. 1913.

Best, Mary G. S., and Maup D. Havimanp. Bird Migration in Rathlin Island.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxm. 12-14. 1914.

Bickerton, Wi~t1AM. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year
1911. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F. C.’ xv. 49-63. 1913.

Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1912. ‘ Trans. Herts
N. H. 8S. F.C.’ xv. 155-168. 1914.

Buapen, W. Wetts. Bird Notes (1912), chiefly taken at Stone. ‘Trans. N. Staffs
F. C.’? xtvm. 71-78. 1913.

— Bird Notes (1913), chiefly taken at Stone. ‘ Trans. N. Stafis F. C.’ xnyim. 81-
87. 1914.

BLOOMFIELD, Rev. E. N. Annual Notes on the Local Fauna, Flora, &c., for 1912.
‘Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ mu. 41-46. 1913.

744 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Bostock, E. D. Annual Address: The Life-story of a Lepidopterous Insect.
‘Trans. N. Staffs F. C.’ xtvu. 45-61. 1913.

—— Entomological Report. ‘ Trans. N. Staffs F. C.’? xnvirr. 91-94. 1914.

Brapy, Dr. G. StEwarpson. An Amended Description of Diaptomus Sancti Patricii.
‘Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. of Northumberland, &c.’ vr. 168-170. 1914.

Brittain, ARNOLD. Observations on Freshwater Univalve Mollusca in the Sheffield
District. ‘Proc. Sheffield Nat. Club,’ mu. 55-58. 1914.

Bryan, B. Notes on the Habits of Bats in Captivity. ‘Trans. N. Staffs. F.C.’
XLvi. 73-80. 1914.

Buiiock, Epwin. Coleoptera from the South-west of Ireland. ‘ Dublin Naturalist,’
xx. 105-112. 1914.

Burton, James. On the Disc-like Termination of the Flagellum of some Euglene.
‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm, 291-294. 1914.

BurtERFIELD, W. Ruskry. Destructive Action of Rain upon Animal Life. ‘ Hast-
ings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 64. 1913.

Folk-names for Marine Fishes and other Animals at Hastings. ‘ Hastings
and East Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 83-84. 1913.

CARPENTER, Prof. GEoRGE H. The Irish Species of Petrobius. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’
xxu. 228-233. 1913.

Carr, J. W. Ichneumonide from Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. ‘The Naturalist
for 1914,’ 94. 1914.

CarTER, A. E. J. Perthshire Diptera—Aberfoyle District. ‘ Trans. Perthshire Soc.
Nat. Sci.’ y. 176-181. 1914.
CLUTTERBUCK, C. GRANVILLE. The Large Blue Butterfly (Lycena arion) on the
Cotteswold Hills. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvuz. 157-158. 1913.
Corean, NATHANIEL. Some Additions to the Nudibranch Fauna of County Dublin.
“Trish Naturalist,’ xxi. 165-168. 1913.

Corton, J. D. The Birds of Northamptonshire and Neighbourhood. ‘Journal
Northants N. H. Soe.’ xvi. 30-31. 1913.

Deane, Dr. Colouration in Fish. ‘Trans. Eastbourne Nat. Hist. Soc.’ vi. 47-50,
1914.

Dernpy, Prof. ArrHuR. The President’s Address: Organisms and Origins. ‘ Journal
Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm. 259-276. 1914.

Dreyer, Dr. T. F. The ‘ Plathander’ (Xenopus levis). ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of
S. Africa,’ mr. 341-355. 1913.

EarLANnD, ArTHUR. Notes on the Beetle Mite Tegeocranus latus. ‘Trans. Herts
N. H.S. F. GC’ xv. 64-65. 1913.

Epwarps, AUBREY. The Swifts. ‘ Proc. Bournemouth Nat. Sci. Soc.’ v. 65-71.
1914,
Euiot, G. F. Scorr. Natural History: Some Advance in Fifty Years. ‘Trans.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ 1. (Third Series), 56-65. 1913.
Etwes, Major E. V. Squilla Desmarestii Risso. ‘Journal Torquay N. H. Soc.’
I. 253. 1914.

P. H. Gosse, F.R.S., as a Naturalist. ‘Journal Torquay N. H. Soe.’ 1. 259-
266. 1914.

Fatconer, Wu. Laseola erythropus Sim., with a Key to the British Laseole. ‘The
Naturalist for 1914,’ 55-59. 1914.

Yorkshire Arachnida in 1912-13. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 84-89. 1914.

FRIEND, Rev. Hmprric. Notes on Dublin Oligochaets. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xx.
169-173. 1913.

—— Annelid Hunting in Notts. (Third Paper.) ‘Trans. Nottingham Nat. Soc.,
1912-13,’ 20-38. 1914.

Frisspy, G. E. Solitary Bees. ‘Proc. Holmesdale Nat. Hist. Club, 1910-1913,’
62-79. 1913.

GAHAN, C. J. Mimicry in Coleoptera. ‘Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soc.
1912-13,’ 28-38. 1913.

GeEorGE, C. F. A New Mite—Ottonia Sheppardii. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’
287-288. 1913.

—— New Mites. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 383-384. 1913.

Trombidium bicolor Hermann. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 1]. 1914.

—— A New Mite: Johnstoniana levipes, n. sp. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 95. 1914.

Gripes, A. E. Hesperia lineola in Hertfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F. C.’
xv. 22. 1918.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 745

Gipss, A. E., The Genus Canonympha. ‘Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soe.
1912-13,’ 13-20. 1913.

Guapstonr, HvucH S. Presidential Address: The History of the Dumfriesshire
and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, 1862-1912. ‘Trans.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soe.’ 1. (Third Series), 15-42. 1913.

Gurece, W. E. Report of the Ornithological Committee. ‘Report North London
Nat. Hist. Soc. 1913,’ 8-10. 1913.

Gopparp, Prof. E. J., and D. E. Marry. Contributions to a Knowledge of South
African Oligocheta. Part I.—On a Phreodrilid from Stellenbosch Mountain.
‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ m1. 231-241. 1913.

Contributions to a Knowledge of South African Oligocheta. Part II.—
Description of a New Species of Phreodrilus. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’
11. 242-248. 1913.

—— Contributions to a Knowledge of South African Hirudinea. On some
Points in the Anatomy of Marsupiobdella Africana. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S.
Africa,’ m1. 249-254. 1913.

Gorpon, R. S. A List of the Micro-Lepidoptera of Wigtownshire. ‘Trans. Dum-
friesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ 1. (Third Series), 168-188. 1913.

Grosvenor, T. H. L. An Outline of the Natural History of Colley Hill. ‘ Proc.
Holmesdale Nat. Hist. Club, 1910-1913,’ 33-40. 1914.

Gurney, Ropert. Presidential Address: The Origin and Conditions of Existence
of the Fauna of Fresh Water. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 461-
485. 1913.

Haicn, G. H. Caton. Presidential Address: The Migration of Birds as observed
in Lincolnshire. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat. Union, 1913,’ 81-92. 1914.

Hauiett, H. M. Entomological Notes. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xtv. 106-109.
1913.

Haminton, Gro. G. A Comparison of some of the Diseases occurring in Animals
-with those which affect Plants. ‘Proc. Bournemouth Nat. Sci. Soc.’ v. 57-64.
1914.

Harris, G. T. The Collection and Preservation of the Hydroida. ‘ Journal Quekett
Mic. Club,’ xm. 143-154. 1913.

HarvikE-Brown, J. A. Wild Cats in Ireland. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxi. 125-126.
1913.

Heron-ALLenN, Epwarp, and ARTHUR EARLAND. On some Foraminifera from the
North Sea dredged by the Fisheries Cruiser ‘ Huxley’ (International North Sea
Investigations—England). ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ x1. 121-138. 1913.

Hewirt, T. R. A few Species of Nematoda from Co. Dublin. ‘Irish Naturalist,’
xx. 147-151. 1913.

Hinpmarsu, The late Luxe. On the Wild Cattle of Chillingham Park. ‘ History.
Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ xxm. 139-150. 1914.

Hora, F. R. Presidential Address: The Geographical Distribution of Animals.
“Report Brighton and Hove Nat. Hist. Phil. Soc. for 1913,’ 11-14. 1913.

Horreti, E. Cuartes. The Beetles of Scarborough. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’
90-93. 1914.

Hupp, Aurrep E. (Editor.) Somerset Lepidoptera. Part II.—An Appendix to
the County List printed in the ‘ Victoria County History of Somerset,’ Vol. I.
“Proce. Somersetshire Arch. N. H. Soc.’ trx. 88-95. 1914.

Hutt, Rev. J. E. Oribatidie (Beetle Mites) of the County of Durham, with special
reference to the Derwent Valley. ‘Trans. Vale of Derwent,’ 1. 152-158. 1913.

—— New and Rare British Spiders. ‘Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. of Northumberland,
&e.’ Iv. 42-58. 1914.

HumpPHREYS, GEORGE R. The Roseate Tern breeding in Ireland. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’
xxi. 17-20. 1914.

Hurton, W. Harrison. The Boring Habits of the Pholas. ‘The Naturalist for
1913,’ 229. 1913.

Irvine, Dr. Joun. Lucernaria at Scarborough. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 248-
250. 1913.

Haliclystus at Scarborough. ‘The Naturalist for 1913, 355-357. 1913.

Jackson, Dr. A. Ranpyett. On the British Spiders of the Genus Microneta.
“Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. of Northumberland, &c.’ 1v. 117-142. 1914.

and Denis A. Pack-BErEsForD. Clubiona juvenis Simon, a Spider new to

the British Isles recently found in Ireland. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xx. 205-207. 1913.

746 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Jackson, J. WitFRt. Holocene Mollusca from Clapham, Yorkshire. ‘The Natur-
alist for 1914,’ 121-122. 1914.

Janson, Oxtver E. Coleoptera at Killarney. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 38-40.
1914.

JOHNSON, Rev. W. F. Notes on Irish Myriapoda, ‘Irish Naturalist,’ 128-130.
1913.

Some Irish Ichneumonide and Braconidx. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxu. 138-141.
1913.

——- Coleoptera collected by the late H. L. Orr. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxi. 14-16.
1914.

Some Irish Ichneumonoidea. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxur. 64-67. 1914.

—— A Teratological Specimen of Myrmica rubra. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxmr. 94,
1914.

Jourpain, Rev. F. C. R. The Breeding of the Willow Tit in Staffordshire. ‘ Trans.
N. Staffs F. C.’ xtvnr. 88-90. 1914.

Kine, L. A. L. Some Leeches of the Glasgow District. Glasgow Naturalist, v1.
39-47. 1914.

Lucas, W. J. Notes on Earwigs that breed in Britain. ‘ Proc. South London
Ent. N. H. Soc. 1912-13,’ 21-27. 1913.

Maaerntey, P. J. Notes from the Skelligs. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 211-214.
1913.

Marty, Huau. The Building of a Millipede’s Nest. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8S. F. C.’
xv. 121-123. 1914.

Martineau, P. E. Introduction to the Fauna of the Midland Plateau. ‘ Bir-
mingham N. H. Phil. Soc.’ Separate pamphlet. Seven pages. 1913.

Maserietp, J. R. B. Zoological Report. ‘Trans. N. Staffs F. C.’? xtvit. 62-70,
1913; xuvin. 67-72. 1914.

Marruews, Dr. Horatio. Some Experiments on Frog’sOvaand Embryos. ‘Trans.
Eastbourne Nat. Hist. Soc.’ vi. 42-44. 1914.

Meyrick, E. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soc.’ No. 61, 43-53. 1913 ; No. 62, 3440. 1914.

—— Ornithological List. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 61, 54-57. 1913;
No. 62, 41-44. 1914.

Mortey, B. A Larva Plague in Deffer Wood, Yorks. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’
151--153. 1914.

Moriey, ChraupE. The Fauna and Flora of Norfolk. »Part III.—Ichneumons.
‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 558-603. 1913.

Murray, James. Gastrotricha. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm. 21J]-238. 1913.

NicHoLson, CHARLES. The Golden-Eight Moth (Plusia moneta) in Britain. ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ xvi. 87-90. 1913.

Nicnouson, Dr. G. W. Coleoptera from Cavan and Meath. ‘Irish Naturalist,’
xx. 68-72. 1914.

O’Dononoz, T. A. The Minute Structure of Coscinodiscus asteromphalus and of
the Two Species of Pleurosigma, P. angulatum and P. balticum. ‘ Journal Quekett
Mic. Club,’ xm. 155-160. 1913.

OLDHAM, CHARLES. Report on Land and Freshwater Mollusca observed in Hert-
fordshire in 1911. ‘Trans. Herts N. H.S. F.C. xv. 19-21. 1913.

—— Report on Land and Freshwater Mollusca observed in Hertfordshire in 1912.
‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F. C.’ xv. 173-176. 1914.

—— The Weight-lifting Power of Wasps. ‘Trans. Herts N. H.S. F.C.’ xv. 183-
186. 1914.

Paterson, Rev. J. M. Notes on the Buying, Keeping, and Breeding of Foreign
Birds in English Aviaries. ‘ Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 53-55.
1913.

Patrerson, JoHN. The Return of Summer Birds to the Clyde Area in 1913. ‘ Glas-
gow Naturalist,’ v. 81-89. 1913.

PatTEN, Prof. C. J. Field Notes made in July 1903 on some Birds which frequent
the District of Sheffield but are rare or unknown in Ireland. ‘ Proc. Sheffield
Nat. Club,’ rm. 24-26. 1914.

PeRcrevaL, Pumre D. Observations on the Movements of Woodcock. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xxm. 208-210. 1913.

Parties, R. A. Helicigona lapicida in Ireland. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 37-38.
1914.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 747

PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE, Rey. O. On New and Rare Arachnids noted and observed
in 1912. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. 0.” xxxry. 107-136. 1913.

PoprLe, Epwarp. Hertfordshire Oniscoida. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. S. F. G xv.
29-32. 1913.

Hertfordshire False Scorpions. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F. GC.’ xv. 124. 1914,

— The Crustacea of West Herts. ‘Trans. Herts N. H.S. F. C0.’ xv. 127-136. 1914,

Pratt, C. The Sea Mouse. ‘Trans. Eastbourne Nat. Hist. Soc.’ v1. 27-28. 1914.

Proger, T. W. The Wild Mammals of Glamorgan. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’
xiy. 59-69. 1913.

and D. R. Paterson. Ornithological Notes. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soe.’
xty. 100-104. 1913.

Ricuarpson, Nerson M. Anniversary Address. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’
XXXIV. lvi-lxxxii. 1913.

Second Supplement to the Lepidoptera of the Isle of Purbeck. Compiled from
the Notes of Eustace R. Bankes, M.A., F.E.S. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.
xxxiv. 46-80. 1913.

Ropertson, JoHN. The Limicole of the Clyde Area. ‘ Annals Andersonian Nat.
Soc.’ rv. 42-54, 1914,

Rozson, THomas. Observations of the Mammalia of the Derwent Valley. ‘Trans.
Vale of Derwent Nat. Field Club,’ 1. 88-90. 1913.

—— Some Notes on the Ornithology of the Derwent Valley. ‘Trans. Vale of Der-
went Nat. Field Club,’ 1. 91-93. 1913.

Rorsuck, W. Denison. Pupa secale in Cumberland. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’
362-363. 1913.

Ross, ALEXANDER. Birds of Islay. ‘Glasgow Naturalist,’ v. 7-32. 1913.

Rotuscuinp, Hon. L. Waurer. Presidential Address: Bird-Life on Oceanic
Islands, and Insular Variation. ‘Trans. Herts N. H.S. F. GC. xv. 1-14. 1913.

Presidential Address: Mimicry and Protective Resemblance. ‘Trans. Herts
N. H.S. F. C.’ xv. 105-120. 1914.

Scuarrr, Dr. R. F. On the supposed Occurrence of the Wild Cat in Ireland. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xx. 127-128. 1913.

The Whale-Fishery in Ireland. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 145-147. 1913.

ScutescH, Hans. Land and Freshwater Mollusca in North-West Iceland. ‘The
Naturalist for 1913,’ 419-420. 1913.

Sripie, C. M. New Records of Irish Myriapods. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxu. 131-
135. 1913.

Snarp, W. E. The Coleoptera of Bishopsdale, Yorks. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’
415-418. 1913.

SmiruH, SypnEy H. Bird Notes from the York District. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’
258-259. 1913.

Soar, C. D. Description of Arrhenurus Scourfieldi and Acercus longitarsus, Two
New Species of Water-mites. ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Soc.’ xm. 139-142. 1913.

Sperrpy, Tom. Notes on the Solan-Goose and on the Stockdove. ‘Trans. Edin-
burgh F. N. Mic. Soc.’ viz. 33-38. 1913.

Sretrox, A. W. John Templeton’s Notes on Irish Land and Freshwater Mollusca.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxm1. 29-35. 1914.

—— on References by W. E. Leach to Irish Land and Freshwater Shells. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xxm1. 35-36. 1914.

_ StEentron, R. Land Wasps. ‘Journal Torquay Nat. Hist. Soc.’ 1. 220-225. 1913.

—— The Protective Instincts of some Mammals and Birds. ‘ Journal Torquay N.
H. Soe.’ 1. 253-259. 1914.

SrEPHENSON, THomas. The Little Bunting at Whitby: an Addition to the Avi-
fauna of Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 421. 1913.

Taytor, E. WitFReD. The Habits of the Merlin. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 115-
120. 1914.

THORNLEY, Rev. A., and W. Watxace. Lincolnshire Coleoptera: Part VII. ‘Trans.
Lincolnshire Nat. Union, 1913,’ 115-139. 1914.

‘Ticknurst, Cuaup B. Migration and other Ornithological Notes from Lowestoft
District, June 30, 1911, to June 30, 1912. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat.
Soc.’ rx. 607-622. 1913.

Ticrnurst, N. F. Some further Notes on Grey Wagtails. ‘Hastings and East
Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 47-48. 1913.

—— The Coming of the Little Owl. ‘ Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ 1. 49-
52. 1913.

(48 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Tomtty, J. R. te B. The Coleoptera of Glamorgan. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’
xv. 41-58. 1913.

Tonez, A. E. Annual Address: An Outline of the Generic Types of British Lepi-
dopterous Ova, with some exceptions. ‘ Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soc.
1912-13,’ 39-59. 1913.

VerHa@rr, Dr. K. W. On the Occurrence of Brachychaetuma, Titanosoma, and
Polymicrodon in England. ‘Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. of Northumberland, &ec.’ rv.
143-167. 1914.

Wappineton, G. The Fishes of the Lower Wharfe Basin. ‘The Naturalist for
1913,’ 219-228. 1913.

Wave, E. W. Nesting Habits of the Stone Curlew. ‘ The Naturalist for 1914,’
123-124. 1914.

Waker, J. J. Interim Report on Coleoptera. ‘Report Ashmolean Nat. Hist.
Soc. 1913,’ 48. 1914.

Waker, James. A Short Note on the Occurrence of Aspergillosis in the Ostrich
in South Africa. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ 1. 199-204. 1913.

WarREN, Ropert. Some Notes on the Migration of Richardson’s and Pomatorhine
Skuas. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xx. 152-155. 1913.

Some Notes on the Migration of the White Wagtail on the Island of Bartragh,
Killala Bay. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 174-177. 1913.

Wetcu, R. J. Paludestrina Jenkinsi in Fresh Water. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’
288. 1913.

WESTELL, W. Percivat. Autumn Notes on the Birds of the Gareloch. ‘ Glasgow
Naturalist,’ v. 1-7. 1913.

WHITEHEAD, HENRY. Some Notes on the Natural History of British Freshwater
Leeches: with Records of their Occurrence in Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xv.
61-85. 1913.

Wuirenovuset, R. H. The Natural History of Planarians. ‘Irish Naturalist,’
xxi. 41-47. 1914.

Wittres, W. A. The Scales of Fish. ‘ Proc. Bournemouth Nat. Sci. Soc.’ v. 85-
91. 1914.

Witiramson, F., and W. Lorp. List of Birds of the Rochdale District. ‘ Trans.
Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ x1. 26-41. 1913.

Winter, W. P. Arachnida at Kirkby Stephen. ‘The Naturalist for 1913, 253-
254. 1913.

Woopp, Miss E. G. Edible Snails (Helix pomatia). ‘Trans. Eastbourne Nat. Hist.
Soc.’ vz. 39-41. 1914. ‘

Woops, Rev. F. H. Marine Biology at Filey. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 364-
367. 1913.

Section EH.—GEOGRAPHY.

AINSworTH, JoHN. British East Africa Protectorate. ‘Journal Manchester Geog.
Soc.’ xxrx. 10-22. 1914.

AMUNDSEN, Capt. Roatp. The Norwegian South Polar Expedition. ‘ Journal
Manchester Geog. Soc.’ xxvin. 83-98. 1913.

Ascoui, W. 8. Guatemala—Travels and Experiences. ‘Trans. Manchester Stat.
Soc. 1912-1913,’ 213-240. 1913.

Betxiamy, C. H. The Balkans and Turkey. ‘Journal Manchester Geog. Soc.’
XxIx. 23-34. 1914.

Fatconer, Dr. J. D. The Future of the Coloured Races in our African Colonies.
“Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xiv. 64-82. 1913.

Firsy, W. Leonarp. Persia. ‘Journal Manchester Geog. Soc.’ xxvur. 109-121.
1913.

Forpuam, Sir H. G. Hertfordshire Maps: a Descriptive Catalogue of the Maps
of the County, 1579 to 1900. Supplement. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F. C. xv.
73-104. 1914.

Fraser, J. Scorr. Tangier revisited. ‘Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soc. 1913,’ 34-35.
1914.

Metitor, E. W. The White Nile, from Uganda to Khartoum. ‘Journal Man-
chester Geog. Soc.’ xxvii. 61-82. 1913.

Snion, Mrs. Saris. Farthest West. ‘Journal Manchester Geog. Soc.’ xxv. 99-
108. 1913.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 749

Sticanp, A. G. Notes on N’gamiland. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ m1. 379-
391. 1913.

WATERHOUSE, GILBERT. Highways and Byways in the Balkans. ‘Journal Man-
chester Geog. Soc.’ xxtx. 35-56. 1914.

Section F.—EcONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

AnpeErson, R. A. The Irish Meat Industry. ‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x1.
38-45. 1913.

Barnes, G. N. Co-operation in relation to the Industrial System. ‘ Proc. Glasgow
Royal Phil. Soc.’ xniv. 52-63. 1913.

Dawson, CHARLES. The Dublin Housing Question—Sanitary and Insanitary.
‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ xm. 91-95. 1913.

Donauve, T. A. (S. Stafis and Warw. Inst. Eng.). New Interest-tables for the
Valuation of Mineral Properties. * Trans. Inst. ‘Min. Eng.’ xtvm. 100-104. 1914.

Fintay, Rev. T. A. The Significance of some Recent Trish Statistics. ‘ Journal
Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ xmm. 17-25. 1913.

HARGREAVES, WALTER (Midland Inst. Eng.). Presidential Address: The Coal
Industry. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvi. 272-283. 1914.

Lyncu, Commissioner. Land Purchase in Ireland. A Retrospect and a Forecast.
* Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ xm. 1-16. 1913.

McConecuy, Jas. 8. The Economic Value of the Ship Canal to Manchester and
District. ‘Trans. Manchester Stat. Soc. 1912-1913,’ 1-126. 1913.

MELLoR, Harotp. The Question of Cash Reserves in the English Banks. ‘ Trans.
Manchester Stat. Soc. 1912-1913,’ 169-188. 1913.

O’ConnELL, Dr. JoHN RoBERT. Some Considerations in reference to the Establish-
ment of the Office of a Public Trustee in Ireland. ‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’
xim. 60-90. 1913.

RaEBuRN, Witt1am H. Labour Unrest in the Shipping Industry. ‘ Proc. Glasgow
Royal Phil. Soc.’ xtrv. 227-245. 1913.

Romer, E. J. The Legal Effect of an Engineer’s Negligence or Mistake in directing
the Construction of Works. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxtv. 44-64. 1913.

Smarr, Prof. Wimt1aAM. Second Thoughts of an Economist. ‘Proc. Glasgow
Royal Phil. Soc.’ xx1v. 16-40. 1913.

Stewart, C. J. The Work of the Public Trustee. ‘Trans. Manchester Stat. Soc.
1912-1913,’ 189-211. 1913.

THomeson, Sir Wirt1amM J. The Census of Ireland, 1911. ‘Journal Stat. Soc.
Treland,’ xm. 46-59. 1913.

Wice, T. J. Notes on the Yarmouth Herring Fishery of 1912. ‘Trans. Norfolk
and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 632-635. 1913.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

Attort, J. R. L. The Reopening of Norton Colliery with Self-contained Breathing
Apparatus after an Explosion. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 595-617. 1913.

Anperson, J. Wemyss. Refrigeration and the Transport of Perishable Produce.
“Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxiv. 189-197. 1913.

Aust, J. F. (N. Staffs Inst. Eng.) Visible and Audible Signals to Winding Engine-

~ men. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvm. 131-133. 1914.

Beare, Prof. T. Hupson. Australian Railways and Future Developments. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxiv. 402-428. 1913.

Borns, Prof. DANIEL (Min. Inst. Scotland). Apparatus for the Determination of
Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen in Mine Air. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xnv1. 478-
483. 1914.

CHaPMAN, SamuEL C. Animal Organisms in Water Pipes. ‘Journal Torquay N.
H. Soe.’ 1. 274-286. 1914.

CuasE, L. H. A Proposed Bridge across the Mersey. ‘ Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’
Xxxiv. 78-94. 1913.

Cuortton, ALAN E. L. The Application of the Gas Engine to Ship Propulsion.
“Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxrv. 108-138. 1913.

Cxiark, F. Bernarp (8. Staffs and Warw. Inst. Eng.). Description of the Headings
driven from the Aldridge Collieries to prove the Mines over the Main Eastern
Boundary Fault. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 92-94. 1914,

750 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Ciivse, Ropert (Midland Inst. Eng.). Stone-dusting at Bentley Colliery: Report
to the Doncaster Coal-owners’ (Gob-fires) Committee. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
XLV. 53-72. 1914.

Cocxine, A. T. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Fuel Economy at Collieries by means of
Gas Power. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xnvi. 2-17. 1914.

Dean, Samvuet (N. England Inst. Eng.). Notes on Coal-mining in the United States
of America, with special reference to the Treatment of Coal-dust, and Haulage
by Electric Locomotives. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvr. 98-111. 1913.

Dixon, Prof. 8. M. (S. Staffs Warw. Inst. Eng.) Reinforced Concrete in Mines.
“Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 528-541. 1913.

Dunn, WitLoucHsy M. (Min. Inst. Scotland). Electric Winding Plant at South
Kenmuir Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvr. 207-216. 1913.

Frevpen, F. Modern Developments of the Gas Producer. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng.
Soc.’ xxxiv. 139-159. 1913.

Forp, Lzo Dorry (N. England Inst. Eng.). Notes on a New Process for the Wash-
ing of Coal at the St. Nicholas Pit of the Société des Charbonnages de l’Espérance
et Bonne Fortune, near Liége, Belgium. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 423-
438. 1914.

—— Notes on the Working of the St. Nicholas Pit of the Société des Charbonnages
de l’Espérance et Bonne Fortune, near Liége, Belgium, with special reference to
the Hydraulic Packing of the Goaf. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xnvi. 439-454,
1914.

—— A Westphalian Bye-product Coking-plant which also supplies Town Gas.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 207-223. 1914.

GarrortH, Dr. W. HE. A Record of the Origin of the Principle of Stone-dusting
for the Prevention of Colliery Explosions. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xty. 562-
575. 1913.

Gipss, G. J. Some Applications of Compressed Air and its Measurement. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxtv. 240-248. 1913.

Gipson, J. Haminton. Vagaries' of Engineering Practice. ‘Trans. Liverpool
Eng. Soc.’ xxxiv. 24-32. 1913.

Grecory, Joun (N. Staffs Inst. Eng.). Examples of the Use of Concrete at Collieries.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvi. 65-76. 1913.

Haxsaum, H. W. G. (N. Eng. Inst. Eng.) The Automatic Distribution of Stone-
dust by the Air-current. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtyir. 147-157. 1914.

Harcer, Dr. Joun (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Firedamp in Coal-mines, and
the Prevention of Explosions. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xny1. 358-369. 1914.

—— The Detection of Gob-fires. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvr. 370-378. 1914.

Hoae, James (Min. Inst.Scotland). Magnesite Deposits in Eubcea, Greece. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xyz. 128.

Hoxuanp, Prof. Sir Taomas H. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.) Presidential Address.
“Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiyvz. 339-354. 1914.

Homr-Morton, ANDREW. The Lay-out, Design, and Equipment of Industrial
Works. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxtv. 367-394. 1913.

Huspanp, JosrpH (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Zeiss Level. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xuvi. 285-302. 1914.

JEFFERY, J. L. (S. Staffs Warw. Inst. Eng.) Concrete Reservoirs for Water and
Petroleum. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtvr. 223-228. 1913.

Mason, W. The Phenomenon of Yield Point in Metals under Stress. ‘Trans.
Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxiv. 211-224. 1913.

Paton, J. DRumMoND (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Small Coal and Dust: its
Production, Prevention, Treatment and Utilisation, with special reference to
Dry Mines. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xty. 421-446. 1913.

RamsgorTHam, JosHua FrevpEN. The History of Work done on the Site of the
Fremantle Graving Dock. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxrv. 319-357. 1913.

Smper, W. A. The Blackstone Crude Oil Engine. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’
XXxXIv. 282-307. 1913.

Snow, Cuartus (Midland Inst. Eng.). Removal of a Shaft-pillar at South Kirkby
Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtyr. 8-12. 1913.

Tosi, T. C. The Weight Factor in Merchant Ship Design. ‘Trans. Liverpool
Eng. Soc.’ xxx1v. 255-273. 1913.

Wautis, T. M. Wiystantey. Reineke Wireless Telephone for Mines. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xivr. 636-641. 1914.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 751

Watkinson, Prof. W. H. Inaugural Address. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’
xxxiv. 2-21. 1913.

WELEOURN, BurRKEWoOD. Insulated and Rare Copper and Aluminium Cables for
the Transmission of Electrical Energy, with special reference to Mining Work.
“Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 658-694. 1913.

Wixp, T. C. (Midland Inst. Eng.) The Development of the Gas-engine in England,
and its Adaptation to the Generation of Power at Collieriesand Ironworks. ‘ Trans.
Tnst. Min. Eng.’ xtvn. 18-43. 1914.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

ARNOLD, Epwin L. Pygmy Implements from Cornwall. ‘Proc. Prehistoric Soc.
of East Anglia,’ 1. 334-336. 1913.

Avprn, Dr. H. A. Anthropology at the British Association [Birmingham, 1913].
‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 392-399. 1913.

CiarKE, W. G. Norfolk Implements of Palolithic ‘Cave’ Types. ‘ Proc. Pre-
historic Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 338-345. 1913.

Coox, W. H. A Brief Summary of our Knowledge in regard to the Higher Antiquity
of Prehistoric Man (with Notes by A. Spencer Edwards). ‘ Rochester Naturalist,’
Iv. 338-346. 1913.

Date, W. Hampshire Flints. ‘Proc. Hants Field Club,’ viz. 20-24. 1914.

Dawson, CHARLES. The Piltdown Skull (Hoanthropus dawsoni). ‘ Hastings and
East Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 73-82. 1913.

Dickie, Wint1am. Craigdarroch (Sanquhar) Tumuliand others. ‘ Trans. Dumfries-
shire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ 1. (Third Series), 354-359. 1913.

DuckwortH, Dr. W. L. H. Notes on some Points connected with the Excavation
of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay ; with a Report on the Fragmentary Human Upper
Jaw from the Granular Stalagmite. ‘Journal Torquay Nat. Hist. Soc.’ 1. 211+
220. 1913.

Durr, W. A. Roman Interments at Scole. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’
I. 321-323. 1913.

Hawarp, F. N. The Problem of the Eoliths. ‘Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East
Anglia,’ 1. 347-359. 1913.

Hewitt, H. Drxon. Prehistoric Human Remains at Little Cornard, Suffolk.
‘Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 297, 1913.

Lzacu, Gro. B. Prehistoric Relics from the Hills lying due East of Burnley. ‘ Trans.
Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ x1. 18-22. 1913.

Marr, Dr. J. E. A Late Paleolithic Site on Wretham Heath, near Thetford. ‘ Proc.
Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 374-377. 1913.

Maxim, James L. Querns and other Corn-grinding Stones in Rochdale and District.
‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ x1. 72-83. 1913.

Meyrick, E. Anthropometrical Report. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 61,
97-123. 1913; No. 62, 51-76. 1914.

Morr, J. Rerp. A Defence of the ‘Humanity’ of the Pre-River Valley Imple-
ments of the Ipswich District. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 368—
374. 1913.

Mumrorp, Dr. A. A. The Physique of the Modern Boy. ‘Trans Manchester
Stat. Soc. 1912-1913,’ 127-168. 1913.

Parker, WittiAm A. The Piltdown (Sussex) Skull. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci.
Soe.’ xz. 113-120. 1913.

Périnavry. Dr. L. President’s Address: The Antiquity of Man. ‘Trans. Royal
Soc. of South Africa,’ mm. i.-xiii. 1913. s

Rosarts, N. F. AndAchillIsland Tumulus. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’
I. 332-334. 1913.

TrecumMann, C. T. Notes on Neolithic Chipping-Sites in Northumberland and
Durham. ‘Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. of Northumberland, &c.’ rv. 67-85. 1914:
UnpDrERwoop, Lieut.-Col. W. A Discovery of Pleistocene Bones and Flint Imple-
ments in a Gravel Pit at Dovercourt, Essex. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East

Anglia,’ 1. 360-368. 1913.

Warevurton, J. S. Some Saxon Remains found near Stoke Ferry. ‘ Proc. Pre-

historic Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 336-337. 1913.

152 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

Section I.—PuHyYsIoLoey.

Carpenter, G.-H. D. Sleeping Sickness. ‘Report Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc.
1913,’ 30-34. 1914.

Cuaumers, Dr. A. K. The House as a Contributory Factor to the Death Rate.
‘Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xiv. 109-138. 1913.

Court, Dr. J. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Miners’ Nystagmus and its Effect on Vision.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xuvi. 159-174, 1913.

Hepworts, J. Parallel Evolution of Mind and Body. ‘Rochester Naturalist,’
Iv. 333-338. 1913.

Jotty, W. A. On the Electrical Changes in the Heart. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of
S. Africa,’ tv. 73-74. 1914.

Lioyp, W. D. (Midland Inst. Eng.) An Account of the Use of Rescue-apparatus
at Lodge Mill Colliery, Huddersfield ; with Note by Dr. J. 8. Haldane. ‘ Trans,
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xivi. 250-256. 1914.

Txomson, R. B. Note on the Vertebral Column of the Bushman Race of South
Africa. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ ot. 365-378. 1913.

Section K.—BorTany.

ANDERSON, THomas. Note on the Occurrence of Phyllobius maculicornis, Germ.,
on Raspberry in Perthshire, May 1912. ‘Trans, Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v.
162-163. 1914.

Barciay, W. Annual Address: The Wild Flowers of Spring. ‘ Proc. Perthshire
Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. ecili—cexil. 1914.

Bartiett, A. W. The New Field Botany in the Sheffield District. ‘ Proc. Sheffield
Nat. Club,’ m1. 59-66. 1914.

Beynett, ArtHuR. Maianthemum bifolium Schmidt. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’
289-290. 1913.

Birp, Rev. M. C. H. Attempted Acclimatisation of Wild Rice (Zizania aquatica)
in East Norfolk. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 603-606. 1913.

Boyp, D. A. Notes on Microfungi from the Forth Area. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N,
Mic. Soc.’ vu. 25-27. 1913.

Notes on Parasitic Ascomycetes: Part III. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F, N. Mic.
Soc.’ vit. 27-32. 1913.

— Some Additional Records of Microfungi for the Clyde Area. ‘Glasgow
Naturalist,’ v. 93-95. 1913.

Some Recent Additions to the British Fungus Flora. ‘Glasgow Naturalist,’
yv. 120-123. 1913.

Boyp, Witu1am B. Localities of Less Common Plants. ‘ History Berwickshire
Nat. Club,’ xxm. 132-133. 1914.

Brooks, F. T. Observations on Pure Cultures of some Ascomycetes and Basidio-
mycetes. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ Iv. 239-248. 1914.

Brown, N. E. Some Notes on the Structure of Diatoms. ‘Journal Quekett Mic.
Soc.’ xu. 317-338. 1914.

Burkitt, Harotp J. Abnormality in Foxglove. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 353-
354, 1913.

BurRReELL, W. H., and W. G. CLarxe. Topographical Notes on some Rarer Norfolk
Plants. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 622-632. 1913.

CamMPBELL, D. Noteson Plants. ‘ Proc. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. ec.-ceii, 1914.

Cuarpman, Muneo. Heather, Native and Exotic, and other Allied Plants. ‘ Trans.
Edinburgh F. N. Mic. Soc:’ viz. 16-24. 1913.

Cup, Miss A. Fungi. ‘Report Barrow Nat. F. C.’ xx. 65-66. 1914.

Copiann, L. A Fortnight in Jura. ‘Selborne Magazine,’ xxiv. 206-209. 1913.

Corsert, H. H. Ecological Notes on Two South Yorkshire Marshes. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1913,’ 412-414. 1913.

Corron, A. D. Notes on the Flora of the Saltees: III. Marine Alge. ‘Irish
Naturalist,’ xxi. 195-198. 1913.

Presidential Address: Some Suggestions as to the Study and Critical Revision
of certain Genera of the Agaricacer. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 224~
238. 1914.

—— On the Production of Imperfectly Developed Spores in the Agaricacee. ‘ Trans.
British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 298-300. 1914,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 753

CrossLanp, C. Pheangella empetri (Phillips) Boud. (= Pheangella Smithiana
Boud.). ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 251-252. 1913.

—— Mycologists at Land’s End. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 12-16. 1914.

—— The Fungus Flora of the Mulgrave District. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 60-66.
1914.

—— Recently discovered Fungi in Yorkshire—VII. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’
145-150. 1914.

Dixon, H. N. Pwdr Ser—The Rot of the Stars. ‘Journal Northants N. H.
Soc.’ xv. 88-91. 1913.

Dovetas, Wm. C. Some Aspects of Plant Life. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N. Mic.
Soe.’ vir. 8-15. 1913.

Drucr, G. CLariper. Botanical Notes. ‘Report Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc.
1913, 35-36. 1914.

Poa irrigata Lindman in Britain. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 125-126. 1914.

Taraxacum balticum Dahlst. in Britain. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 126. 1914.

—— Apium Moorei (Druce) in Northants. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ xvu.
129. 1913.
Dummer, R. A. A Synopsis of the Species of Lotononis, Eckl. and Zeyh., and
Pleiospora, Harv. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ mr. 275-335. 1913.
Exxiott, Dr. Jessrz 8. Bayniss. A New Variety of Sepedonium mucorinum Havz,
var. Botryoides. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ 1v. 296-297. 1914.

Exits, Joun W. New British Fungi. ‘ Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 292-295.
1914.

Gisss, T. Notes on Fungus Habitats. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 5-6. 1914.

Goopz, J. H. Noteson Alge. ‘ Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ xv. 25-29. 1913.

Hopxinson, JoHN. Report on the Phenological Observations in Hertfordshire
for the year 1911. ‘Trans. Herts N. H.S. F. C.’ xv. 23-28. 1913.

Report on the Phenological Observations in Hertfordshire for the year 1912.
‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F. C.’ xv. 187-192. 1914.

Kyow es, M. C. Notes on the Flora of the Saltees: IV. Lichens. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’
xxi. 199-202. 1913.

Lxzszs, F. Arnotp. A New British and Yorkshire St. John’s Wort. ‘The Naturalist
for 1914,’ 10. 1914.

Lert, Rev. Canon H. W. Presidential Address: Botanists of the North of Ireland.
“Report Belfast Nat. F. C.’ vr. 615-628. 1913.

Notes on the Flora of the Saltees: II. Mosses and Hepatics. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’
xx. 192-194. 1913.

laster, Miss Gutierma. Mycetozoa observed in Epping Forest in the Autumn of
1912. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xvm. 126-128. 1913.

—— Mycetozoa found during the Fungus Foray at Haslemere, Sept. 23-26, 1913.
“Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 221-223. 1914.

Lunam, Grorcn. The Main Line of Descent through the Green Alge. ‘ Annals
Andersonian Nat. Soc.’ 1v. 38-41. 1914.

M‘Anprew, James. New Records of Mosses and Hepatice from Vice-County 87.
‘Glasgow Naturalist,’ vr. 47-48. 1914.

Martotu, Dr. R. Note on the Entomophilous Nature of Encephalartos. ‘Trans.
Royal Soe. of 8. Africa,’ tv. 69-71. 1914.

MarsHatt, Rev. Epwarp S. A Supplement to the Flora of Somerset. ‘ Proc.
Somersetshire Arch. N. H. Soc.’ rrx. 242 pages. 1914.

MassEE, G. The Evolution of the Basidiomycetes. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’
47-50. 1914.

MasseEn, Ivy. Notes on the Genus Mycena. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 7. 1914.

Menzius, James. Notes on some New and Rare Fungi from the District. ‘ Trans.
Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. 173-175. 1914.

Meyrick, E. Report of the Botanical Section. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’
No. 61, 34-42. 1913; No. 62, 23-33. 1914.

Nisset, THos. Phanerogams and Ferns of South Ardgoil. ‘ Annals Andersonian
Nat. Soc.’ rv. 1-33. 1914.

O’Dononon, T. A. An Attempt to Resolve and Photograph Pinnuwlaria nobilis.
‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xu. 309-310. 1914.

Ottver, Prof. F. W., and Dr. E. J. Sautssury. The Topography and Vegetation
of the National Trust Reserve known as Blakeney Point, Norfolk. ‘Trans.
Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 485-542. 1913.

1914. 3 ¢

754 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Pavtson, RoBERT, and PERCY G. THOMPSON. Report on the Lichens of Epping
Forest. (Second Paper.) ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xvm. 90-105. 1913.

Povutton, ErHe, M. Abnormal Flowers of the Foxglove. ‘The Naturalist for
1913,’ 315-318. 1913. j
Prascer, R. Luoyp. Additions to ‘Irish Topographical Botany’ in 1908-1912.

‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxm. 103-110. 1913.

Notes on the Flora of the Saltees: I. Phanerogamia. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxu.
181-191. 1913.

Ramszorrom, J. Recent published Results on the Cytology of Fungus Reproduc-
tion (1913). ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 249-291. 1913.

Notes on the Nomenclature of some Rusts. ‘Trans. British Mycological
Soc.’ rv. 331-340. 1914.

— A List of the British Species of Discomycetes arranged according to Boudier’s
System, with a Key to the Genera. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ Iv. 343—
381. 1914.

Some Notes on the History of the Classification of the Discomycetes. ‘ Trans.
British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 382-404. 1914.

Rattray, Dr. G. Notes on the Pollination of some South African Cycads. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ mr. 259-270. 1913.

Rea, CaRLeETON. New and Rare British Fungi. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soe.’
Iv. 307-317. 1914.

Report of the Dolgelly Spring Foray, 9-13 May, 1913, and complete list of the

Fungi and Mycetozoa gathered during the Foray. ‘Trans. British Mycological

Soc.” rv. 199-206. 1914.

Report of the Haslemere Foray, 22-27 Sept., 1913, and complete list of the
Fungi. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 207-221. 1914.

Renwick, Joun. Kilkerran and its Trees. ‘Glasgow Naturalist,’ v1. 48-54. 1914.

Ricwarps, J. T. Cross Fertilisation of Flowers. ‘Trans. Eastbourne Nat. Hist.
Soc.’ vr. 53-64. 1914.

Ricwarpson, A. D. Edinburgh’s Park and other Trees. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F.
N. Mic. Soc.’ vi. 1-7. 1913.

Ricuarpson, Netson M. Phenological Report on First Appearances of Birds,
Insects, &c., and First Flowering of Plants in Dorset during 1912. ‘ Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F.C” xxxtv. 200-215. 1913.

RIDDELSDELL, Rev. H. J. Another Gloucestershire Orchid: Epipactis atroviridis
W. R. Linton. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvmm. 159-162. 1913.

— Helosciadium Moorei. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 1-11. 1914.

— The British Forms of Helosciadium. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxnr. 95-101. 1914,

Rives, W. T. Boypon. Botanical Report. ‘Trans. N. Staffs F. C.’ xiv. 94-
97. 1913; x~vut. 95-97. 1914.

Roorer, Miss C. Agnes. The Native Plants of Britain and Germany: a Com-
parison. ‘ Proc. Bournemouth Nat. Sci. Soc.’ v. 82-84. 1914.

S., W. G. Botany at the British Association [Birmingham, 1913]. ‘The Naturalist
for 1913,’ 390-391. 1913.

Sarispury, E. J. British Woodlands. ‘Trans. Herts. N. H.S. F.C.’ xv. 15-18. 1913.

Note on the Occurrence of Palmodictyon viride in Hertfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts

N. H. 8. F. 0’ xv. 125-126. 1914.

Hertfordshire Gentians. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. ‘8. F. C.’ xv. 169-171. 1914

Botanical Observationsin Hertfordshire during the years1911 and1912. ‘Trans.
Herts N. H. 8S. F.C.” xv. 172. 1914.

Satmon, C. E. Surrey Plant Records. ‘Proc. Holmesdale Nat. Hist. Club,’ 1910-
1913, 90-93. 1913.

Sarcant, Miss Eruet. The Native Countries of our Spring Bulbs. ‘ Proc. Holmes-
dale Nat. Hist. Club,’ 1910-1913, 56-62. 1913.

SaunpDERS, JamES. The Mycetozoa. ‘Selborne Magazine,’ xxtv. 110-116. 1913.

—— Witches’ Broom on the Beech. ‘Trans. Herts N. H.S. F.C.’ xv. 182. 1914.

SHEFFIELD Naturauists’ Cus. Records of Fungi in the Sheffield District. ‘ Proc.
Sheffield Nat. Club,’ m. 66-72. 1914.

Suenstone, J. C. The Flora of the Brent Valley Bird Sanctuary. ‘Selborne
Magazine,’ xxiv. 105-106, 146-148, 169-171, 181-185, 214-216. 1913.

SmpEesoTtom, Henry. Lagene of the South-West Pacific Ocean. ‘ Journal Quekett
Mic. Club,’ xm. 161-210. 1913.

Surra, A. Lorrain, and J. Ramsgotrom. New or Rare Microfungi. ‘Trans. British
Mycological Soc.’ 1v. 318-330. 1914,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 75D

Syetcrove, E. An Old Sheffield Plant List of One Hundred Years Ago, ‘ Proc.
Sheffield Nat. Club,’ 11. 27-42. 1914.

Srarr, Dr. O. Townsend’s Grass or Rice Grass. ‘Proc. Bournemouth Nat. Sci.
Soc.’ v. 76-82. 1914.

SverHens, Epirn L. A New Species of Hematoxylon (Leguminose-Cesalpince)
from Great Namaqualand. ‘ ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ m1. 255-257. 1918.

Stirton, Dr. James. On some Mosses from the West Highlands, &c. ‘Glasgow
Naturalist,’ vi. 33-39. 1914.

THompson, Percy. Note on Zygodon forsteri Mitt. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ XvIt.

. 85-87. 1913.

Wacerr, Harotp. Notes on the Blue-Green Algx, with a Key to the Species of
Oscillatoria and Phormidium. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 305-808, 332-337,
371-374, 402-406, 423-427. 1913.

Wacer, Prof. Horack A. Some New South African Mosses. ‘Trans. Royal Soc.
of S. Africa,’ rv. 1-8. 1914.

WaxeEFIELD, E. M. Some Notes on the Genera of the Thelephoracee. ‘Trans.
British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 301-307. 1914.

On the Identity of Corticiwm porosum Berk. et Curt. ‘Trans. British Myco-
logical Soc.’ tv. 341-342. 1914.

Watson, W. Pleospora hepaticola, sp. nov. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’
tv. 295. 1914. ;

Wess, Prof. F. E. Variation in the Leaves and Flowers of Goldilocks. ‘The
Naturalist for 1913,’ 358. 1913.

Witttamson, F. Flora of the Rochdale District. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’
xr. 42-71. 1913.

Winter, W. P. Variation in the Leaves and Flowers of Goldilocks, Ranunculus
auricomus L. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 283-286. 1913.

Wooprvurrs-Peacock, Rev. E. A. Our Dry-svil Pimpernels. ‘Trans. Lincoln-
shire Nat. Union, 1913,’ 110-114. 1914.

Section L.—EHDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

AutanacH, Wm. The Functions of an Educational System in a Residential Town.
‘Southport Lit. and Phil. Soc.’ 21 pp. 1914.

Jounston, Sir Harry H. Education. ‘Journal Manchester Geog. Soc.’ xXxrx.
4-9, 1914.

OBITUARY.

Axcock, Prof. NarHaninn H. By G. H. Cfarpenter]. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxu.
144. 1913.

Anprrson, Dr. Tempest. By T. S{heppard]. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 338-
339. 1913.

Avesury, Lorp. By Dr. Daydon Jackson. ‘Selborne Magazine,’ xxiv. 128-132.
1913.

—— By T. S{heppard]. ‘The Naturalist for 1913, 238. 1913.

BaRrrett-Haminton, Major G. E. H. By C. B. Moffat. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xx.
81-93. 1914.

Ewrxc, Perer. ‘Glasgow Naturalist,’ v. 113-116. 1913.

Fisu, D. 8. By A.B. Steele. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N. Mic. Soc.’ viz. 48-49. 1913.

HinpmarsH, Witit1AM THomas. By J. C. Hodgson. ‘ History Berwickshire Nat.
Club,’ xx. 136-137. 1914,

HurcHInson, Sir JonatHAN. By Rey. T. R. R. S[tebbing]. “South-Eastern Natur-
alist for 1913,’ li—liii. 1913.

MartinDaLE, JoserpH ANTHONY. By R. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 157-159.
1914.

Nerpuam, James. By Charles Crossland. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 294-298.
1913.

Parsons, Dr. H. Franxurny. By F. A. Lees. ‘The Naturalist for 1914,’ 8-9.
1914.

Traquair, Dr. R. M. By A. B. Steele. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N. Mic. Soe.’ vit.
46-47. 1913.

UssHer, Richarp Joun. By R. M. Barrington. “Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 221-
227. 1913.

Waite, Sir Wituiam Henry. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxiv. 447. 1913.

i 302

re
i

ies 23 abit

“an et

PND ick

References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.

An asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.

The mark + indicates the same, but that a reference is given to the Journal
_, or Newspaper where the paper ts published in extenso.

FFICERS and Council, 1914-15, iii.
Rules of the Association, v.
Trustees, General Officers, &c., xxi.
Sectional Presidents and Secretaries
(1901-13), xxii.
Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences
of Delegates (1901-14), xxx.
Evening Discourses (1901-14), xxx.
Lectures to the Operative Classes (1901-
11), xxxi.
Public Lectures, xxxii.
Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes
(1901-13), xxxiii.
Report of the Council, 1913-14, xxxix.
General Treasurer’s Account, xliv.
Australian Meeting, 1914 :—
General Meetings, xlvi.
Sectional Officers, xlvi.
Officers of Conference of Delegates,
xlvii.
Attendances and Receipts at Annual
Meetings, xlviii.
Analysis of Attendances, 1.
Research Committees, lii.
Communications ordered to be printed
in extenso, |xiv.
Resolutions referred to the Council,
Ixiv.
Synopsis of Grants of Money, Ixvi.
Caird Fund, |xviii.

Address by the President, Professor W.
Bateson, M.A., F.R.S., 3.

Assor (C. G.), proofs of the sun’s varia-
bility, 291.

* Abrolhos Islands, an expedition to the,
by Prof. W. J. Dakin, 402.

Acacia Pycnantha, the distribution of

nitrogen in the seeds of, by Drs. J. M.

Petrie and H. G. Chapman, 666.

*ApAms (G. E.) and T. H. Lasy, length
and electrical resistance of steel tapes,
304.

Apams (Prof. John) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248

Apams (W. E.), Australian ports in
relation to modern ships and shipping,
508.

Apamson (R. 8.) on the vegetation of
Ditcham Park, Hampshire, 245.

* Agricultural education, by A. D. Hall,
626.

Agricultural Section, Address by A. D.
Hall to the, 636, 670.

Arrey (J. R.) on the calculation of mathe-
matical tables, 75.

Algebraic numbers, properties of, analo-
gous to certain properties of algebraic
functions, by Prof. J. C. Fields, 307.

Algebraic theory of modular systems
(or modules of polynomials), F. 8.
Macaulay on the, 310.

ALLEN (H. A.) on the preparation of a
list of characteristic fossils, 111.

* Anesthetics, sixth interim report on, 549,

—— discussion on, 549.

—— Prof. A. D. Waller on, 549.

—— Dr. E. H. Embley on, 550.

—— Prof. R. F. C. Leith on, 552.

Anax papuensis (Burm), the emergence
of the nymph of, from the egg, by
R. J. Tillyard, 424.

Ancient inhabitants of Egypt and the
Sudan, the, by Prof. G. Elliot Smith,
534.

ANDERSON (Miss A. M.) on the question
of fatigue from the economic stand-
point, 175.

Anperson (V. G.), the influence of
weather conditions upon the amounts
of nitric acid and of nitrous acid in
the rainfall near Melbourne, 338.

758- IN

* ANDERSSON (Dr. Gunnar), the climate
in northern temperate and arctic
zones during the latest pleistocene
age, 580.

ANDREWS (Dr. C.) on the exploration of
La Cotte de St. Brelade, Jersey, 240.
AnpDREWS (E. C.), the post-jurassic
geography of Australia, and on the

hypothesis of isostasy, 380.

—_— the development of the natural
order Leguminose, 447.

AnpREwS (EH. J.) on the physidgraphy of
arid lands, 367.

Antarctic meteorology, discussion on,
302.

—— Dr. G. C. Simpson on, 302.

Antarctic whaling industry, the position
of, report on, 123.

Antarctica, past and present relations
of, in their biological, geographical,
and geological aspects, discussion on,
409.

Anthropological Section, Address
Sir E. im Thurn to the, 515.

Anthropology, the teaching of, report on,
235.

ArcHER (R. T.), milking machines in
Victoria, 651.

Arid lands, the physiography of, dis-
cussion on, 363.

—-— Prof. Sir T. H. Holland on, 363.

ARMSTRONG (Dr. E. F.) on the study of
plant enzymes, 108.

on the study of solubility phenomena,
110.

ArmstronG (Prof. H. E.) on dynamic
isomerism, 102.

on the study of plant enzymes, 108.

——on the correlation of crystalline
form with molecular structure, 109.

—— on the study of solubility phenomena,
110.

——on the structure of atoms and
molecules, 294.

—— Address to the Educational Sec-
tion (the place of wisdom (science)
in the State and in education), 608.

—— on metabolism, 663.

Aromatic nitroamines and allied sub-
stances, the transformation of, and its
relation to substitution in benzene de-
rivatives, report on, 105.

* Artesian water-bearing beds of Southern
Queensland, the geological relations
of the, by 8. Dunstan, 380.

Artificial collateralisation as applied to
the abdominal aorta, by B. Kilvington,
548.

Artificial islands in the lochs of the High-
lands of Scotland, the distribution of,
fourth report on, 229.

Artificial regulation of wages, the, by
G. 8. Beeby, 487.

DEX.

AsuBy (Dr. Thomas) on the present state
of knowledge of the prehistoric civilisa-
tion of the Western Mediterranean, 235.

a map of the environs of Rome of
1547, 444.

—— the Roman advance into South
Italy, 530.

AsHworta (Dr. J. H.) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 162.

Atoms and molecules, the structure of,
discussion on, 293.

es Sir E. Rutherford on, 293, 301.
—— Prof. Armstrong on, 294.

—— Prof. Hicks on, 296.

—— H. G. J. Moseley on, 299.

— — Prof. Nicholson on, 299.

—— Prof. H. Bassett on, 300.

—— Prof. Kerr Grant on, 301.

AUDEN (Dr. G. A.) on the teaching of
anthropology, 235.

—— on the mental and physical factors
involved in education, 248.

—— on the influence of school books upon
eyesight, 248.

Australia: its discovery as evidenced
by ancient charts, by G. Collingridge,
449.

*—._ a plea for systematic ethnological
research in, by W. D. Campbell, 534.

—— gerontocracy and marriage in, by
Dr. W. H. BR. Rivers, 531.

—— the post-jurassic geography of, by
E. C. Andrews, 380.

*— the general magnetic survey of,
by E. Kidson, 301.

—— varieties of totemism in, by A. R.
Brown, 532.

—— Central, and its possibilities, by
W. H. Tietkens, 452.

*——_ Hastern, the metallogenetic pro-
vinces of, by C. A. Sussmilch, 381.
—— South-Eastern, the age and se-
quence of the tertiary strata of, F.

Chapman on, 371.

*Australian aboriginal brains, by J. F.
Flashman, 536.

*Australian aboriginal humerus, ob-
servations on the, by S. A. Smith,
536.

* Australian aboriginal skull, symmetrical
exostoses in the acoustic meatus in the,
Prot. J. T. Wilson on, 536.

*Australian aboriginal stone tomahawk,
exhibition of a, and of drawings by an
aboriginal, by W. G. Enright, 536.

Australian aborigine, the stone imple-
ments of the: the types and their
occurrence, by A. S. Kenyon and
D. J. Mahony, 526.

*Australian artesian basin, the great,
and the source of its supply, by E. F.
Pittman, 380.

INDEX.

Australian cranium of probable pleisto-
cene age, Profs. T. W. Edgeworth
David and J. T. Wilson on, 531.

Australian culture, is it simple or com-
plex ? by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, 529.

Australian defence, by Hon. G. F. Pearce,
477.

Australian democracy, the, and its
economie problems, by F. W. Eggle-
ston, 469.

Australian ebenaceer, by W. P. Hiern,
575.

*Australian exploration, by Rt. Hon.
Sir John Forrest, 446.

Australian frogs, a collection of, J. Booth
on, 398.

Australian geographers, three early:
their work, and how it is remembered,
by C. R. Long, 444.

Australian hematozoa, Dr. J. B. Cleland
on some, 405.

Australian insects, mimicry in, discussion
on, 402.

Prof. E. B. Poulton on, 402.

Australian longitudes, the present state
of the problem of, discussion on, 292.

—— P. Baracchi on, 292.

Australian marine kainozoic deposits,
the correlation of the: evidence of the
echinoids, bryozoa, and some verte-
brates, by Prof. J. W. Gregory, 376.

Australian Meeting: narrative and itin-
erary, 679.

Australian ports in relation to modern
ships and shipping, by W. E. Adams,
508. ;

Anstralian rainfall, by H. A. Hunt, 439.

*Australian timbers, by Prof. W. H.
Warren, 512.

Australian trematodes and cestodes: a
preliminary study in zoogeography,
by Dr. 8. J. Johnston, 424.

* Aviation research, by Prof. J. E. Petavel,
499.

Bacterial toxins in soils, by Dr. R. Greig-
Smith, 667.

Batey (P. G.) on wool inheritance, 654.

ad on size inheritance in poultry,

655.

BarysripGe (Prof.) on the question of |

fatigue from the economic standpoint,
175.

Baxer (R. T.) and H. G. Smiru, the
vorrelation between the specific charac-
ters of the Tasmanian and Australian
eucalypts, 582.

Bawrour (H.) on the lake villages in the
neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 210.

* some extensions of early stone |

age culture, 527.

759

Bau (Sidney), economics at Oxford, 472.

7*Batsium (J. G.), the Balsillie system
of wireless telegraphy as employed
in the radiotelegraph stations of
Australia, 514.

Baraccut (P.), Mount Stromlo Observa-
tory, 291.

—— on the present state of the problem
of Australian longitudes, 292.

Barley, migration of reserve material
to the seed in considered as a factor
of productivity, by E. $8. Beaven, 660.

Bartow (W.) on the correlation of crysial-
line form with molecular structure, 109.

Barr (Prof. A.) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 200.

Barrett (Dr. James W.), the problem of
the visual requirements of the sailor
and the railway employee, 256.

Barrineton (R. M.) on the. biological
problems incidental to the Belmaullet
whaling station, 125.

Barrow (G.) on the fauna and flora of
the trias of the Western Midlands,
114. ;

Basidiomycetes, the spores of, by Dr.
J. Burton Cleland, 586.

BassxtT (Prof. H.) on the structure of
atoms and molecules, 300.
BatErson (Prof. W.), Presidential Ad-

dress, 3.

—— on experimental studies in the physi-
ology of heredity, 245.
—— on breeding experiments with cno-

theras, 247.

Baruer (Dr. F. A.) on the preparation
of a list of stratigraphical names used
in the British Isles, 113.

——on the position of the Antarctic
whaling industry, 123.

—— on the character, work, and main-
tenance of museums, 249.

Beare (Prof. T. Hudson) on some tests
of petrol motor fire engines, and the
frictional and other resistances to the
flow of water through canvas fire-
hose, 511.

Braven (EH. S.), migration of reserve
material to the seed in barley con-
sidered as a factor of productivity,
660.

Brrsy (G. §.), the artificial regulation
of wages, 487. :

Belmullet whaling station, the biological
problems incidental to the. report on, 125.

Benson (Prof. Margaret), recent ad-
vance in our knowledge of Sigillaria,
584.

*Brenson (W. N.), the occurrence of
spilitic lavas in New South Wales, 381.

Berripce (Dr. Emily M.) on the
systematic position of casuarina and
its allies, 579.

760

Bevan (Rev. J. O.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 722.

BippEr (G. P.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
162.

Binary canon, the disposal of copies of
the, report on, 102.

*Binocular combination of kinemato-
graph pictures, report on the, 549.

Biochemical significance of phosphorus,
the, by Miss H. Kincaid, 554.

Buackman (Prof. F. F.) on experimental
studies in the physiology of heredity, 245.

*Boarp (P.), the university and the
State, 634.

Bouton (H.) on the upper old red sand-
stone of Dura Den, 116.

—— on the character, work, and main-
tenance of museums, 249.

Bonp (C. I.) on the sex dimorphism
and secondary sex characters in some
abnormal begonia flowers, and on the
evolution of the moncecious condition
in plants, 572.

Bons (Prof. W. A.) on gaseous explosions,
177. :

Bonney (Dr. T. G.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 111.

Boots (J.) on a collection of Australian |

frogs, 398.

Bori exorcism, fortune-telling, and in-
vocation, by Major A. J. N. Tremearne,
528.

Bossiwa scolopendria (Sm.), the xero-
phytic characters of, A. G. Hamilton
on, 586.

Botanical Section, Address
F. O. Bower to the, 560.
Botanical survey of North-east New
South Wales, a, by F. Turner, 589.
*Botany, the teaching of, by Miss L. J.

Clarke, 627.

Botuamuey (C. H.) on the influence of
school books upon eyesight, 248.

Bourton (Prof. W. 8.) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 111.

—— on the excavation of critical sections
in the lower paleozoic rocks of England
and Wales, 115.

Bower (Prof. F. 0.) on the renting of
Cinchona botanic station in Jamaica,
248.

—— Address to the Botanical Section,
560.

modern derivatives of the mato-
nioid ferns, 576.

Boys (C. Vernon) on seismological in-
vestigations, 41.

BRaABROoK (Sir E.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248.

on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 722.

by Prof.

INDEX.

BRADFIELD (J. J. C.), the metropolitan
electric railways proposed for Sydney,
507.

BRADLEY (Burton) on the symbiotic
activities of coliform and other organ-
isms on media containmg carbo-
hydrates and allied substances, 556.

Brain, the relations of the inner surface
of the cranial wall to the, Prof. J.
Symington on, 528.

*Brain of primitive man, the, by Prof.
G. Elliot Smith, 528.

Briees (Dr. Lyman J.), dry-farming
investigations in the United States, 263.

*British birds, the feeding habits of, sixth
report on, 400.

Brown (A. R.), varieties of totemism
in Australia, 532.

Brown (Prof. E. W.), Address to the
Mathematical and Physical Section,
311.

Brown (Rev. Dr. George), some nature
myths from Samoa, 533.

Brown (Sidney G.) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 70.

Brown (Dr. W.) on the mental and physical
factors involved in education, 248.

Bruce (Dr. W. S.) on the position of the
Antarctic whaling industry, 123.

Bryce (Prof. T. H.) on the distribution
of artificial islands in the lochs of the
Highlands of Scotland, 229.

—— on the teaching of anthropology, 235.

Buckmaster (C. A.), State aid for
science: a retrospect, 623.

Butwer (Prof. RB.) on the renting of Cin-
chona botanic station in Jamaica, 248.
Bute (A.) on the lake villages in the

neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 210.

Burrows (G. J.), the inversion of cane-
sugar by acids in water-alcohol solu-
tions, 342.

Burstauu (Prof. F. W.) on gaseous ex-
plosions, 177.

Cappury (E.) on the question of fatigue
from the economic standpoint, 175.

CALLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) on gaseous
explosions, 177.

Catman (Dr. W. T.) on the position of
the Antarctic whaling industry, 123.

Calorimetric observations on man in
health and in febrile conditions, report
on, 238.

CaMBAGE (R. H.), Eastern Australian
topography and its effect on the
native flora, 448.

——on the evolution of the genus
eucalyptus, 582.

Cameron (A. T.) on the effect of low
temperature on cold-blooded animals,
241.

INDEX.

*CaMERON (Dr. S. S.), the results of
milk and dairy supervision in Vic-
toria, 653.

CAMPBELL (F. H.), a new method for
the determination of vapour pressures,

and an examination of a source of |

error in certain dynamical methods,
337.

*CAMPBELL (W. D.), a plea for systematic
ethnological research in Australia, 534.

Canberra plan, the, by W. B. Griffin,
500.

Cane-sugar, the inversion of, by acids
in water-alcohol solutions, by G. J.
Burrows, 342.

Capillary power of soils, the, by Dr.
Heber Green, 647.

*Carbon are, the pressure upon the
poles of a, by Prof. W. G. Duffield,
304.

*CarsLAw (Prof. H.S.), the Green’s func-
tion for the equation 9 ?u-+-k?u = 0, 308.

CaRrTER (W. Lower) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 111.

—— on the preparation of a list of charac-
teristic fossils, 111.

Casuarina and its allies, the systematic
position of, by Dr. Emily M. Berridge,
579.

Cattle, the estimation of condition in,
by J. A. Murray, 669.

Cave (C. J. P.) on the investigation of the
upper atmosphere, 69.

Central Australia and its possibilities,
by W. H. Tietkens, 452.

Central highlands, the, and ‘ main
divide’ of Victoria, by T. S. Hart, 443.

Central neural response to peripheral
neural distortion, by Prof. W. A.
Osborne and B. Kilvington, 547.

*Cerebro-spinal fluid, the physiology
of, by Profs. W. E. Dixon and W. D.
Halliburton, 547.

CHAPMAN (D. L.) on gaseous explosions,
177.

CHapmMAN (Frederick) on the age and
sequence of the tertiary strata of
South-Eastern Australia, 371.

Cuapman (Dr. H. G.) on the freezing-
point of the laked red blood corpuscles
of man and some domesticated animals,
559.

——and J. M. Perris, the action of
the juice of Euphorbia peplus on a
photographic plate, 303.

—— —— the distribution of nitrogen
in the seeds of Acacia Pycnantha, 666.

and Prof. D. A. WELSH, the action
of the venom of some Australian
snakes on the corpuscles of some
bloods, 558.

Cuarman (Prof. S, J.), the economic
ideal, 488.

761

Characteristic fossils, the preparation of a
list of, second interim report on, 11).
*Charnwood rocks, the microscopical and
chemical composition of the, report on,

379.

CuATLey (Prof. H.), the dynamic incre-
ment of a single rolling load on a
supported beam, 502.

Cuaunpy (T. W.), symbolic solution of
linear partial differential equations
of the second order, 306.

*Chemical crystallography, by Prof.
W. J. Pope, 343.
Chemical Section, Address by Prof.

W. J. Pope to the, 322.

Cusrry (Prof. Thomas), the ten-inch
line of rainfall, 645.

Chloroform poisoning, a case of delayed,
Prof. R. F. C. Leith on, 552.

CurEE (Dr. C.) on radiotelegraphic in-
vestigations, 70.

—— on stress distributions in engineering
materials, 200.

Cinchona botanic station in
the renting of, report on, 248.

Circulatory system, evidence of co-
ordinate action in the, by Dr. E. H.
Embley, 547.

*CLARKE (Miss L. J.), the teaching of
botany, 627.

CLELAND (Dr. J. Burton), a comparison
of the sizes of the red cells of some
vertebrates, 404.

——on some Australian hzematozoa,
405.

—— the spores of basidiomycetes, 586.

CLERK (Dr. Dugald) on gaseous explo-
sions, 177.

Climate from the physiological point
of view, by Prof. W. A. Osborne,
555.

*Climate in northern temperate and
arctic zones during the latest pleisto-
cene age, the, by Prof. Gunnar Anders-
son, 580.

Climatic conditions of the early pre-
Cambrian, the, by Prof. A. P. Coleman,
359.

Cruse (Dr. J. A.) on the character, work,
and maintenance of museums, 249.

Coal-fields of Pennsylvania, the struc-
tural features of the, and their in-
fluence on the origin of hard coal, by
Prof. E. S. Moore, 381.

CosppoLp (E. 8.) on the excavation of
critical sections in the lower paleozoic
rocks of England and Wales, 115.

Coxer (Prof. E. G.) on gaseous explosions,
177.

—— on stress distributions in engineering
materials, 200.

—— Address to the Engineering Sec-
tion, 490.

Jamaica,

762

Coxer (Prof. E, G.) and Prof. Finon,

experimental determination of the dis- |

tribution of stress and strain in solids,
201.

—— —— the stress distribution in
short compression members, 501.

——and W. A. Scopnz, temperature
cycles in heat-engines, 512.

‘Cold-blooded animals, the effect of low
temperature on, report on, 241.

Coue (Prof. Grenville) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 111.
—— on the old red sandstone rocks of

Kiltorcan, Ireland, 113.

—— on the preparation of a list of strati-
graphical names used in the British
Isles, 113.

Coz (W.) and H. Wurreneap, a biblio-

graphy of the publications of local |

scientific societies, 730.

CoLeman (Prof. A. P.), the climatic
conditions of the early pre-Cambrian,
3959.

Coliform and other organisms, the sym-
biotic activities of, on media con-
taining carbohydrates and allied sub-
stances, Burton Bradley on, 556.

CoLLINGRIDGE (George), Australia: its |

discovery as evidenced by ancient
charts, 449.

Colouring matters of certain marine
organisms, the, by Dr. A. Holt, 342.
*Commercial schools, by Dr. G. T.

Moody, 626.

Compulsory education of youth, the,
by Prof. J. J. Findlay, 626.

*Conation, analysis of, by Dr. H. T.
Lovell, 559.

Concussion of the spinal cord and allied
conditions, Alan Newton on, 554.

Condition in cattle, the estimation of,
‘by J. A. Murray, 669.

Cook (Gilbert) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 200.

*Cook, James, a recently discovered
MS. by, by H. Yule Oldham, 449.

*Coral reefs, Darwin’s theory of, new
evidence for, by Prof. W. M. Davis,
381.

*Corpora arantii, the functions of the,
by Prof. Sir T. P. A. Stuart, 555.

Corresponding Societies Committee :—

Report, 722

Conference at Havre, 722.

List of Corresponding Societies,
733.

Papers published by Corresponding
Societies, 738.

*Corrosion of iron and steel by artesian
waters in New South Wales, the, by
Prof. Fawsitt, 342.

CorTIE (Rev. A. L.) on establishing a solar
observatory in Australia, 74.

{
|
|

INDEX.

Cotarnine and hydrastinine, the con-
densation of, with aromatic alde-
hydes, by Mrs. G. M. Robinson, 341.

*CoTton (L. A.), the genesis of the
diamond in New South Wales, 381.

Cotton, some factors controlling the
growth of, by H. T. Ferrar, 659.

CROOKE (W.) on the production of certified
copies of Hausa manuscripts, 234.

—— on the teaching of anthropology, 235.

Crowruer (0. H.) and Prof. F. C. La,
the change in the modulus of elas-
ticity and of other properties of metals
with temperature, 502.

Crystalline form, the correlation of, with
molecular structure, 109.

| *Culture and degeneration, by Prof. F.

von Luschan, 529.

CULVERWELL (Prof. E. P.) on the mental
and physical factors involved in educa-
tion, 248.

CunnineHam (Lt.-Col. A.) on the dis-
posal of copies of the binary canon, 102.

CunNINGHAM (Dr. J. T.), the hormone
theory of the heredity of somatic
modifications, 419.

*Curvature of the earth’s surface, the
experimental demonstration of the,
by H. Yule Oldham, 443.

| Cyanogenesis in plants, discussion on, 343.

Cyanogenetic plants of New South
Wales, the, by Dr. J. M. Petrie, 343.
*Cyclograph, the, an instrument for
quickly marking microscopical slides,
by Prof. Sir T. P. A. Stuart, 555.

*Cylindro-conical stones of Western
New South Wales, the distribution of
the, by R. Etheridge, 535.

*Daxtn (Prof. W. J.), an expedition to
the Abrolhos Islands, 402.

Datpy (Prof. W. E.) on gaseous explo-
sions, 177.

—— on stress distributions in engineering
materials, 200.

—— railways and motive power, 499.

—— the testing of materials, 500.

—— the Imperial College of Science and
Technology; the Goldsmiths’ Com-
pany’s extension of the Engineering
College, 506.

DaniEwt (G. F.) on the mental and physi-
cal factors involved in education, 248.

—— on the influence of school books upon
eyesight, 248.

Darwin (H.) on seismological investiga-
tions, 41.

*Darwin’s theory of coral reefs, new
evidence for, by Prof. W. M. Davis,
381.

Davenport (Prof. C. B.), heredity of
some emotional traits, 419.

INDEX. 763

Davey (A. J.) and Miss E. N. THomas,
morphology and anatomy of certain
pseudo-monocotyledons, 578.

Davip (Prof. T. W. Edgeworth) and
W. S. Dun on the term permo-car-
boniferous and on the correlation of
that system, 379.

——and Prof. J. T. Witson on an
Australian cranium of probable pleisto-
cene age, 531.

Davinpce (William R.), town planning
in relation to the community, 465.
—— town planning in relation to hous-

ing and health, 480.

Davies (Olive B.) and Dr. A. J. Ewart,
the flora of the Northern Territory, 573.

Davis (Prof. W.M.) on the physiography
of arid lands, 365.

—— new evidence for Darwin’s theory
of coral reefs, 381.

*____ the coast of New Caledonia, 449

Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the lake
villages in the neighbourhood of Glaston-
bury, 210.

—— on the distribution of artificial islands
in the lochs of the Highlands of Scotland,
229:

*Definite system on which collectors should
record their captures, report on the
formulation of a, 401.

*DeLEPIne (H. G. S.), the stresses in
built-up columns, 501.

Denpvy (Prof. A.) on the occupation of a
tuble at the marine laboratory, Plymouth,
163.

+— Address to the Zoological Section,
383.

Descu (Dr. C. H.) on dynamic isomerism,
102.

Desert scenery and denudation, Dr.
Johannes Walther on, 358.

*DeETHRIDGE (J. H.), ivrigation in Vic-
toria, 660

*Diamond, the, in New South Wales,
the genesis of, by L. A. Cotton, 381.

Diyzs (W. H.) on the investigation of the
upper atmosphere, 69.

- *Dingo, teeth of the, from the breccia
of the Wellington Caves, New South
Wales, exhibition of, by R. Etheridge,
536.

*Discontinuities in meteorological pheno-
mena, by Prof. H. H. Turner, 304.

Discussions :—

On the present state of the problem
of Australian longitudes, 292.

On the structure of atoms and mole-
cules, 293.

On Antarctic meteorology, 302.

*On wireless telegraphy, 305.

On cyanogenesis in plants, 343.

On the physiography of arid lands,
363.

| Discussions :—

On mimicry in Australian insects, 402.

On past and present relations of
Antarctica, 409.

*The study of native culture in re-
lation to administration, 531.

On anesthetics, 549.

The nature and origin of species, 579.

On dry farming, 645.

On irrigation, 655.

On metabolism, 663.

Distribution, the influence of, on pro-
duction, by Prof. R. F. Irvine, 481.
Ditcham Park, Hampshire, the vegetation

of, interim report on, 245.

Diurnal migrations of pipits, wagtails,
and swallows, as observed at Tuskar
Rock Light-station, Co. Wexford,
Prof. C. J. Patten on the, 403.

Drxey (Dr. F. A.) on scent-distributing
apparatus in the lepidoptera, 401.

Drxon (E. E. L.) on the geology of Ramsey
Island, Pembrokeshire, 111.

Drxon (Prof. H. B.) on gaseous earplo-
sions, 177.

*___ on explosions in gases, 343.

*Drxon (Prof. W. E.) and Prof. W. D.
Hapizurton, the physiology of cere-
bro-spinal fluid, 547.

Dosstz (Dr. J. J.) on dynamic isomerism,
102.

Domestic subjects, the teaching of, in
primary schools, by Mrs. C. M. Mere-
dith, 627.

Don (A. W. R.) on the upper old red
sandstone of Dura Den, 116.

*Double points, a theory of, by F. S.
Macaulay, 311.

Double stock, the: its history and
behaviour, by Miss E. R. Saunders,
572.

Drinking water, the contamination’ of,
by alge and its removal, by Prof. T.
Johnson, 581.

Dry farming, discussion on, 645.
Dry-farming investigations in the United
States, by Dr. Lyman J. Briggs, 263.
DuckwortuH (A.), the rate of interest in

Australia, 482.

DuckwortH (Dr. W. L. H.) on the
present state of knowledge of the pre-
historic civilisation of the Western
Mediterranean, 235.

Ductless glands, report on the, 237.

DUFFIELD (Dr. F. A.) on calorimetric
observations on man, 238.

DUFFIELD (Dr. W. G.) on establishing a
solar observatory in Australia, 74.

*__. the pressure upon the poles of a
carbon are, 304. pr ie

Dun (W. S.) and Prof. T. W. E, Davip
on the term permo-carboniferous and
on the correlation of that system, 379.

764

Duntor (Dr. A.) on the exploration of
La Cotte de St. Brelade, Jersey, 230.
*Dunstan (S.), the geological relations
of the artesian water-bearing beds of
Southern Queensland, 380.

Dura Den, the wpper old red sandstone
of, report on, 116.

—— the fossil fishes from, Dr. A. Smith
Woodward on, 122.

Du Torr (A. L.) on the physiography of
arid lands, 367.

DwerryHouseE (Dr. A. R.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 111.

—— on the preparation of a list of charac-
teristic fossils, 111.

Dynamic increment, the, of a single |

rolling load on a supported beam, by
Prof. H. Chatley, 502.

Dynamic isomerism, report on, 102.

Dyson (Dr. F. W.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 41.

—— on establishing a solar observatory
tn Australia, 74.

*___ the distribution in space of the
stars near the North Pole, 303.

*Early stone age culture, some exten-
sions of the, by H. Balfour, 527.

*Earthquake origins of the S. W. Pacific,
a map of the principal, by G. Hogben,
304.

Eastern Australian
its effect on the native flora, by R. H.
Cambage, 448.

Eccues (Dr. W. H.) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 70.
*Echinoderm larve,

T. Steel, 407.

Economic evolution, some thoughts on,
by Prof. H. O. Meredith, 482.

Economic ideal, the, by Prof. S.
Chapman, 488.

Economic Science and Statistics, Address
to the Section of, by Prof. E. C. K.
Gonner, 453.

studies by

on,

Eporneton (Prof. A. §S.) on radio-
telegraphic investigations, 70.

—— on establishing a solar observatory
tn Australia, 74.

*—__ the oblate shape of the stellar
system, 304.

Education, the mental and physical factors
involved in, report on, 248.

Educational pioneering (Queensland), by
J. D. Story, 634.

Educational Section, Address by Prof.
J. Perry to the, 592.

—— Address by Prof. H. E. Armstrong
to the, 608.

Eacar (W. D.) on the influence of school
books upon eyesight, 248.

topography and —
| —— on anesthetics, 550.

. INDEX.

Eecar (W. D.), mathematics and science
as part of a liberal education, 623.

Eeaueston (F. W.), the Australian
democracy and its economic problems,
469.

Egypt, the ancient inhabitants of, by
Prof. G. Elliot Smith, 534.
Egyptians, the ancient, the
characters of, report on, 212.
Elasticity, the change in the modulus
of, and of other properties of metals
with temperature, by Prof. F. C. Lea

and O. H. Crowther, 502.

Electric railways, the metropolitan,
proposed for Sydney, by J. J. C.
Bradfield, 507.

Electricity in coal mining, the limiting
conditions for the safe use of, by
Prof. W. M. Thornton, 513.

*Flectrification, the artificial, of the
atmosphere, by Sir O. Lodge, 501.

*Elements, the natural classification
of the, a device for the representation
of, by Prof. Orme Masson, 336.

*Ellipsoidal shells, the attractions of,
by Prof. A. Gray, 304.

physical

| ELMORE (J. L.), exhibition of drawings

and photographs of South African
bushmen, their occupations and modes
of life, 536.

Emptey (Dr. E. H.), evidence of co-
ordinate action in the cireulatory
system, 547.

resuscitation in threatened fatalities
during the administration of general
anesthetic agents, 551.

Employment for juveniles, the selection
of, by Mrs. C. M. Meredith, 485.

Engineering Section, Address by Prof.
E. G. Coker to the, 490.

*Enricut (W. G.), exhibition of an
Australian aboriginal stone toma-
hawk and of drawings by an aboriginal,
536.

| Erratic blocks of the British Isles, report
Economics at Oxford, by Sidney Ball, 472. |

on the, 111.

ErRskine-Mcurray (Dr.)
graphic investigations, 70.

*ETHERIDGE (R.), the distribution of
the cvlindro-conicai stones of Western
New South Wales, 535.

*__ the ethnological collections of the
Australian Museum, with special re-
ference to the Bismarck Archipelago
and New Guinea, 536.

*—— exhibition of teeth of the dingo
from the breccia of the Wellington
Caves, New South Wales, 536.

*Ethnological collections of the Aus-
tralian Museum, the, with special
reference to the Bismarck Archipelago
and New Guinea, by R. Etheridge, 536.

on radiotele-

INDEX.

*Ethnological research, systematic, in
Australia, a plea for, by W. D. Camp-
bell, 584.

Euealypts, variation and adaptation in
the, by Dr. Cuthbert Hall, 583.

——-the Tasmanian and Australian,
the correlation between the specific
characters of, by R. T. Baker and
H. G. Smith, 582.

Eucalyptus, the genus, the evolution of,
by R. H. Cambage, 582.

Euphorbia peplus, the action of the
juice of, on a photographic plate, by

J. M. Petrie and H. G. Chapman, 303. |

Evans (Sir A. J.) on the lake villages in
the neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 210.

——-on the present state of knowledge of
the prehistoric civilisation of the Western
Mediterranean, 235.

Evans (Dr. J. Jameson) on the physio- |

logical and psychological factors in the

production of miners’ nystagmus, 241.
Evans (Dr. J. W.) on the geology of

Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire, 111.

——on the old red sandstone rocks of |

Kiltorcan, Treland, 113.

Ewart (Prof. A. J.) on oxidase enzymes,
577.

—— and Ouive B. Dayins, the flora of
the Northern Territory, 573.

Ewrne (Sir J. A.) on stress distributions
in engineering materials, 200.

*Explosions in gases, by Prof. H. B.
Dixon, 348.

Extra-tropical forestry in Portugal, by
D. E. Hutchins, 589.

Eyesight, the influence of school books
wpon, interim report on, 248.

Eyre (Dr. J. Vargas) on the study of
solubility phenomena, 110.

Farrer, William, his work, methods, and
success, 662.

Fatigue from the economic standpoint,
the question of, interim report on, 175.

Fattening capacity and skin temperature,
by Prof. T. B. Wood and A. V. Hill,
665.

Fauna and flora of the trias of the Western
Midlands, report on the, 114.

*Fawsitt (Prof.), the corrosion of iron
and steel by artesian waters in New
South Wales, 342.

Frarnsipes (Prof. W. G.) on the ex-
cavation of critical sections in the
lower paleozoic rocks of England and
Wales, 115.

* Feeding habits of British birds, sixth report
on the, 400.

Feeding statistics and starch equiva-
lents, by Prof. T. B. Wood and G.
Tdny Yule, 665.

765

*Feeling of familiarity, the relation of
the, to belief, by Dr. H. Muscic, 559.

Frrrar (H. T.), the permian breccia of
the Midland counties of Britain, a
desert formation, 362.

—— on the occurrence of loess deposits
in Egypt and its bearing on change
of climate in recent geological times,
363.

—— on the physiography of arid lands,
370.

—— some factors controlling the growth
of cotton, 659.

—— two maps illustrating the fertility
of Lower Egypt, 659.

Frevps (Prof. J. C.), properties of alge-
braic numbers analogous to certain
properties of algebraic functions, 307.

Finon (Prof. L. N. G.) on the calculation
of mathematical tables, 75.

—— on stress distributions in engineering
materials, 200.

——and Prof. E. G. Corer, experi-
mental determination of the distribution
of stress and strain in solids, 201.

—— —w— the stress distribution
short compression members, 501.

Fiypuay (Prof. A.) on the study of solu-
bility phenomena, 110.

Finpuay (Prof. J. J.), the compulsory
education of youth, 626.

*—— on the general aims of training,
629.

*FITZGERALD (J. D.), sociological aspects
of town planning, 478.

*FLASHMAN (J. F.), Australian aboriginal
brains, 536.

Flax as a paying crop, by C. P. Ogilvie,
649.

Friemine (Prof. J. A.) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 70.

Frett (Dr. J. S.) on the upper old red
sandstone of Dura Den, 116.

Freure (Prof. H. J.) on the teaching of
anthropology, 235.

Flora and fauna of the trias of the Western
Midlands, report on the, 114.

Flora of the environs of Melbourne, the,
by C. 8. Sutton, 574.

Flora of the Northern Territory, the, by
Dr. A. J. Ewart and Olive B. Davies,
573.

FiLorEence (P. Sargant) on the question
of fatigue from the economic stand-
point, 175.

Forpuam (Sir George) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 722.

—-— Address to the Conference of
Delegates (the endeavour to co-
ordinate the work of local scientific
societies), 723.

*Forest climate and rainfall, by E. A.
Mackay, 446.

766

*Forrest (Rt. Hon. Sir John), Aus- | Glastonbury, the lake villages in the neigh-

tralian exploration, 446.

Forster (Dr. M. O.) on dynamic isomer- |

ism, 102.

Fossil fishes from Dura Den, the, Dr.
A, Smith Woodward on, 122.

Fossil fruits, description of some, by
Bertha Rees, 579.

*Fossil plants discovered by Capt.
Scott’s last expedition in the Ant-
arctic regions, the, by Prof. A. C.
Seward, 580.

Foxtey (Miss B.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248.

Freezing point, the, of the laked red
blood corpuscles of man and some
domesticated animals, Dr. H. G.
Chapman on, 559.

Froceart (W. W.), acquired habits of
muscide (sheep-maggot-flies), 422.

Frogs, Australian, J. Booth on a collection
of, 398.

Futon (A. RB.) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 200.

Purser (T. F.), geodetic surveying in
New South Wales and some results,
449.

GaRDINER (Prof. J. Stanley) on the
biological problems incidental to the
Belmullet whaling station, 125.

GaRDNER (Willoughby) on the lake
villages in the neighbourhood of Glaston-
bury, 210.

Garson (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 722.

Garwoop (Prof. E. J.) on the character,
work, and maintenance of museums,
249.

Gaseous explosions, seventh report on, 177

—— the lost pressure in, by Prof.
W. M. Thornton, 513.

Gates (Dr. R. R.) on breeding experi-
ments with enotheras, 247.

xeodetic surveying in New South Wales
and some results, by T. F. Furber,
449,

Geographical Section, Address by Sir
C. P. Lucas to the, 426.

*Geological photographs,
Committee on, 379.

Geological Section, Address by Prof.
Sir T. H. Holland to the, 344.

*Geology of New South Wales, the, by
E. F. Pittman, 378.

report of the

*Geology of Victoria, the, by Prof.
E. W. Skeats, 358.
Gerontocracy and marriage in Aus-

tralia, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers on, 531.
Gipson (W. R. Boyce), moral education,
626.

INDEX,

bourhood of, report on, 210.

GLAZEBROOK (Dr. R. T.) on seismological
investigations, 41.

—— on the investigation of the wpper
atmosphere, 69.

—— on gaseous explosions, 177.

Goxp (E.) on the investigation of the upper
atmosphere, 69.

Goupine (J.) and H. B. Hurcurson,
a review of work on soil inoculation,
668.

—— Dr. R. 8. Witttams, and J. Macx-
INTOSH, trials of milking machines,
652.

GoupsteIN (Prof. E.) on salts coloured
by cathode rays, 250.

Gondwana Land, the vegetation of, by
Prof. A. C. Seward, 584.

GonneER (Prof. E. C. K.), Address to:
the Section of Economic Science and
Statistics, 453.

Goopricu (E. 8.) on the biological prob-
lems incidental to the Belmullet whaling
station, 125.

—— on the occupation of a table at the
zoological station at Naples, 162.

on the occupation of a table at the
marine laboratory, Plymouth, 163.

Grant (Prof. Kerr) on the structure of
atoms and molecules, 301.

*Gray (Prof. A.), the attraction of
ellipsoidal shells, 304.

Gray (E.) on the character, work, and
maintenance of museums, 249.

Gray (Rev. Dr. H. B.), school training
for public life, 632.

Gray (H. St. G.) on the lake villages in
the neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 210.

Gray (M. H.) on seismological investi-
gations, 41.

GREEN (Dr. Heber), the capillary power
of soils, 647.

GREEN (Prof. J. A.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248,

—— on the character, work, and main-
tenance of museums, 249.

*——_ on the possibility of analysing
the process of teaching with a view
to simplifying the approach to the
problem of training, 629.

*—_ the school and the university, 634.

GREEN (J. F. N.) on the geology of Ramsey
Island, Pembrokeshire, 111.

GREEN (Rev. W. 8.) on the biological
problems incidental to the Belmullet
whaling station, 125.

GREENHILL (Sir George) on the calculation
of mathematical tables, 75.

*Green’s function for the equation
v’u + ku = 0, the, by Prof. H. 8.
Carslaw, 308.

INDEX.

Grecory (Prof. J. W.) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 111.
—— on the physiography of arid lands,

366.
—— the correlation of the Australian

marine kainozoic deposits—evidence of |

the echinoids, bryozoa, and some
vertebrates, 376.

Grecory (Prof. R. A.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248.

—— on the influence of school books upon

eyesight, 248.

767

Hamivton (J. Erik) on the biological
problems incidental to the Belmutlet
whaling station, 125.

Harpy (Dr. W. B.) on the occupation of
a table at the zoological station at Naples,
162.

Harker (Dr. G.), the use of waste gases
of combustion for fire extinctive and
fumigating purposes, 342.

Harker (Dr. J. A.) on gaseous explo-
sions, 177.

| Harman (N. B.) on the influence of

GreGory (R. P.) on experimental studies |

in the physiology of heredity, 245.

—— on breeding experiments with wno-
theras, 247.

—— inheritance in certain giant races
of Primula sinensis, 587.

Greic-SmirH (Dr.), bacterial toxins in
soils, 667.

GRIFFIN (W. B.), the Canberra plan, 500.

Grirritus (Principal E. H.) on the work
of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee, 722.

Grucuy (G. de) on the exploration of
La Cotte de St. Brelade, Jersey, 230.
Gurst (J. J.) on stress distributions in

engineering materials, 200.
*—__ a theory of work speeds in grind-
ing, 502.

Gururie (F. B.), wheat improvement

in Australia, 661.

Happon (Dr. A. C.) on the teaching of
anthropology, 235.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 722.

Hatz (A. D.) on the study of plant enzymes,
108.

*—__ agricultural education, 626.

—— Address to the Agricultural Sec-
tion, 636, 670.

Hatt (Dr. Cuthbert), variation and
adaptation in the eucalypts, 583.

Hatt (Dr. T. 8.), Victorian graptolites, |
| Heredity, the physiology of, experimental

Be kD:

—— the age and sequence of the Vic-
torian tertiaries, 372.

*HALLIBURTON (Prof. W. D.) and Prof.
W. E. Drxon, the physiology of cere-
bro-spinal fluid, 547.

Harwigan (G. H.), the sand-drift prob-
lem of the eastern coast of Australia,451.

Halogens in the gaseous state, the
viscosities of the, Dr. A. O. Rankine
on, 306.

Hamet (E. D. de) on the ringing of
birds, 399.

Hamitton (A. G.) on the xerophytic
characters of Bossiea scolopendria
(Sm.), 586.

school books upon eyesight, 248.
Harmer (F. W.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 111.

Harmer (Dr. 8S. F.) on the position of the

Antarctic whaling industry, 123.

on the occupation of a table at the
zoological station at Naples, 162.

Harrison (Rev. 8. N.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 111.

Harr (T. §.), the central highlands and
“main divide’ of Victoria, 443.

| Hartuanp (E. 8.) on the production of

certified copies of Hausa manuscripts,
234.

Hartune (E. J.), a new method for
determining the specific heats of
liquids, 337.

Hausa manuscripts, the production of
certified copies of, report on, 234.

Havre Meeting of the French Associa-
tion: visit of members to the, 720.

Hawaiian wasps, Dr. R. C. L. Perkins’

researches on the colour-groups of,
Prof. E. B. Poulton on, 403.

*Hepiey (C.), Polynesian fish-hooks,
536.

HENDERSON (Prof. J. B.) on stress dis-
tributions in engineering materials, 200.

Herpman (Prof. W. A.) on the biological
problems incidental to the Belmullet
whaling station, 125.

on experiments in inheritance, 163.

*—__. plankton, 398.

on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 722.

studies in, report on, 245.

Heredity of some emotional traits, by
Prof. C. B. Davenport, 419.

*Herens (E. O.) and Professor T. H.
Lasy on the thermal conductivity of
air, 301.

*—_ an absolute determination
of the thermal conductivity of air,
304.

Herman (H.), the tertiary brown coal-
beds of Victoria, 377.

Herring (Prof. P. T.), a comparison of
the activity of extracts of the pars
intermedia and pars nervosa of the
ox pituitary, 558.

768

*Herrine (Prof. P. T.), the influence
of the thyroid upon the activity of
the suprarenals and pituitary body,
508.

Hewitt (Dr. J. T.) on the transformation
of aromatic nitroamines and allied sub-
stances, and its relation to substitution
in benzene derivatives, 105.

Hicks (Prof. W. M.) on the structure of
atoms and molecules, 296.

—— on the magneton as a scattering
agent of a and 8 particles, 301.

Hickson (Prof. 8. J.) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 162.

Hiern (W. P.), Australian ebenacez,
010.

*High-frequency spectra, by H. G. J.
Moseley, 305.

Hitt (A. V.) and Prof. T. B. Woop,
fattening capacity and skin tempera-
ture, 665.

Hiut (Prof. J. P.) on the occupation of a
table at the marine laboratory, Plymouth,
163.

Hux (M. D.) on the character, work, and
maintenance of museums, 249.

Hix (Prof. M. J. M.) on the calculation
of mathematical tables, 75.

Hitt (Wm.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 111.

Hosson (Bernard) on the preparation
of a list of stratigraphical names used
in the British Isles, 113.

Hopson (Prof. E. W.) on the calculation
of mathematical tables, 75.

Hogarte (D. G.) on the present state of
knowledge of the prehistoric civilization
of the Western Mediterranean, 235.

*HoaBen (G.), a map of the principal
earthquake origins of the 8. W. Pacific,
304.

Houpen (Col. H. C. L.) on gaseous ex-
plosions, 177.

Houianp (J. L.) on the influence of
school books wpon eyesight, 248.

Houuanp (Prof. Sir T. H.) on the pre-
paration of a list of characteristic
fossils, 111.

—— Address to the Geological Section,
344.

—— on the physiography of arid lands,
363.

Houmes (T. V.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 722.
Hour (Dr. A.), a comparison of the
phenomena of the occlusion of hydro-
gen by palladium and by charcoal,

339.

—— the colouring matters of certain
marine organisms, 342.

Hopkinson (Prof. B.) on gaseous explo-
sions, 177.

INDEX.

Hopginson (J.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 722.
—— local natural history societies and

their publications, 726.

Hormone, theory of the heredity of
somatic modifications, the, by Dr.
J. T. Cunningham, 419.

Horne (Dr. J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 111.

on the preparation of a list of strati-
graphical names used in the British
Isles, 113.

—— on the wpper old red sandstone of
Dura Den, 116.

Howe (Prof. G. W. 0.) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 70,

the capacity of radiotelegraphic
aerials, 514.

Hoyie (Dr. W. E.) on the character,
work, and maintenance of museums,
249.

Hopson (Prof. W. H. H.), the evolute
of the limagon, 308.

Hume (Dr. F. W.) on the physiography of
arid lands, 368.

Humpnrey (H. A),
pump, 501.

Humphrey pump, the, by H. A. Hum-
phrey, 501.

Humpnreys (Dr. J.) on the fauna and
flora of the trias of the Western Mid-
lands, 114.

Hunt (H. A.), Australian rainfall, 439.

Hurcuins (Miss B. L.) on the question
of fatigue from the economic standpoint,
175.

Hourcouts (D. E.), extra-tropical forestry
in Portugal, 589.

Hurtcurnson (H. B.) and J. Gouprye,
a review of work on soil inoculation,
668.

—— and K. MacLennay, the effects of
caustic lime and of chalk on soil
fertility, 668.

Hydrastinine and cotarnine, the con-
densation of, with aromatic aldehydes,
by Mrs. G. M. Robinson, 341.

Hydrogen-ion concentrations of the
blood, variations in the, by Prof. T.
H. Milroy, 557.

the Humphrey

Iturime (V. C.) on the excavation of critical
sections in the lower paleozoic rocks
of England and Wales, 115.

Imperial College of Science and Tech-
nology, the: the Goldsmiths’ Com-
pany’s extension of the Engineering
College, by Prof. W. E. Dalby, 506.

mm TuHurN (Sir E. F.) on the teaching of
anthropology, 235.

—— Address to the
Section, 515.

Anthropological

INDEX.

Industrial arbitration in relation to
socialism, by F. A. A. Russell, 486.

Inheritance, experiments in, final report
on, 163.

Inheritance in certain giant races of
Primula sinensis, by R. P. Gregory,
587.

*Intercostal muscles, the effect of
simultaneous contraction of the, by
Prof. Sir T. P. A. Stuart, 555.

Interest, the doctrine of, the present
position of, by Prof. H. O. Meredith,
472.

—— the rate of, in Australia, by A.
Duckworth, 482.

*Ivon salts in the colourless portion of
the chloroplast, the presence of, and
the mechanism of photo-synthesis
by iron salts, by Prof. B. Moore, 556.

Trrigation, discussion on, 655.

Krrigation in Lybia, by Prof.
Luiggi, 503.

*Trrigation in New South Wales, by
A. B. Wade, 503.

*Jrrigation in Victoria. by J. H. Deth-
ridge, 660.

jlrrigation dams and _ hydro-electric
power, by E. K. Scott, 514.

lrrigation works in Italy,
Luigi Luiggi, 655.

Irvine (Prof. R. F.), the influence of
distribution on production, 481.

*Isle of Man, the natural history survey
of the, report on, 401.

Isoquinoline alkaloids, the synthesis of,
by Prof. R. Robinson, 340.

Isostasy, the hypothesis of, E. C. Andrews
on, 380.

Luigi

by Prof.

Jexu (Dr. T. J.) on the upper old red
sandstone of Dura Den, 116.

Jersey, recent excavation of a paleo-
lithic cave in, by Dr. R. R. Marett,
527.

JouNS (Cosmo) on the preparation of a
list of characteristic fossils, 111.

_ Jounson (Prof. T.) on the old red sand-
stone rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland, 113.
—— the contamination of drinking
water by alge and its removal,

581.

—— potato scab and its causes, 587.

JOHNSTON (James), the effect of town
planning and good housing conditions
on social and economic well-being,
468.

JOHNSTON (Dr. S. J.), Australian trema-
todes and cestodes: a preliminary
study in zoogeography, 424.

Jones (Dr. F. Wood) on the physical
peer of the ancient Egyptians,

12.

1914.

769

Jones (Prof. O. T.) on the geology of
Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire, 111.
Jupp (Prof. J. W.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 41.

* JUNGERSEN (Prof. H. F. E.), the Narwhal
and Beluga, 398.

—— some facts regarding the anatomy
of the genus Pegasus, 420.

Jurassic flora of Yorkshire, report on the
investigation of the, 244.

KEEBLE (Prof. F.) on the study of plant
enzymes, 108.

——on experimental studies
physiology of heredity, 245.
—— on breeding experiments with ceno-

theras, 247.

Kees (T. W.), investigation of Nile
River flood record from a.p. 641 to
A.D. 1451 for traces of periodicity,
505.

Kerrs (Prof. A.) on the physical charac-
ters of the ancient Egyptians, 212.

—— on the exploration of La Cotte de
St. Brelade, Jersey, 230.

KENDALL (Prof. P. F.) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 111.

Kent (Prof. Stanley) on the question of
fatigue from the economic standpoint,
175.

Kenyon (A. 8.), the ‘ mallee’ country of
North-Western Victoria, 442.

—— on the physiography of arid lands,
367.

——and D. J. Manony, the stone
implements of the Australian ab-
origine: the types and their occur-
rence, 526.

*Kipson (E.), the general magnetic
survey of Australia, 301.

Kinston (Dr. R.) on the old red sandstone
rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland, 113.

Kiltorcan, Ireland, the old red sandstone
rocks of, interim report on, 113.

Kityineton (Basil), artificial collaterali-
sation as applied to the abdominal
aorta, 548.

—— and Prof. W. A. OsBorng, central
neural response to peripheral neural
distortion, 547.

Kimmins (Dr. C. W.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248.

—— the London trade schools, 624.

Kincaip (Miss Hilda), the biochemical
significance of phosphorus, 554.

*Kinematograph pictures, the binocular
combination of, report on, 549.

Krerrne (Prof. F. 8.) on the transforma-
tion of aromatic nitroamines and allied
substances, and its relation to substitu-
tion in benzene derivatives, 105.

a) 0:

in the

770

Kirkaupy (Prof. A. W.), the economics
of marine fuel, 483.

*KIRKPATRICK (C. R. §.), development
of the port of London, 500.

*Klondyke, the, and Southern Alaska, by
Prof. E. 8. Moore, 449.

Kyisss (G. H.) on certain character-
istics of manufacturing industry in
Australia, 475.

—— estimate of the private wealth of a
community and the measure of its un-
certainty, 476. |

Knorr (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
investigations, 41

*Lasy (Prof. T. H.) and G. E. Apams,
length and electrical resistance of steel
tapes, 304.

*—___ and_E. O. Hzrens on the thermal
conductivity of air, 301.

*___ ___ an absolute determination of
the thermal conductivity of air, 304.
*—_ and W. Stuart, the nature of

y rays, 304.

La Cotte de St. Brelade, Jersey, report
on the exploration of, 230.

Lake villages in the neighbourhood of
Glastonbury, report on the, 210.

Lampreys, Victorian, species of, by Dr.
J. A. Leach, 399.

Land taxation in Australia, by G. A.
McKay, 474.

Lankester (Sir E. Ray) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the zoological station
at Naples, 162.

—— on the occupation of a table at the
marine laboratory, Plymouth, 163.

Laprworts (Dr. C.) on the excavation of
critical sections in the lower pal@ozoic
rocks of England and Wales, 115.

Larmor (Sir J.) on seismological investi-
gations, 41.

—— on the investigation of the wpper
atmosphere, 69.

Lauper (Dr. Alexander), methods of milk
recording, 650.

Laurie (R. Douglas) on experiments in
inheritance, 163.

*Law (Dr.), mind and matter, 559.

Layton (W. T.) on the question of fatigue
from the economic standpoint, 175.

Lea (Prof. F. C.) and O. H. CRowTHer,
the change in the modulus of elasticity
and of other properties of metals with
temperature, 502.

Lracu (Dr. J. A.), species of Victorian
lampreys, 399.

Lezour (Prof. G. A.) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 111.
—— on the preparation of a list of
stratigraphical names used in the

British Isles, 113.

INDEX.

Leguminose, the natural order, the
development of, by E. C. Andrews, 447.

Letra (Prof. R. F. C.) on a case of delayed
chloroform poisoning, 552.

Lewis (A. L.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 722.

Lichen-thallus, relationship of fungus
and alga in the, by Miss A. L. Smith,
580.

Light, the scattering of, by small and
large particles of conducting and non-
conducting substances, Prof. A. W.
Porter and E, Talbot Paris on, 305.

Licutroot (Gerald), the statistical and
judicial determination of the minimum
wage in Australia, 473.

Limacon, the evolute of the, by Prof.
W. H. H. Hudson, 308.

Linear partial differential equations of
the second order, symbolic solution of,
by T. W. Chaundy, 306.

Local natural history societies and their
publications, by J. Hopkinson, 726.
Local scientific societies, the endeavour
to co-ordinate the work of, by Sir G.

Fordham, 723.

—— a bibliography of the publications
of, by W. Cole and H. Whitehead, 730.

Lopasr (Prof. A.) on the calculation of
mathematical tables, 75.

Lopez (Sir Oliver) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 70.

*____ on wireless telegraphy, 305.

* the artificial electrification of the
atmosphere, 501.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 722.

Loess deposits in Egypt, the occurrence
of, and its bearing on change of
climate in recent geological times,
H. T. Ferrar on, 363.

*London, the port of, development of,
by C. R. 8. Kirkpatrick, 500.

London trade schools, the, by Dr. C. W.
Kimmins, 624.

Lone (Charles R.), three early Australian
geographers: their work, and how it is
remembered, 444.

Lost pressure in gaseous explosions, the,
by Prof. W. M. Thornton, 513.

Love (Prof. A. E. H.) on the calculation
of mathematical tables, 75.

—— on the disposal of copies of the
binary canon, 102.

—— on stress distributions in engineering
materials, 200.

*LOvELL (Dr. H. Tasman), a contribution
to the psychology of written errors, 559.

*—__ analysis of conation, 559.

Low (Dr. Alexander), the short cists of
the north-east of Scotland, 525.

Lower Egypt, the fertility of, two maps
illustrating, by H. T. Ferrar, 659.

INDEX.

Lower paleozoic rocks of England and
Wales, the excavation of critical sections
tn the, report on, 115.

Lower tertiary marine sedimentary rocks
of Australia, the age of the, R. B.
Newton on, 375.

Lowry (Dr. T. M.) on dynamic isomerism,
102

Sesmntethe study of solubility phenomena,
110

Lucas (Sir Charles P.), Address to the
Geographical Section, 426.

Lucas (Dr. Keith) on calorimetric observa-
tions on man, 238.

Luiaat (Prof. Luigi), irrigation in Lybia,
503.

irrigation works in Italy, 655.

*Luscnan (Prof. F. von), culture and
degeneration, 529.

Lybia, irrigation in, by Prof. L. Luiggi,

*LyLe (Prof. T. R.), demonstration of a
mechanical analogue of wireless tele-
graphic circuits, 301.

Maas (Prof. Otto), adaptation and in-
heritance in silkworms, 406.

Macatium (Prof. A. B.) on the duciless
glands, 237.

Macavunay (F. 8.) on the algebraic
theory of modular systems (or modules
of polynomials), 310.

* a theory of double points, 311.

*McCompiz (Dr. H.), the influence of
substituents on the velocity of saponi-
fication of phenyl benzoate, 342.

Macponautp (Prof. H. M.) on radio-
telegraphic investigations, 70.

on the calculation of mathematical
tables, 75. 5

Macponatp (Prof. J. 8.) on calorimetric
observations on man, 238.

McDovaatt (Prof. W.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248.

MocInrosu (Prof. W. C.) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 162. i

*Mackay (KE. A.), forest climate and rain-
fall, 446.

McKay (G. A),
Australia, 474. :

Maocxtz (Prof. A.), training of teachers in
New South Wales, 629.

Macxtntosu (James), Dr. R. 8. WiAMs,
and J. Goxuptne, trials of milking
machines, 652.

MacLennan (K.) and H. B, Hurcuty-
son, the effects of caustic lime and of
chalk on soil fertility, 668.

MacManon (Major P. A.) on the disposal
of copies of the binary canon, 102.

land taxation in

771

*Magnetic survey of Australia, the
general, by E: Kidson, 301.

Magneton, the, as a scattering agent
of a and 8 particles, Prof. W. M.
Hicks on, 301.

Manony (D. J.), the evolution of
Victoria during the kainozoic period,
376.

——and A. §. Kernyon, the stone
implements of the Australian abori-
gine: the types and their occurrence,
526

Marprn (J. H.), the species concept,
with especial reference to eucalyptus,
581.

MatrLanp (Dr. T. G.) on the question of
fatigue from the economic standpoint,
175.

——on the physiological and psycholo-
gical factors in the production of miners’
nystagmus, 241.

Matinowsrr (Dr. B.), a fundamental
problem of religious sociology, 534.
‘Mallee’ country of North-Western
Victoria, the, by A. S. Kenyon, 442.
*Mammary gland, the, by Prof. Sir E.

Schifer, 547.

Manufacturing industry in Australia,
certain characteristics of, by G. H.
Knibbs, 475.

Map of the world on the scale of 1:
1,000,000, recent advances in the, by
Prof. A. Penck, 446.

Marerr (Dr. R. R.) on the exploration
of La Cotte de St. Brelade, Jersey, 230.

—— on the teaching of anthropology, 235.

—— recent excavation of a palzolithic
cave in Jersey, 527.

Marine fuel, the economics of, by Prof.
A. W. Kirkaldy, 483.

Marr (Dr. J. E.) on the preparation of
a list of characteristic fossils, 111.

——on the preparation of a list of
stratigraphical names used in the
British Isles, 113.

on the excavation of critical sections
in the lower paleozoic rocks of England
and Wales, 115.

Mason (W.) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 200.

*Masson (Prof. Orme), a device for the
representation of the natural classifica-
tion of the elements, 336.

Mathematical and Physical Section,
Address by Prof. F. T. Trouton to the,
285.

—— Address by Prof. E. W. Brown to
the, 311.

Mathematical tables, the calculation of,
report on, 75

Mathematics and science as part of a
liberal education, by W. D. Eggar,
623.

3 D2

772

MatTuHEson (Miss M. C.) on the question of
fatigue from the economic standpoint,
175.

Matonioid ferns, modern derivatives of
the, by Prof. F. O. Bower, 576.

Melbourne, the environs of, the flora of,
by C. 8. Sutton, 574.

Metpoua (Prof. R.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 41.

Mental and physical factors involved in
education, report on the, 248.

MeEreEpiTH (Mrs. C. M.), the selection of
employment for juveniles, 485.

—— the teaching of domestic subjects in
primary schools, 627.

MerepitH (Prof. H. O.), the present
position of the doctrine of interest,
472.

—— some thoughts on economic evolu-
tion, 482.

Metabolism, discussion on, 663.

Prof. H. E. Armstrong on, 663.

*Metallogenetic provinces of Eastern
Australia, the, by C. A. Sussmilch,
381.

Metals under strain, the behaviour of,
by Dr. W. Rosenhain, 500.

*Meteorological phenomena, discontin-
uities in, by Prof. H. H. Turner, 304.

Micturition control in human beings,
the mechanism of, by Dr. S. Sewell,
554.

Milk, changes in the reaction of, under
different conditions, by Prof. T. H.
Milroy, 557.

—— the deposit obtained from, by
spinning in a centrifuge, H. S. H.
Wardlaw on, 556.

Milk and butter records of pure-bred
cows in Australia, with special refer-
ence to the Australian breed of milking
shorthorns, by M. A. O’Callaghan, 653.

*Milk and dairy supervision in Victoria,
the results of, by Dr. S. S. Cameron,
653.

Milk recording, methods of, by Dr. A.
Lauder, 650.

Miiking machines, trials of, by Dr.
R. 8. Williams, J. Golding, and J.
Mackintosh, 652.

in Victoria, by R. T. Archer, 651.

*MineE (E.) on New South Wales ab-
original arborglyphs, 536.

Mmoy (Prof. T. H.), changes in the
reaction of milk under different condi-
tions, 557.

—— variations in the hydrogen-ion
concentrations of the blood, 557.

Mitton (J. H.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 111.

Mimicry in Australian insects, discussion
on, 402.

— Prof. E. B. Poulton on, 402.

INDEX.

Mincutn (Prof. E. A.), the development
of trypanosomes in the invertebrate
host, 404.

*Mind and matter, by Dr. Law, 559.

Miners’ nystagmus, the physiological and
psychological factors in the production
of, interim report on, 241.

Minimum wage in Australia, the
statistical and judicial determination
of the, by Gerald Lightfoot, 473.

Mircuett (Dr. P. Chalmers) on the
position of the Antarctic whaling
industry, 123.

Modular systems (or modules of poly-
nomials), the algebraic theory of,
F. 8. Macaulay on, 310.

Monecious condition in plants, the
evolution of the, by C. I. Bond, 572.
*Moopy (Dr. G. T.), commercial schools,

626.

Moore (Prof. Benjamin), Address to the
Physiological Section, 537.

*—_ forms of precipitation of inorganic
colloids, 556.

the action of ultra-violet light on

solutions of organic substances, 556.

the presence of iron salts in the
colourless portion of the chloroplast,
and the mechanism of photo-synthesis
by iron salts, 556.

Moore (Prof. Elwood §.), structural
features of the coal-fields of Pennsyl-
vania, the, and their influence on the
origin of hard coal, 381.

*—— Southern Alaska and the Klon-
dyke, 449.

Moral education, by W. RB. B. Gibson, 626.

Moraan (Prof. G. T.) and H. W. Moss,
residual affinity and co-ordination, 335.

—— and J. REILLY, non-aromatic dia-
zonium salts, 340.

*MorTENSEN (Dr. T.), studies on echino-
derm larve, 407.

Mosetey (H. G. J.) on the structure of
atoms and molecules, 299.

= high-frequency spectra, 305.

Moss (Dr. C. E.) on the vegetation of
Ditcham Park, Hampshire, 245.

Moss (H. W.) and Prof. G. T. Morgan,
residual affinity and co-ordination, 335.

*Motor tests of intelligence, some new,
H. Walker on, 624.

Mount Stromlo Observatory, by P.
Baracchi, 291.

MoreHeap (Prof. J. H.) on the question of
fatigue from the economic stand point,175,

on the physiological and psycho-
logical factors in the production of
miners’ nystagmus, 241.

Murray (J. A.), the estimation of con-
dition in cattle, 669.

*Muscic (Dr. H.), the relation of the
feeling of familiarity to belief, 559.

INDEX.

Muscide (sheep-maggot-flies), acquired
habits of, by W. W. Froggatt, 422.
Museums, the character, work, and

maintenance of, report on, 249.

Myers (Dr. ©. 8.) on the question of
fatigue from the economic standpoint,
175.

——on the physiological and psycho-
logical factors in the production of
miners’ nystagmus, 241.

—— on the mental and physical factors
involved in education, 248.

Myrzs (Prof. J. L.) on the distribution of
artificial islands in the lochs of the
Highlands of Scotland, 229.

on the production of certified copies
of Hausa manuscripts, 234.

—— on the present state of knowledge of
the prehistoric civilization of the Western
Mediterranean, 235.

—— on the teaching of anthropology, 23

*Narwhal and Beluga, the, by Prof. H.
Jungersen, 398.

*Native culture, the study of, in relation
to administration, discussion on, 531.

Nature and origin of species, discussion
on, 579.

Nature myths from Samoa, some, by
Rev. Dr. G. Brown, 533.

Netscuaserr (Prof. A.), problems and |

methods in Russian
pedagogics, 631.

NeEtrLerotp (J. §8.), the economics of
town planning, 468.

*New Caledonia, the coast of, by Prof.
W. M. Davis, 449.

*New South Wales, the geology of, by
E. F. Pittman, 378.

—— irrigation in, by A. B. Wade, 503.

experimental

*__ the genesis of the diamond in, by
L. A. Cotton, 381.
*—__ the occurrence of spilitic lavas in,

by W. N. Benson, 381.
*New South Wales aboriginal arbor-
- glyphs, E. Milne on, 536.
New South Wales, North-east, a botani-
cal survey of, by F. Turner, 589.
Newatt (Prof. H. F.) on establishing a
solar observatory in Australia, 74.
Newserry (P. E.) on the teaching of
anthropology, 235.

—— on the character, work, and mainte- |

nance of museums, 249.
Newton (Alan) on concussion of the
spinal cord and allied conditions, 554.

Newton (R. Bullen) on the age of the |

lower tertiary marine sedimentary
rocks of Australia, 375.

NicHotson (Prof. J. W.) on establishing a
solar observatory in Australia, 74.

773

NicHoxson (Prof. J. W.) on the calewa-
tion of mathematical tables, 75.

——on the structure of atoms and
molecules, 299.

Nicoxt (Dr. W.) on the worm parasites
of tropical Queensland, 407.

Nile River flood record from a.p. 641
to A.D. 1451, investigation of the, for
traces of periodicity, by T. W. Keele,
505.

Nitric acid and nitrous acid in the rain-
fall near Melbourne, the influence of
weather conditions upon the amounts
of, by V. G. Anderson, 338.

Nostez (Sir Andrew) on stress distribu-
tions in engineering materials, 200.

*Nomenclator animalium generum et sub-
generum, report on the, 400.

Non-aromatic diazonium salts, by Prof.
G. T. Morgan and J. Reilly, 340.

Norman (Sir H.) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 70.

Northern Territory, the flora of the, by
Dr. A. J. Ewart and Olive B. Davies,
573.

Nunn (Dr. T. P.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248,

O’CatLtaGgHan (M. A.), milk and butter
records of pure-bred cows in Australia,
with special reference to the Australian
breed of milking shorthorns, 653.

Occlusion of hydrogen by palladium
and by charcoal, a comparison of the
phenomena of, by Dr. A. Holt, 339.

Gnotheras, breeding experiments with,
report on, 247.

Ocitvie (C. P.), flax as a paying crop,
649.

Old red sandstone rocks of Kiltorcan,
Ireland, interim report on, 113.

*OtpHAM (H. Yule), the experimental
demonstration of the curvature of the
earth’s surface, 443.

*—_— a recently discovered MS. by
James Cook, 449.

Outver (Prof. F. W.) on the renting of
Cinchona botanic station in Jamaica,
248.

| *Ophiobolus graminis (Sacc.), the life

history of, Pref. T. G. B. Osborn on,
586.

Organisation in relation to progress, the
development of, by Dr. W. R. Scott,
488.

Origin and spread of certain customs
and inventions, the. by Prof. G.
Elliot Smith, 524.

Origin of species, the. by Dr. A. B.
Rendle, 579.

774

Orton (Prof. K. J. P.) on the transforma-
tion of aromatic nitroamines and allied
substances, and its relation to substitu-
tion in benzene derivatives, 105.

Osporn (Prof. T. G. B.), types of vegeta-
tion on the coast in the neighbourhood
of Adelaide, 584.

on the life-history of Ophiobolus
graminis (Sacc.), 586.

OsBoRNE (Prof. W. A.), pseudo-motor
action and recurrent sensibility, 547.
—— climate from the physiological

point of view, 555.

——and Bast KItvineton, central
neural response to peripheral neural
distortion, 547.

*OSTENFELD (Dr.), the geographical dis-
tribution of the sea-grasses, 580.

Oxidase enzymes, Prof. A. J. Ewart on,
577.

Paleolithic cave in Jersey, recent ex-
cavation of a, by Dr. R. R. Marett, 527.

Pak (Hon. Mary E.) on the occupation of
the table at the zoological station at
Naples, 162.

Paris (E. Talbot) and Prof. A. W.
PorteR on the scattering of light by
small and large particles of conducting
and non-conducting substances, 305.

Pars intermedia and pars nervosa of the
ox pituitary, a comparison of the
activity of extracts of, by Prof. P. T.
Herring, 558.

Paterson (Prof. John W.), the soil
moisture problem in Western Aus-
tralia, 646.

Patten (Prof. C. J.) on the diurnal
migrations of pipits, wagtails, and
swallows, as observed at Tuskar Rock
Light-station, Co. Wexford, 403.

Pracn (Dr. B. N.) on the upper old red
sandstone of Dura Den, 116.

Pearce (Hon. G. F.), Australian defence,
477.

Pegasus, the genus, some facts regarding
the anatomy of, by Prof. H. F. E.
Jungersen, 420.

Penok (Prof. A.) on the physiography
of arid lands, 366.

recent advances in the map of the
world on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000,
446. :

Pennsylvania, the structural features of
the coal-fields of, and their influence on
the origin of hard coal, by Prof. E. 8.
Moore, 381.

* Peripatus, T. Steel on, and on Australian
land planarians, 407.

Perkins, Dr. R. C. L., his researches on the
colour-groups of Hawaiian wasps, Prof.

- E. B. Poulton on, 403.

INDEX,

Permian breccia of the Midland counties
of Britain, the, a desert formation, by
H. T. Ferrar, 362.

Permo-carboniferous, the term, W. S.
Dun and Prof. T. W. E. David on,
and on the correlation of that system,
379.

*Permo-carboniferous glacial beds, the
age of the, by Dr. A. Vaughan, 378.
Perry (Prof. J.) on seismological investi-

gations, 41.

—— on stress distributions in engineering
materials, 200.

— — Address to the Educational Section,
592.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 722.

Petavet (Prof. J. E.) on the investigation
of the wpper atmosphere, 69.

—— on gaseous explosions, 177.

on stress distributions in engineering
materials, 200.

*____ aviation research, 499.

Petrie (Dr. J. M.), the cyanogenetic
plants of New South Wales, 343.

—— and Dr. H. G. Cuapman, the action
of the juice of Euphorbia peplus on a
photographic plate, 303.

the distribution of nitrogen in
the seeds of Acacia Pycnantha, 666.

Petrol motor fire engines, some tests of,
and the frictional and other resistances
to the flow of water through canvas
fire-hose, Prof. T. H. Beare on, 511.

Phosphorus, the biochemical _ signifi-
cance of, by Miss H. Kincaid, 554.

Phosphorus in steel, the distribution of,
by Dr. W. Rosenhain, 510.

*Physical and chemical constants, the
international tables of, report on, 304.
Physical and Mathematical Section,
Address by Prof. F. T. Trouton to the,

285.

—— Address by Prof. E. W. Brown
to the, 311.

*Physical characters of the
Egyptians, report on the, 212.

Physiography of arid lands, the, discus-
sion on, 363.

Prof. Sir T. H. Holland on, 363.

Physiological Section, Address by Prof.
B. Moore to the, 537.

Physiology of heredity, experimental
studies in the, report on, 245.

«Pittman (E. F.), the geology of New
South Wales, 378.

*—_— the great Australian artesian
basin and the source of its supply,
380.

PrxELL-GoopricH (Mrs. H. L. M.) on the
occupation of the table at the zoological
station at Naples, 162.

*Plankton, by Prof. Herdman, 398.

ancient

INDEX.

Plant enzymes, the study of, particularly
with relation to oxidation, third report
on, 108.

Prummer (W. E.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 41.

Plymouth marine laboratory, report on the
occupation of a table at the, 163.

*Poniock (Prof. J. A.), some measure-
ments of the wave-length in air of
electrical vibrations. 305.

* Polynesian fish-hooks, by C. Hedley, 536.

Pors (Prof. W. J.) on the correlation of
crystalline form with molecular structure,
109.

on the study of solubility phenomena,

—— Address to the Chemical Section,
322.

* chemical crystallography, 343.

Porter (Prof. A. W.) and E. Tazor
Paris on the scattering of light by
small and large particles of conducting
and non-conducting substances, 305.

*—— and F. Smuvzon on the change of
thermal conductivity during the
liquefaction of a metal, 303.

Portugal, extra-tropical forestry in, by
D. E. Hutchins, 589.

Post-jurassic geography of Australia,
E. C. Andrews on the, and on the
hypothesis of isostasy, 380.

Potato scab and its causes, by Prof. T.
Johnson, 587.

Povuton (Prof. E. B.) on mimicry in
Australian insects, 402.

—— Dr. R. C. L. Perkins’ researches on
the colour-groups of Hawaiian wasps,
403.

Pre-Cambrian, the early, the climatic
conditions of, by Prof. A. P. Coleman,
359.

*Precipitation of inorganic
forms of, by Prof. B. Moore, 556.

Precipitin reactions in pathological
human urines, by Cyril Shellshear, 559.

Prehistoric civilization of the Western
Mediterranean, the present state of
knowledge of the, report on, 235.

PripxHam (J. T.), William Farrer’s work, |

methods, and success, 662.

Primula sinensis, inheritance in certain
giant races of, by R. P. Gregory, 587.
PritcuarD (Dr. G. B.) on the age and
sequence of the Victorian tertiaries,

374.

Private wealth of a community, estimate
of the, and the measure of its un-
certainty, by G. H. Knibbs, 476.

Production, the influence of distribution
on, by Prof. R. F. Irvine, 481.

Pseudo-monocotyledons, the morphology
and anatomy of certain, by Miss E. N.
Thomas and A. J. Davey, 578.

colloids,

775

Pseudo-motor action and recurrent sen-
sibility, by Prof. W. A. Osborne, 547.
Punnett (Prof. R. C.) on experiments in

inheritance, 163.

*Queensland, Southern, artesian water-
bearing beds of, the geological re-
lations of, by E. F. Pittman, 380.

RavcuirrF (8.), the extraction of radium
from Australian ores, 342.

Radiotelegraphic aerials, the capacity
of, by Prof. G. W. O. Howe, 514.

Radiotelegraphic investigations,
report on, 70.

*Radium, the active deposit of, ex-
periments on, by E. Wellisch, 303.

oa the origin and nature of the y rays
from, by Prof. Sir E. Rutherford, 303.

from Australian ores, the ex-
traction of, by 8. Radcliff, 342.

Railways and motive power, by Prof.
W. E. Dalby, 499.

Rainfall, Australian, by H. A. Hunt,
439.

—— the ten-inch line of, by Prof. T.
Cherry, 645.

Ramssortom (J. W.) on the question of
fatigue from the economic standpoint,
175.

Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire, the geology
of, final report on, 111.

Ranke (Dr. A. O.) on the viscosities
of the halogens in the gaseous state,
306.

Reap (Sir C. H.) on the lake villages in the
neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 210.

Red cells of some vertebrates, a com-
parison of the sizes of the, by Dr. J. B.
Cleland, 404.

Rees (Bertha), description of some fossil
fruits, 579.

*REICHEL (Sir H. R.), the university and
the State, 634.

Rerp (Prof. R. W.) on the teaching of
anthropology, 235.

Rei~yy (Joseph) and Prof. G. T. Mor-
GAN, non-aromatic diazonium salts,
340.

interim

| Religious sociology, a fundamental pro-

blem of, by Dr. B. Malinowski, 534.

RENDLE (Dr. A. B.), the origin of species,
579.

Residual affinity and co-ordination, by
Prof. G. T. Morgan and H. W. Moss,
335.

Resuscitation in threatened fatalities
during the administration of anzsthe-
tics, by Dr. E. H. Embley, 551.

ReyNO.ps (Prof. 8. H.) on the preparation
of alist of characteristic fossils, 111.

776

INDEX,

RicHarpson (A. E. V.), wheat breeding | Sampson (Prof. R. A.) on seismological

in Australia, 663.
Ripegeway (Prof. W.) on the lake villages

in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 210. |

——on the distribution of artificial
islands in the lochs of the Highlands of
Scotland, 229.

—— on the present state of knowledge of |

the prehistoric civilization of the Western
Mediterranean, 235.

Ringing of birds, the, by E. D. de
Hamel, 399.

Rivers (Dr. W. H. R.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248.

—— is Australian culture simple or
complex ? 529.

—— on gerontocracy and marriage in
Australia, 531.

Ross (Dr. J. Jenkins) on the question of
fatigue from the economic standpoint,
175.

Rogsertson (Dr. John), the health aspect
of town planning, 478.

Rostyson (Mrs. G. M.), the condensation
of cotarnine and hydrastinine with
aromatic aldehydes, 341.

Rogryson (Prof. R.), the synthesis of
isoquinoline alkaloids, 340.

Rogers (Dr. F.) on stress distributions in

engineering materials, 200.

—— outline of manufacture of the standard
steels, 201.

Roman advance into South Italy, the, by
Dr. T. Ashby, 530.

Rome, a map of the environs of, of 1547,
by Dr. T. Ashby, 444.

RosENHAIN (Dr. Walter), the behaviour
of metals under strain, 500.

—— the distribution of phosphorus in
steel, 510.

RUHEMANN (Dr. 8.) on the transformation
of aromatic nitroamines and allied sub-

stances, and its relation to substitution in |

benzene derivatives, 105.

Russe Lu (Dr. E. J.) on the study of plant
enzymes, 108.

Russevu (F. A. A.), industrial arbitra
tion in relation to socialism, 486.

Russian experimental pedagogics, pro- |

blems and methods in, by Prof. A.
Netschajeff, 631.

RutTHERFORD (Prof. Sir Ernest) on the
structure of atoms and molecules, 293,
301.

*____ the origin and nature of the y rays
from radium, 303.

Salts coloured by cathode rays, Prof. F.

Goldstein on, 250.

Samoa, some nature myths from, by |

Rey. Dr. G. Brown, 533.

investigations, 41.

Sand-drift problem on the eastern
coast of Australia, the, by G. H.
Halligan, 451.

Sankey (Capt. H. R.) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 70.

—— on gaseous explosions, 177.

*Saponification of phenyl benzoate, the
influence of substituents on the
velocity of, by Dr. H. McCombie, 342.

SAUNDERS (Miss E. R.), the double stock:
its history and behaviour, 572.

Scent-distributing apparatus in the
lepidoptera, Dr. F. A. Dixey on, 401. _

Scuirer (Sir E. A.) on the ductless
glands, 237.

*—— the mammary gland, 547.

*School, the, and the university, by Prof.
J. A. Green, 634.

School books, the influence of, wpon eye-
sight, interim report on, 248.

School training for public life, by Rev.
Dr. H. B. Gray, 632.

Scuuster (Prof. A.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 41.

—— on the investigation of the wpper
atmosphere, 69.

—— on radiotelegraphic investigations, 70.

—— on establishing a solar observatory in
Australia, 74.

Science and mathematics as part of a
liberal education, by W. D. Eggar,
623.

Scosie (W. A.) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 200. ;

—— and Prof. E. G. Coxzr, temperature
cycles in heat-engines, 512.

{Scorr (E. Kilburn), irrigation dams and
hydro-electric power, 514.

Scort (Dr. W. R.), the development of
organisation in relation to progress,
488. :

*Sea-grasses, the geographical distribu-
tion of the, by Dr. Ostenfeld, 580.

*Secondary sexual characters in birds, the
inheritance and development of, report
on, 401,

Seismological investigations, nineteenth re-
port on, 41.

*Selenium, photo-electric effect in, by
Prof. O. U. Vonwiller, 303.

SELIGMANN (Dr. C. G.) on the physical
characters of the ancient Egyptians,
212.

—— on the teaching of anthropology, 235.

SewarpD (Prof. A. C.) on the Jurassic
flora of Yorkshire, 244.

*—_ the fossil plants discovered by
Capt. Scott’s last expedition in the
Antarctic regions, 580.

—— the vegetation of Gondwana Land,
584.

INDEX.

SEweLt (Dr. §.), the mechanism of
micturition control in human beings,
554.

Sex dimorphism and secondary sex
characters in some abnormal begonia
flowers, C. I. Bond on the, 572.

Suaw (J. J.) on seismological investiga-
tions, 41.

Suaw (Dr. W. N.) on the investigation of
the wpper atmosphere, 69.

—— on radiotelegraphic investigations, 70.

SHELLSHEAR (Cyril), precipitin reactions
in pathological human urines, 559.

Surptey (Dr. A. E.) on the biological
problems incidental to the Belmullet
whaling station, 125.

SuoreE (Dr. L. E.) on the ductless glands,
237.

Short cists of the north-east of Scotland,
the, by Dr. A. Low, 525.

SHRUBSALL (Dr. F. C.) on the physical
characters of the ancient Egyptians, 212.

—— on the mental and physical factors
involved in education, 248.

Sigillaria, recent advance in our know-
ledge of, by Prof. Margaret Benson,
584,

Silkworms, adaptation and inheritance

. in, by Prof. Otto Maas, 406.

*Simron (F.) and Prof. A. W. Porrsr
on the change of thermal conductivity
during the liquefaction of a metal, 303.

Simpson (Dr. G. C.) on Antarctic me-
teorology, 302.

*Size inheritance
Bailey on, 655.

*Sknats (Prof. E. W.), the geology of
Victoria, 358.

——on the tertiary alkali rocks of
Victoria, 360.

Smirx (Miss A. Lorrain), relationship of
fungus and alga in the lichen-thallus,
580.

Smirx (Prof. G. Elliot) on the physical
characters of the ancient Egyptians, 212.

—— on the teaching of anthropology, 235.

—— the origin and spread of certain
customs and inventions, 524.

*—— the brain of primitive man, 528.

the ancient inhabitants of Egypt
and the Sudan, 534. :

Smrra (H. Bompas) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248.

Smiro (H. G.) and R. T. Baker, the
correlation between the specific charac-
ters of the Tasmanian and Australian
eucalypts, 582.

*Smiru (8. A.), craniological observations
on a series of Solomon Island skulls,
536.

*—— observations on the Australian
aboriginal humerus, 536.

in poultry, P. G.

777

Smirn (W. Campbell) on the fauna and
flora of the trias of the Western Mid-
lands, 114.

SMITHELLS (Prof. A.) on gaseous ex plo-
stons, 177.

SmytH (Dr. John), the training of the
teacher, 628.

Soil fertility, the effects of caustic lime
and of chalk on, by H. B. Hutchinson
and K. MacLennan, 668.

Soil inoculation, a review of work on, by J.
Golding and H. B. Hutchinson, 668.
Soil moisture problem in Western
Australia, the, by Prof. J. W. Paterson,

646.

Solar observatory in Australia, a, report on
establishing, 74.

Sotnas (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 111.

Solomon Island skulls, craniological ob-
servations on a series of, by S. A.
Smith, 536.

Solubility phenomena, the
interim report on, 110.

Somatic modifications, the hormone
theory of the heredity of, by Dr. J. T.
Cunningham, 419.

*Sound waves in air, an apparatus for
illustrating the nature of. by Prof. Sir
T. P. A. Stuart. 555.

*South African bushmen, their occupa-
tions and modes of life, exhibition of
drawings and photographs of, by J. L.
Elmore, 536.

*Southern Alaska and the Klondyke, by
Prof. E. 8. Moore, 449.

SPEARMAN (Prof. ©.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248.

Species concept, the, with especial
reference to eucalyptus, by J. H.
Maiden, 581.

Specific heats of liquids, a new method
for determining the, by E. J. Hartung,
337.

*Spilitic lavas in New South Wales,
the occurrence of, by W. N. Benson,
381.

Spinal cord, concussion of the, and allied
conditions, by Alan Newton, 554.

Standard steels, outline of manufacture
of the, by Dr. F. Rogers, 201.

Stanton (Dr. T. E.) on stress distribu-
tion in engineering materials, 200.

*Stapedius muscle, the action of the,
by Prof. Sir T. P. A. Stuart, 555.

*Stars near the North Pole, the dis-
tribution in space of the, by Dr. F. W.
Dyson, 303.

State aid for science: a retrospect, by
C. A. Buckmaster, 623.

StatuER (J. W.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 111.

study of,

778

Statistics and Economic Science, Address
to the Section of, by Prof. E. C. K.
Gonner, 453.

STBBBING (Rev. T. R. RB.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
722.

*STEEL (T.) on peripatus and on Aus-
tralian land planarians, 407.

*Steel tapes, length and electrical re-
sistance of, by T. H. Laby and G. E.
Adams, 304.

*Stellar system, the oblate shape of the,
by Prof. A. §. Eddington, 304. 4

Stone implements, the, of the Australian
aborigine: the types and their occur-
rence, by A. S. Kenyon and D. J.
Mahony, 526.

Stores (Dr. Marie C.) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 111.

Story (J. D.), educational pioneering
(Queensland), 634.

Srrawan (Dr. A.) on the geology of
Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire, 111.
——on the preparation of a list of
stratigraphical names used in the

British Isles, 113.

Stratigraphical names used in the British
Isles, interim report on the preparation
of a list of, 113.

Stress and strain in solids, experimental
determination of the distribution of,
by Profs. Filon and Coker, 201.

Stress distribution in short compression
members, the, by Profs. Coker and
Filon, 501.

Stress distributions in engineering mate-
rials, the more complex, report on, 200,

*Stresses in built-up columns, the, by
H. G. 8. Delepine, 501.

*Stuart (Prof. Sir T. P. Anderson), the

functions of the corpora arantii, 555.
—— an apparatus for illustrating the
nature of sound waves in air, 555.
the cyclograph, an instrument for

quickly marking microscopical slides,
555.
*—— the action of the stapedius muscle,
555.
—— the effect of simultaneous con-
traction of the intercostal muscles, 555.

*Stuart (W.) and T. H. Lasy, the
nature of y rays, 304.

Sudan, the ancient inhabitants of the,
by Prof. G. Elliot Smith, 534.

SuLMAN (John), the planning of Sydney—
past, present, and future, 479.

Summers (Dr. H. §.) on the origin and
relationship of the Victorian kainozoic
alkali rocks, 361.

Sun’s variability, proofs of the, by C. G.
Abbot, 291.

*Sussmincn (C. A.), the metallogenetic
provinces of Eastern Australia, 381.

INDEX.

Surton (C. §.), the flora of the environs
of Melbourne, 574.

Sydney, the planning of—past, present,
and future, by John Sulman, 479

Symbiotic activities of coliform and
other organisms on media containing
carbohydrates and allied substances,
Burton Bradley on the, 556.

Symineton (Prof. J.) on the relations of
the inner surface of the cranial wall
to the brain, 528.

*Symmetrical exostoses in the acoustic
meatus of the Australian aboriginal
skull, Prof. J. T. Wilson on, 536.

Tables of natality, issue, and orphanhood,
the materials for, and the construction
of, C. H. Wickens on, 471.

Tanstey (A. G.) on the vegetation of
Ditcham Park, Hampshire, 245.

Taytor (Griffith) on the physiography
of arid lands, 366.

Teacher, the training of the, by Dr.
John Smyth, 628.

Teachers in New South Wales, the
training of, by Prof. A. Mackie, 629.
*Teaching, the possibility of analysing
the process of, Prof. J. A. Green on,

629.

| Temperature cycles in heat-engines, by

Prof. E. G. Coker and W. A. Scoble,
512.

TEMPLE (Sir Richard) on the teaching of
anthropology, 235.

—— on the character, work, and main-
tenance of museums, 249.

Ten-inch line of rainfall, the, by Prof.
T. Cherry, 645.

| Tertiary alkali rocks of Victoria, the,

Prof. E. W. Skeats on, 360.

| Tertiary brown coal-beds of Victoria, the,

by H. Herman, 377.

| Tertiary strata of South-Eastern Aus-

tralia, the age and sequence of the,
by F. Chapman, 371.

Testing of materials, the, by Prof. W. E.
Dalby, 500.

| *Thermal conductivity, the change of,

during the liquefaction of a metal,
by Prof. A. W. Porter and F. Simeon,
303.

| *Thermal conductivity of air, the, Prof.

T. H. Laby and E. O. Herens on, 301.
*— the absolute determination of,
E. O. Herens and Prof. T. H. Laby, 304.
Tuomas (Miss E. N.) and A. J. Davey,
morphology and anatomy of certain
pseudo-monocotyledons, 578.
Tuomas (H, Hamshaw) on the geology
of Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire, 111.
on the Jurassic flora of Yorkshire,
244.

INDEX.

Tuomas (H. Hamshaw) on the character,
work, and maintenance of museums, 249.

Tuomeson (Prof. P.) on the teaching of
anthropology, 235.

THomeson (Prof. 8. P.) on radiotele-
graphic investigations, 70.

THompson (Mrs. W. H.) on the ductless
glands, 237.

THomson (Hedley J.), a transmission
system suitable for heavy internal
combustion locomotives, 499.

THornToN (Prof. W. M.), the lost
pressure in gaseous explosions, 513.

—— the limiting conditions for the
safe use of electricity in coal mining,

513.

*Thyroid, the influence of the, upon the
activity of the suprarenals and pitui-
tary body, by Prof. P. T. Herring, 558.

TippEmAN (R. H.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 111.

TinrKens (W. H.), Central Australia and
its possibilities, 452.

Titiyarp (R. J.) on the emergence of the

nymph of anax papuensis (Burm)

from the egg, 424.

Tims (Dr. H. W. M.) on the biological |
problems incidental lo the Belmullet

whaling station, 125.
—— on experiments in inheritance, 163.
Totemism in Australia, varieties of,
by A. R. Brown, 532.

Town planning, the economics of, by |

J. S. Nettlefold, 468.

—— in relation to the community, by )

W. R. Davidge, 465.

—— in relation to housing and health,
by W. R. Davidge, 480.

*—— sociological aspects of, by J. D.
Fitzgerald, 478.

Robertson, 478.

and good housing conditions, the
effect of, on social and economic well-
being, 468.

*Training, the general aims of, by Prof.
J. J. Findlay, 629.

the problem of, by Prof. J. A.
Green, 629.

Training of the teacher, the, by Dr. John
Smyth, 628.

Training of teachers in New South
Wales, Prof. A. Mackie on the, 629.

Transmission system suitable for heavy |

internal combustion locomotives, a,
by H. J. Thomson, 499.

TREMEARNE (Major A. J. N.) on the
production of certified copies of Hausa
manuscripts, 234,

—— Bori exorcism, fortune-telling, and
invocation, 528.

Trias of the Western Midlands, the fauna
and flora of the, report on, 114.

the health aspect of, by Dr. John |

779

Trouton (Prof. F. T.), Address to the
Mathematical and Physical Section,
285.

Trypanosomes, the development of, in
the invertebrate host, by Prof. E. A.
Minchin, 404.

TURNER (Frederick), a botanical survey
of North-east New South Wales, 589.

TuRNER (Prof. H. H.) on seismological
investigations, 41.

——— on establishing a solar observatory
in Australia, 74.

*—— discontinuities in meteorological
phenomena, 304.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 722.

TwentyMan (A. E.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248.

*Ultra-violet light, the action of, on
solutions of organic substances, by
Prof. B. Moore, 556.

*University, the, and the school, by
Prof. J. A. Green, 634.
and the State, by Sir H. R. Reichel,

by P. Board, 634.

Upper atmosphere, the investigation of the,
thirteenth report on, 69.

Upper old red sandstone of Dura Den,
report on the, 116.

—— the fossil fishes from, Dr. A. Smith
Woodward on, 122.

Vapour pressures, a new method for
the determination of, and an examina-
tion of a source of error in certain
dynamical methods, by F. H. Camp-
bell, 337.

*Variety testing, by Prof. T. B. Wood,
662.

VauGuHan (Dr. A.) on the preparation of
a list of characteristic fossils, 111.

*—— the age of the permo-carboni-
ferous glacial beds, 378.

Vegetation on the coast in the neighbour-
hood of Adelaide, types of, by Prof.
T. G. B. Osborn, 584.

*Venom of some Australian snakes, the
action of the, on the corpuscles of some
bloods, by Prof. D. A. Welsh and Dr.
H. G. Chapman, 558.

Victoria, the central highlands and
“main divide’ of, by T. S. Hart, 443.

—— the evolution of, during the kaino-
zoic period, by D. J. Mahony, 376.

the geology of, by Prof. E. W.
Skeats, 358.

—— the tertiary alkali rocks of, Prof.
E. W. Skeats on, 360.

780

Victoria, the tertiary brown coal-beds
of, by H. Herman, 377.

Victorian graptolites, by Dr. T. 8. Hall, |

359.

Victorian kainozoic alkali rocks, the
origin and relationship of the, Dr.
H. 8S. Summers on, 361.

Victorian lampreys, species of, by Dr. |

J. A. Leach, 399.

Victorian tertiaries, the, the age and
sequence of, Dr. T. 8. Hall on, 372.

—— Dr. G. B. Pritchard on, 374.

Vincent (Prof. Swale) on the ductless
glands, 237.

—— on the effect of low temperature on
cold-blooded animals, 241.

Vines (Prof. S. H.) on the occupation
of a table at the marine laboratory,
Plymouth, 163.

Visual requirements of the sailor and
the railway employee, the problem
of the, by Dr. J. W. Barrett, 256.

*VonwitteR (Prof. O. U.);

photo-
electric effect in selenium, 303.

Wace (A. J. B.) on the distribution of
artificial islands in the lochs of the
Highlands of Scotland, 229.

*Wanve (A. B.), irrigation in New South
Wales, 503.

WaceER (Harold) on the Jurassic flora of
Yorkshire, 244.

Wages, the artificial regulation of, by
G. 8. Beeby, 487.

Waker (Dr. G. W.) on seismological
investigations, 41.

*WALKER (H.) on some new motor tests
of intelligence, 624.

Water (Prof. A. D.) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 162.

—— on anesthetics, 549.

Wause (W. T. H.) on the influence of
school books wpon eyesight, 248.

WattHEeR (Dr. Johannes) on desert
scenery and denudation, 358.

Warviaw (H.§8. Halcro) on the deposit
obtained from milk by spinning in a
centrifuge, 556.

Warnerk (Dr. F.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
248.

*WaARREN (Prof.
timbers, 512.
Warton (Col. R. Gardner) on the ex-
ploration of La Cotte de St. Brelade,

Jersey, 230.

Waste gases of combustion, the use
of, for fire extinctive and fumigat-
ing purposes, by Dr. G. Harker,
342.

Australian

We EE):

INDEX.

| Watson (D. M. 8.) on the fauna and flora

of the trias of the Western Midlands, 114.

Watson (Dr. W.) on the investigation
of the upper atmosphere, 69.

—— on gaseous explosions, 177.

Watts (Prof. W. W.) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 111.

on the preparation of a list of strati-

graphical names used in the British

Isles, 113.

on the fauna and flora of the trias of
the Western Midlands, 114.

—— on the excavation of critical sections
in the lower paleozoic rocks of England
and Wales, 115.

*Wave-length in air of electrical vibra-
tions, some measurements of the, by
Prof. J. A. Pollock, 305.

Wess (W. Mark) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 722.

Wepster (Prof. A. G.) on the calculation
of mathematical tables, '75.

Weiss (Prof. F. E.) on the Jurassic flora
of Yorkshire, 244.

—— on the renting of Cinchona botanic
station in Jamaica, 248.

—— on the character, work, and main-
tenance of museums, 249.

*WELLISCH (E.), experiments on the
active deposit of radium, 303.

*WetsH (Prof. D. A.) and Dr. H. G.
CHAPMAN, the action of the venom of
some Australian snakes on the cor-
puscles of some bloods, 558.

Western Mediterranean, the prehistoric
civilization of the, the present state of
knowledge of, report on, 235.

Wheat breeding in Australia, by A. E. V.
Richardson, 663.

*Wheat flour, strength of, by Prof.
T. B. Wood, 662.

Wheat improvement in Australia, by
F. B. Guthrie, 661.

WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 722.

Wuite (Mrs. J.) on the character, work,
and maintenance of museums, 249.

WHITEHEAD (Henry) and W. Cougs, a
bibliography of the publications of
local scientific societies, 730.

Wickens (Chas. H.) on the material
for, and the construction of, tables of
natality, issue, and orphanhood, 471.

Wiss (L. J.) on the fauna and flora of
the trias of the Western Midlands, 114.

Wiuiams (Dr. R. Stenhouse), J. Goip-
Inc, and J. Macxrytosu, trials of
milking machines, 652.

Wasson (J. 8.) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 200.

*Wauson (Prof. J. T.) on symmetrical
exostoses in the acoustic meatus in the
Australian aboriginal skull, 536.

INDEX. 781

*Witson (Prof. J. T.) and Prof. T. W. |

Eperworts Davin on an Australian
cranium of probable pleistocene age,
31

Worverris (H. E.) on gaseous explosions,

Wrnvtz (Sir B. C. A.) on the teaching of
anthropology, 235.

*Wireless telegraphic circuits, demon-
stration of a mechanical analogue
of, by Prof. T. R. Lyle, 301.

*Wireless telegraphy, discussion on, 305.

*—_ Sir O. Lodge on, 305.

~—— the Balsillie system of, as em-
ployed in the radiotelegraph stations
of Australia, by J. G. Balsillie, 514.

Wisdom (science), the place of, in the
State and in education, by Prof. H. E.
Armstrong, 608.

*Woop (Prof. T. B.), variety testing, 662.

*—__ strength of wheat flour, 662.

—— and A. V. Hm, fattening capacity
and skin temperature, 665.

——and G. Upny Yuvts, feeding
statistics and starch equivalents, 665.

Woops (H.) on the preparation of a list
of characteristic fossils, 111.

Woopwarp (Dr. A. Smith) on the pre- |
paration of a list of characteristic |

fossils, 111.
on the old red sandstone rocks of
Kiltorcan, Ireland, 113.

—— on the upper old red sandstone of |

Dura Den, 116.

—— on the fossil fishes from Dura Den, )
22

Wool inheritance, P. G. Bailey on, 654.

*Work speeds in grinding, a theory of,
by J. J. Guest, 502.

Worm parasites of tropical Queensland,
Dr. W. Nicol on the, 407.

*Written errors, a contribution to the
psychology of, by Dr. H. T. Lovell,
559.

Wynne (Prof. W. P.) on the correlation
of crystalline form with molecular
structure, 109.

*y rays, the nature of, by T. H. Laby
and W. Stuart, 304.

*y rays from radium, the origin and
nature of the, by Prof. Sir E. Ruther-
ford, 303.

Yarr (Prof. R. H.) on the vegetation of
Ditcham Park, Hampshire, 245.

—— on the renting of Cinchona botanic
station in Jamaica, 248.

Yorkshire, the Jurassic flora of, report
on the investigation of, 244.

Youne (Prof. Sydney) on dynamic iso-
merism, 102.

YuuxE (G. Udny) and Prof. T. B. Woop,
feeding statistics and starch equi-
valents, 665.

Zoological Section, Address by Prof. A.
Dendy to the, 383.

Zoological station at Naples, report on the
occupation of a table at the, 162.

* Zoology organisation, report on, 401.

; > | = ae
‘ i ” atic’! bi ia
aa ii Pete’ ot Le

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LIST OF MEMBERS

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL

AND

INSTITUTIONS RECEIVING THE REPORT

CORRECTED TO MARCH 1915.

LONDON:
BURLINGTON HOUSE, PICCADILLY, W.

+e *
| ae) Tor ASS
Weert tis #200)

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1914-1915.

PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT,
Prorresson WILLIAM BATESON, M.A., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS,

His Excellency the Governor-General of the Com- ; The Honourable the Premiers of New South Wales,
monwealth of Australia. Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western
Their Excellencies the Governors of New South Australia, Tasmania.

Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, The Right Honourable the Lord Mayors of Sydney

Western Australia, Tasmania. and Melbourne,
The Honourable the Prime Minister of the Com- | The Right Worshipful the Mayors of Brisbane,

monwealth. Adelaide, Perth, Hobart.

The Chancellors of the Universities of Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Tasmania, Queensland,
Western Australia,

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor ARTHUR ScHUSTER, PH.D., SxC.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of Manchester. | The High Sheriff of Oheshire,
The Right Hon. Lorp SuurriewortH, LL.D., The Mayor of Salford.
Lord-Lieutenant of Lancashire. The Bishop of Salford.
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The Right Hon. Viscoun'r Morey oF BLACK- F.R.S.

BURN, O.M., D.O.L., F.R.S., Chancellor of Man- The Right Hon. Sir WILLIAM Maruer, LL.D.
chester University. The Vice-Chancellor of the University of Man-

His Grace the DukE OF DEVONSHIRE. chester.

The Right Hon, the Earn or Drrey, K.G. Sir Epwarp Donner, Bart., LL.D.

The Right Hon. the HARL oF ELLESMERE. Sir FRANK Fores Anam, O.I.E., LL.D.
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A 2

1V OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

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WEISS, Professor F. E., D.Sc.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,

The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the

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TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
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Major P. A. MAcManon, D.Sc., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.A.S.

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOOIATION.

| Sir James Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. | Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M., F.R.S.
Sir Norman Lockyer, K.O.B.,F.B.S.| Prof. T. G. Bonney, Sc.D., F.R.S.
Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir E. A. Schiifer, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir Oliver Lodge, D.Sc., F.R.S.

Lord Rayleigh, 0.M., F.R.8.

Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. |
Sir A. Geikie, K.O B., 0.M., F.R.S. | Arthur J. Balfour, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir W. Orookes, O.M., Pres.R.S Sir E.Ray Lankester,K.O0.B.,F.R.S.
Sir W. Turner, K.O.B., F.R.S. Sir Francis Darwin, F.R.S.
s Ss

PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, Se.D., F.R.S. | Sir H. A. Schiifer, LL.D., F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson.
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Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S. Dr. G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.

AUDITORS,
Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B. |. Professor H. McLeod, LL.D., F.R.S.

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

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umberland-avenue, W.C.

1887. *AsBE, Professor CLEVELAND. Local Office, U.S.A. Weather
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1914. §SAbbott, Hon. R. H. 8. Rowan-street, Bendigo, Victoria.

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deen.

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(Pres. A, 1889 ; Pres. L, 1903; Council, 1884-89, 1902-05,
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1905. {Aburrow, Charles. P.O. Box 534, Johannesburg.

1913. §Ackland, T. G., F.I.A. 5-6 Clement’s Inn, Strand, W.C.

1869. tAcland, Sir C. T. Dyke, Bart., M.A. Killerton, Exeter.

1877. *Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Walwood, Banstead,
Surrey.

1894. *Actanp, Henry Dyxz, F.G.S. Chy-an-Mor, Gyllyngvase, Fal-
mouth.

1877. *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.D. 19 Bryanston-square, W.

Year of
Election

1904.
1898.
1901.
1887.

1901.

1904.
1869.

1908.
1913.

1890.
1913.

1913.
1899.
1908.
1912.

1908.

1902.
1906.
1871.
1909.
1911.
1895.
1891.
1871.
1901.
1884.
1886.
1905.
1913.
1900.
1896.

1905.
1888,
1910.

1891.
1883.
1883.
1914.
1901.
1904.
1879.
1898.
1891.
1907.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

tActon, T. A. 41 Regent-street, Wrexham.

tAcworrts, W. M., M.A. (Pres. F, 1908.) The Albany, W.

tAdam, J. Miller. 15 Walmer-crescent, Glasgow.

tApami, J. G., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

§Apams, Joun, M.A., B.Sc., LL.D. (Pres. L, 1912), Professor of
Education in the University of London. 23 Tanza-road,
Hampstead, N.W.

tAdams, W. G. §., M.A. Department of Agriculture, Upper
Merrion-street, Dublin.

*Apams, WILLIAM Grytts, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S.
(Pres. A, 1880 ; Council, 1878-85.) Heathfield, Broadstone,
Dorset.

*Adamson, R. Stephen. The University, Manchester.

tAddison, W. H. F. Medical School, The University of Penn-
sylvania.

tApeney, W. E., D.Se., F.C.S. Burnham, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

§Adeney, Rev. Professor W. F., M.A., D.D. Lancashire College,
Whalley Range, Manchester.

§Adeney, Mrs. Lancashire College, Whalley Range, Manchester.

*Adie, R. H., M.A., B.Sc. 136 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

§Adkin, Robert. 4 Lingard’s-road, Lewisham, 8.E.

tAfanassieff, Apollo. Physical Institute, Imperial University,
Petrograd.

*Agar, W. E., M.A. Natural History Department, The University,
Glasgow.

tAgnew, Samuel, M.D. Bengal-place, Lurgan.

§Aikman, J. A. 6 Glencairn-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland.

*ATRD, JOHN. Canadian Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

§Airey, John R., M.A., B.Sc. 73 Claremont-road, Forest Gate, E.

*Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

*Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.

§ArTKEN, JoHN, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Ardenlea, Falkirk, N.B.

tAitken, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. County Buildings, Cupar-Fife.

*Alabaster, H. Milton, Grange-road, Sutton, Surrey.

*Albright, G.S. Broomsberrow Place, Ledbury.

tAlbright, Miss. Finstal Farm, Finstal, Bromsgrove, Worcestershire.

tAlbright, W. A. 29 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Aldren, Francis J..M.A. The Lizans, Malvern Link.

§Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 39 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.

*Alexander, J. Abercromby. 24 Lawn-crescent, Kew.

*Alexander, Patrick Y. 3 Whitehall-court, S.W.

*Alexander, W. B., B.A. Western Australian Museum, Perth,
West Australia.

*Alford, Charles J., F.G.S. Hotel Victoria, Rome.

tAlger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

§Allan, Edward F., B.A. 87 Wattletree Road, Malvern, Victoria.

*Allan, James A. 21 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

*Allcock, William Burt. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

*Allen, Rev. A. J.C. 34 Lensfield-road, Cambridge.

§Atien, Dr. E. J., F.R.S. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

{Allen, H. A., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

*Allorge, M. M., L. és Se., F.G.S. Villa St. Germain, Louviers,
France.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914.

Year of
Hlection.

1912.
1882.

1887.
1883.
1909,
1884.

1914.
1910.
1905.
1912.
1908.
1885.

1914.
1901.
1892.
1899.
1888.
1901.
1908.
1911.
1907.

1909.
1895.
1914.
1909.
1880.
1877.
1912.
1886.
1901.
1900.
1904.

1913.
1913.

1894.
1909.

1909.

1883.
1908.

1903.

*Allworthy, 8. W., M.A., M.D. The Manor House, Antrim-road,
Belfast.

*Alverstone, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S.
Winterfold, Cranleigh, Surrey,

tAlward, G. L. Enfield Villa, Waltham, Grimsby, Yorkshire.

§Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

tAmi, H.M.,M.D. Ottawa, Canada.

tAm1, Henry, M.A., D.Sc., ¥.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa,
Canada.

§Anderson, Miss Adelaide M. Home Office, S.W.

tAnderson, Alexander. Tower House, Dore, near Sheffield.

*Anderson, C. L. P.O. Box 2162, Johannesburg.

tAnderson, E. M. 43 Ladysmith-road, Edinburgh.

tAnderson, Edgar. Glenavon, Merrion-road, Dublin.

*AnDERSON, HueH Kerr, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Caius College,
Cambridge.

§Anderson, J. R. V. School of Mines, Bendigo, Victoria.

*Anderson, James. 166 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

tAnderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, Miss Mary Kerr. 13 Napier-road, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, R. Bruce. 5 Westminster-chambers, 8.W.

*Anderson, Dr. W. Carrick. 7 Scott-street, Garnethill, Glasgow.

{Anderson, William. Glenavon, Merrion-road, Dublin.

fAndrade, E. N. da C. University College, Gower-street, W.C.

tAndrews, A. W. Adela-avenue, West Barnes-lane, New Malden,

Surrey.

tAndrews, Alfred J. Care of Messrs. Andrews, Andrews, & Co.,
Winnipeg, Canada.

tAnpREws, Cuarues W., B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. British Museum
(Natural History), S.W.

§Andrews, HE. C. Geological Branch, Department of Mines,
Sydney, N.S.W.

{tAndrews, G. W. 433 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn EHithen, Swansea.

§ANGELL, JoHN, F.C.S., F.I.C. 6 Beacons-field, Derby-road,
Withington, Manchester.

§Angus, Miss Mary. 354 Blackness-road, Dundee.

{Ansell, Joseph. 27 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

tArakawa, Minozi. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street
Within, E.C.

*ARBER, HK. A. Newest, M.A., F.L.S. 52 Huntingdon-road,
Cambridge.

*ARBER, Mrs. E. A. Newewt, D.Sc., F.L.S. 52 Huntingdon-
road, Cambridge.

tArcher, J. Hillside, Crowcombe, West Somerset.

*Archer, RK. L., M.A., Professor of Education in University College,
Bangor. Plas Menai, Bangor.

tArchibald, A. Holmer, Court-road, Tunbridge Wells.

§Archibald, Professor E. H. Bowne Hall of Chemistry, Syracuse
University, Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.

tArchibald, H. Care of Messrs. Machray, Sharpe, & Dennistoun,
Bank of Ottawa Chambers, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Armistead, William. Hillcrest, Oaken, Wolverhampton.

tArmstrong, E. C. R., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S. Cyprus, Eglinton-road,
Dublin.

* ARMSTRONG, E. FRANKLAND, D.Sec., Ph.D. Greenbank, Green-
bank-road, Latchford, Warrington.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

1873. *ArmstRone, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1885,
1909; Pres. L, 1902; Council, 1899-1905, 1909- -) 55
Granville-park, Lewisham, S.E.

1909. {Armstrong, Hon. Hugh, Parliament Buildings, Kennedy-street,
Winnipeg, Canada.

1905. {Armstrong, John. Kamfersdam Mine, near Kimberley, Cape
Colony.

1905, {ARNOLD, re O., F.R.S., Professor of Metallurgy in the University
of Sheffield.

1893. *ARNOLD-BrEmRosE, H. H., Sc.D., F.G.S. Ash Tree House,

1915.

1904.
1870.
1903.
1909.
1907.

1903.
1914.
1890.
1875.

1896.
1905.
1908,

1898.
1894.

1906.
1881.
1907.
1881.

1906.

1907.
1903.
1912.
1909,

1914.

1883.
1863.
1883.
1887.
1903.
1907.

1914,

Osmaston-road, Derby.

§Arnold-Bernard, Pierre. 662 West End-avenue, New York
City, U.S.A.

fArunachalam, P. Ceylon Civil Service, Colombo, Ceylon.

*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon.

*AsHpy, THomas, M.A., D.Litt. The British School, Rome.

tAshdown, J. H. 337 Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada.

tAsutzy, W. J., M.A. (Pres. F, 1907), Professor of Commerce in the
University of Birmingham. 3 Yateley-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.

*Ashworth, J. H., D.Sc. 4 Cluny-terrace, Edinburgh.

*Ashworth, Mrs. J. H. 4 Cluny-terrace, Edinburgh.

tAshworth, J. Reginald, D.Sc. 55 King-street South, Rochdale.

*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Care of Messrs. Boustead & Clarke, Mom-
basa, East Africa.

*Assheton, Richard, M.A., F'.R.S., F.L.S. Grantchester, Cambridge.

{Assheton, Mrs. Grantchester, Cambridge.

§AstLEy, Rev. H. J. Duxrnrrecp, M.A., Litt.D. East Rudham
Vicarage, King’s Lynn.

*Atkinson, E. Cuthbert. 5 Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol.

*Atkinson, Harold W., M.A. West View, Eastbury-avenue, North-
wood, Middlesex.

{Atkinson, J. J. Cosgrove Priory, Stony Stratford.

{Atkinson, J.T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.

{Atkinson, Robert E. Morland-avenue, Knighton, Leicester.

{Argrson, Ropert Wim, F.C.S., F.LC. (Local Sec. 1891.)
44 Stuart-street, Cardiff.

§AupEN, G. A., M.A., M.D. The Education Office, Edmund-street,
Birmingham.

§Auden, H. A., D.Sc. 13 Broughton-drive, Grassendale, Liverpool.

{tAustin, Coartes E. 37 Cambridge-road, Southport.

§Austin, Perey C. 101 Norwood-road, Herne Hill, S.E.

jAxtell, S. W. Stobart Block, Winnipeg, Canada,

§Baber, Z., Professor of Geography and Geology in the University
of Chicago, U.S.A.

*Bach-Gladstone, Madame Henri. 147 Rue de Grenelle, Paris.

tBackhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.

*Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s, Wolsingham, R.S.O., Durham.

*Bacon, Thomas Walter. Ramsden Hall, Billericay, Essex.

{Baden-Powell, Major B. 32 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

§Badgley, Colonel W. F., Assoc.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Verecroft,
Devizes.

§$Bage. Charles, M.A., M.D. 139 Collins-street, Melbourne.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 9

Year of
Election.

1914,
1908.

1905.
1883.
1883.

1887.

1905.
1914.
1905.
1894.
1878.
1914.

1905.
1913.

1910.

1886.
1911.
1913.
1907.
1904.

1894.

1905.
1875.

1883.
1905.
1905.
1905.
1878.

1913.
1908.
1883.
1914.
1890.
1909.
1912.
1898.
1909.
1910.
1890.
1861.
1860.
1887.
1902.
1902.

§Bage. Miss Freda. Women’s College, Brisbane, Australia.

*Bagnall, Richard Siddoway. Hope Department of Zoology,
University Museum, Oxford.

tBaikie, Robert. P.O. Box 36, Pretoria, South Africa.

tBaildon, Dr. 42 Hoghton-street, Southport.

*Bailey, Charles, M.Sc., F.L.S. Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill 8.0.,
Gloucestershire.

*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Edenmor, Kinlochleven, Argyll,
N.B.

*Bailey, Harry Percy. Montrose, Northdown, Margate.

§Bailey, P.G. 4 Richmond-road, Cambridge.

{Bailey, Right Hon. W. F., C.B. Land Commission, Dublin.

*Barity, Francis Grsson, M.A. Newbury, Colinton, Midlothian.

{Barty, Watrer. 4 Roslyn-hill, Hampstead, N.W.

§Bainbridge, F. A., M.D., Professor of Physiology in the University
of Durham, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Baker, Sir Augustine. 56 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Baker, Bevan B., B.Sc. Frontenac, Donnington-road, Harlesden,
N.W.

§Baxer, H. F., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A., 1913), Lowndean Professor
of Astronomy and Geometry in the University of Cam-
bridge. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§Baker, Harry, F.I.C. Epworth House, Moughland-lane, Runcorn.

§Baker, Miss Lilian, M.Sc. Bryn Deiniol, Bangor.

tBaker, Ralph Homfeld. Cambridge.

tBaldwin, Walter. 5 St. Alban’s-street, Rochdale.

{Batrour, The Right Hon. A. J., D.C.L., LL.D., M.P., F.BS.,
Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh. (PRESIDENT,
1904.) Whittingehame, Prestonkirk, N.B.

{Batrour, Hunry, M.A. (Pres. H, 1904.) Langley Lodge,
Headington Hill, Oxford.

{Balfour, Mrs. H. Langley Lodge, Headington Hill, Oxford.

{Batrour, Isaac Baytzry, M.A., D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1894 ; K, 1901), Professor of Botany in the
University of Edinburgh. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

{Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

tBalfour, Mrs. J. Dawyck, Stobo, N.B.

{Balfour, Lewis. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

tBalfour, Miss Vera B. Dawyck, Stobo, N.B.

*Ball, Sir Charles Bent, Bart., M.D., Regius Professor of Surgery in
the University of Dublin. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Ball, Sidney, M.A. St. John’s College, Oxford.

{Ball, T. Elrington. 6 Wilton-place, Dublin.

*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Balsillie, J. Greene. P.M.G.’s Department, Melbourne.

t{Bamford, Professor Harry, M.Sc. 30 Falkland-mansions, Glasgow.

+Bampfield, Mrs. E. 309 Donald-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Bancroft, Miss Nellie, B.Sc., F.L.S. 260 Normanton-road, Derby.

{Bannerman, W. Bruce, F.S.A. 4 The Waldrons, Croydon.

{Baragar, Charles A. University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada,

tBarber, Miss Mary. 13 Temple Fortune Court, Hendon, N.W.

*Barber-Starkey, W. J. S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.

*Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.

*Barclay, Robert. Sedgley New Hall, Prestwich, Manchester.

{Barcroft, H., D.L. The Glen, Newry, Co. Down.

{Barcrort, Josnpu, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge.

Year of
Election

1911.
1904.

1906.
1899.

1882.
1910.

1913.
1909.
1889.
1905.

1881.
1904.
1907.

1909.
1913.

1881.

1902.
1904.
1872.

1874.
1874.

1893.
1913.
1913.
1913.
1908.
1884.
1890.
1890.
1892.

1858.

1909.
1909.
1914.
1893.

1908.
1904.

1888.
1891.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

+Barger, George, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Holloway College. Malahide, Englefield Green, Surrey.

§Barker, B. T. P., M.A.. Professor of Agricultural Biology in the
University of Bristol. Fenswood, Long Ashton, Bristol.

*Barker, Geoffrey Palgrave. Henstead Hall, Wrentham, Suffolk.

§Barker, John H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.

*Barker, Miss J. M. Sunny Bank, Scalby, Scarborough.

*Barker, Raymond Inglis Palgrave. Henstead Hall, Wrentham,
Suffolk.

§Bartine, Dr. GitBERT. Blythe Court, Norfolk-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

{Barlow, Lieut.-Colonel G. N. H. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16
Charing Cross, 8. W.

tBarlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.S. The Park Hospital, Hither
Green, 8.E.

*Barnard, Miss Annie T., M.D., B.Sc. Care of W. Barnard, Esq.,
3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

*Barnard, William, LL.B. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

{Barnes, Rev. E. W., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Barnes, Professor H. T., Se.D., F.R.S. McGill University,
Montreal, Canada.

*Barnett, Miss Edith A. Holm Leas, Worthing.

§Barnett, Thomas G. The Hollies, Upper Clifton-road, Sutton
Coldfield,

tBarr, ARCHIBALD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1912.) Caxton-
street, Anniesland, Glasgow.

*Barr, Mark. Gloucester-mansions, Harrington-gardens, S.W.

{Barrett, Arthur. 6 Mortimer-road, Cambridge.

*Barrert, Sir W. F., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA. 6 De Vesci-
terrace, Kingstown, Co. Dublin.

*Barrinoton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.

*Barrington-Ward, Rev. Mark J., M.A., F.LS., F.R.G.S. The
Rectory, Duloe 8.0., Cornwall.

*Barrow, GEORGE, F.G.8. 202 Brecknock-road, Tufnell Park, N.

{Barrow, Harrison. 57 Wellington-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tBarrow, Louis. 155 Middleton Hall-road, King’s Norton.

{Barrow, Walter. 13 Ampton-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Barry, Gerald H. Wiglin Glebe, Carlow, Ireland.

*Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York.

*Barstow, J. J. Jackson. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

*Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

{Bartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. Newington
House, Edinburgh.

*Bartholomew, William Hamond, M.Inst.C.E. Ridgeway House,
Cumberland-road, Hyde Park, Leeds.

{Bartleet, Arthur M. 138 Hagley-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

tBartlett, C. Bank of Hamilton-building, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Barton, H.C. City Electric Light Company, Brisbane, Australia..

*Barton, Edwin H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Experimental
Physics in University College, Nottingham.

{Barton, Rev. Walter John, M.A., F.R.G.S. Epsom College,
Surrey.

*Bartrum, C. O., B.Sc. 32 Willoughby-road, Hampstead, N.W.

*Basset, A. B.,M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport, Berkshire.

tBassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 11

Year of

Hlection.

1866. *Bassurt, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N.

1911. *Bassert, Henry, jun., D.Sc., Ph.D. University College, Reading.

1889. {BasraBLE, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1894.) 52
Brighton-road, Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

1871. {Bastran, H. Coarvron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Pro-
fessor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University
College, London. Fairfield, Chesham Bois, Bucks.

1912. {Bastian, Staff-Surgeon William, R.N. Chesham Bois, Bucking-
hamshire.

1883. {BaTEmaN, Sir A. E., K.C.M.G. Woodhouse, Wimbledon Park, S.W.

1905. *Bateman, Mrs. F. D. The Rectory, Minchinhampton.

1907. *Bareman, Harry. The University, Manchester.

1914. §Bates, Mrs. Daisy M. 210 Punt-road, Prahran, Victoria.

1884. {BarEson, Professor Wit11am, M.A., F.R.S. (PRustpentT; Pres.
D, 1904.) The Manor House, Merton, Surrey.

1914. §Bateson, Mrs. The Manor House, Merton, Surrey.

1881. *BatHer, Francis Arruur, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.8. British
Museum (Natural History), 8.W.

1906. §Batty, Mrs. Braithwaite. Ye Gabled House, The Parks, Oxford.

1904. {Baugh, J. H. Agar. 92 Hatton-garden, E.C.

1909. {Bawlf, Nicholas. Assiniboine-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada. ~

1913. §Bawtree, A. E., F.R.P.S. Lynton, Manor Park-road, Sutton,
Surrey.

1912. *Baxter, Mine Evelyn V. Roselea, Kirkton of Largo, Fife.

1912. *Bayliss, W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of General Physi-
ology in University College, London, W.C.

1876. *Baynzs, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

1887. *Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

1883. *Bazley, Gardner S. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.

Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Kilmorie, Usham-

drive, Torquay, Devon.

1909. *BrapNet, H. J. LuEWELLYN, F.G.S. Hafod, Llandinam, Mont-
gomeryshire.

1905. {Beare, Miss Margaret Pierrepont. 10 Regent-terrace, Edinburgh.

1889. §Bzarn, Professor T. Hupson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. The
University, Edinburgh.

1905. {Beare, Mrs. T. Hudson. 10 Regent-terrace, Edinburgh.

1904. {Beasley, H.C. 25a Prince Alfred-road, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1905. {Beattie, Professor J. C., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. South African College,
Cape Town.

1900. {Beaumont, Professor Roberts, M.I.Mech.E. The University, Leeds.

1885. *Buaumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E. Outer Temple, 222 Strand, W.C.

1914. §Beaven, E. 8. Eastney, Warminster.

1914. §Beaven, Miss M. J. Hastney, Warminster.

1887. *Brcxert, JouN HamppEN. Corbar Hall, Buxton, Derbyshire.

1904. §Beckit, H.O. Cheney Cottage, Headington, Oxford.

1885. {BeppaRpD, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector of the
Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, N.W.

1911. {Beddow, Fred, D.Sc., Ph.D. 2 Pier-mansions, Southsea.

1904. '**Bedford, T. G., M.A. 13 Warkworth-street, Cambridge.

1891. {Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.

1878. {Bupson, P. Parties, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1889), Professor of
Chemistry in the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.

1901. *Bumsy, G. T., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1905.) 11 University-
gardens, Glasgow.

1905. {Beilby, Hubert. 11 University-gardens, Glasgow.

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Hlection,

1914.
1891.
1909,

1894.
1900.
1883.
1888.
1914.
1908.

1904.
1913.

1883.
1901.
1909.
1909.
1903.
1901.

1914.
1887.
1898.
1904.

1905.
1908.
1896.

1894.

1905.
1906.
1898.

1894.
1908.
1914.
1908.
1904.

1914.

1905.
1862.

1913.
1880.

1913.
1884.
1913.
1903.
1870.

§Belas, Philip E., B.A. University College, Cork.

*Belinfante, L. L., M.Sc., Assist. Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W.

{tBrtt, C. N, (Local Sec. 1909.) 121 Carlton-street, Winnipeg,
Canada.

{Buext, F. Jerrrzy, M.A., F.Z.S. British Museum, S.W.

*Bell, Henry Wilkinson. Beech Cottage, Rawdon, near Leeds.

*Bell, John Henry. 102 Leyland-road, Southport.

*Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

§Bell, William Reid, M.Inst.C.E. Burnie, Tasmania.

*Bellamy, Frank Arthur, M.A., F.R.A.S. University Observatory,
Oxford.

{Bellars, A. EK. Magdalene College, Cambridge.

*Belliss, John, M.I.M.E. Darlinghurst, Carpenter-road, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham.

*Bennett, Laurence Henry. The Elms, Paignton, South Devon.

{Bennett, Professor Peter. 207 Bath-strect, Glasgow.

*Bennett, R. B., K.C. Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

{Benson, Miss C. C. Terralta, Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.

§Benson, D. E. Queenwood, 12 Irton-road, Southport.

*Brnson, Miss Marcaret J., D.Sc. Royal Holloway College,
Englefield Green.

§Benson, W. Killara, Sydney. N.S.W.

*Benson, Mrs. W. J. 5 Wellington-court, Knightsbridge, S.W.

*Bent, Mrs. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

{BentLey, B. H., M.A., Professor of Botany in the University of
Sheffield.

*Bentley, Wilfred. The Dene, Kirkheaton, Huddersfield.

{Benton, Mrs. Evelyn M. Kingswear, Hale, Altrincham, Cheshire.

*Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Uni-
versity College, Cork.

§BERKELEY, The Earl of, F.R.S., F.C.S. (Council, 1909-10.)
Foxcombe, Boarshill, near Abingdon.

*BERNACCHI, L. C., F.R.G.S. 54 Inverness-terrace, W.

*Bernays, Albert Evan. 3 Priory-road, Kew, Surrey.

§Berridge, Miss C. E. 48 Stratford-road, Marloes-road, Kensing-
ton, W.

§BrrripGE, Dovatas, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Malvern.

*Berridge, Miss Emily M. Dunton Lodge, The Knoll, Beckenham.

§Berridge. Miss Isabel. 7 The Knoll, Beckenham, Kent.

*Berry, Arthur J. 14 Regent-street, Cambridge.

§Berry, R. A., Ph.D.,. West of Scotland Agricultural College,
6 Blythswood-square, Glasgow.

§Berry, Professor R. J. A., M.D. The University, Carlton, Mel-
bourne.

{Bertrand, Captain Alfred. Champel, Geneva.

{Brsant, WiLL14aM Henry, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

tBethune-Baker, G. T. 19 Clarendon-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

*Brvan, Rev. James Otiver, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S. Chillenden

Rectory, Canterbury.
§Bevan, Mrs. Hillside, Egham.
*Beverley, Michael, M.D. The Shrubbery, Scole, Norfolk.
§Bewlay, Hubert. The Lindens, Moseley, Birmingham.
tBickerdike, C. F. 1 Boverney-road, Honor Oak Park, 8.E.
{Bicketon, Professor A. W. 18 Pembridge-mansions, Moscow-
road, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 13

Year of
Election.

1888. *Bidder, George Parker. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

1910. {Biddlecombe, A. 50 Grainger-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1911. {Bruus, Sir Joun H., LL.D., D.Sc. (Pres. G., 1911), Professor of
Naval Architecture in the University of Glasgow. 10 Uni-
versity-gardens, Glasgow.

1898. {Billington, Charles. Heimath, Longport, Staffordshire.

1901. *Bilsland, Sir William, Bart., J.P. 28 Park-circus, Glasgow.

1908. *Bilton, Edward Barnard. Graylands, Wimbledon Common, S.W.

1887. *Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Buxton.

1881. {Bryniz, Sir ALexanpEr R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Pres. G, 1900.)
77 Ladbroke-grove, W.

1910, *Birchenough, C., M.A. 8 Severn-road, Sheffield.

1887. *Birley, H. K. Penrhyn, Irlams-o’-th’-Height, Manchester.

1913. {Birtwistle, G. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

1904. {Bishop, A. W. Edwinstowe, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.

1911. *Bishop, Major C. F., R.A. The Castle, Tynemouth, Northumber-
land.

1906. {Bishop, J. L. Yarrow Lodge, Waldegrave-road? Teddington.

1910. {Bisset, John. Thornhill, Insch, Aberdeenshire.

1886. *Bixby, General W. H. 735 Southern-building, Washington, U.S.A.

1914. *Black, 8. G. Glenormiston, Glenormiston South, Victoria.

1909. Seog: W. 7 ., Principal of Manitoba Agricultural College, Winnipeg,

anada.

1901. §Black, W. P. M. 136 Wellington-street, Glasgow.

1903. *Biackman, F.F.,M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1908.) St. John’s
College, Cambridge.

1908. §BLackMmAN, Professor V. H., M.A.,Sc.D., F.R.S. Imperial College
of Science and Technology, S.W.

1913. §Blackwell, Miss Elsie M., M.Sc. 18 Stanley-avenue, Birkdale,
Southport.

1913. {Bladen, W. Wells. Stone, Staffordshire.

1909. {Blaikie, Leonard, M.A. Civil Service Commission, Burlington-
gardens, W.

1910. {Blair, R., M.A. London County Council, Spring-gardens, S.W,

1902. {Blake, Robert F., F.I.C. Queen’s College, Belfast.

1914. §Blakemore, Mrs. D. M. Wawona, Cooper-street, Burwood,
N.S.W.

1914. §Blakemore, G. H. Wawona, Cooper-street, Burwood, N.S.W.

1900. *Blamires, Joseph. Bradley Lodge, Huddersfield.

1905. {Blamires, Mrs. Bradley Lodge, Huddersfield.

1904. {Blanc, Dr. Gian Alberto. Istituto Fisico, Rome.

1884. *Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.

1887. oe J., M.A., D.Sc. Elterholm, Madingley-road, Cam-
ridge.

1884. *Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

1913. {Blofield, Rev. 8., B.A. Saltley College, Birmingham.

1902. {Blount, Bertram, F.I.C. 76 & 78 York-street, Westminster, S.W.

1888. {Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Lansdowne-road, Crump-
sall Green, Manchester.

1909. {Blumfield, Joseph, M.D. 35 Harley-street, W.

Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.

1887. *Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.

1908. {BorppickER, Orro, Ph.D. Birr Castle Observatory, Birr, Ireland.

1887. *Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.

1911. {Bolland, B. G. C. Department of Agriculture, Cairo, Egypt.

. 1898. §Boxron, H., M.Sc., F.R.S.E. The Museum, Queen’s-road, Bristol.

1894, ny Joun, F.R.G.S. Brooklyn, 87 Widmore-road, Bromley,

ent.

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1898.
1909,

1912.
1914.
1909.
1908.

1913.
1871.

1911.
1888.
1893.
1890.

1914.

1883.
1910.

1883.
1901.

1912.

1882.
1901.
1903.

1896.
1881.

1871.

1884.
1892.
1909.
1905.
1905.
1903.

1911.
1883.

1914.
1893.

1904.
1913.

1913.

*Bonar, JAMES, M.A., LL.D. (Pres. F, 1898 ; Council, 1899-1905.)
The Mint, Ottawa, Canada.

{Bonar, Thomson, M.D. 114 Via Babuino, Piazza di Spagna,
Rome. :

*Bond, C. I., F.R.C.S. Springfield-road, Leicester.

§Bond, Mrs. C. I. Springfield-road, Leicester.

tBond, J. H. R., M.B. 167 Donald-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Bons, Professor W. A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Imperial College of Science
and Technology, 8.W.

{Bonnar, W., LL.B., Ph.D. Hotel Cecil, Strand, W.C.

*Bonney, Rev. THomas GEorGE, Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
¥.G.S. (Presrpent, 1910; Srcrerary, 1881-85; Pres. C,
1886.) 9 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

{Bonny, W. Naval Store office, The Dockyard, Portsmouth.

tBoon, William. Coventry.

tBoot, Sir Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.

*Bootu, Right Hon. Cuaruzs, Se.D., F.R.S., F.S.S. 28 Campden
House Court, Kensington, W.

§Booth, J., B.Sc. The Gables, Berkeley-street, Hawthorn, Vic-
toria.

tBooth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.

+Booth, John, M.C.E., B.Sc. The Gables, Berkeley-street, Haw-
thorn, Melbourne. Australia.

{Boothroyd, Benjamin. Weston-super-Mare.

*Boothroyd, Herbert H., M.A., B.Sc. Sidney Sussex College, Cam-
bridge.

tBorgmann, Professor J. J., D.Ph., LL.D. Physical Institute,
The University, Petrograd.

§Borns, Henry, Ph.D. 5 Sutton Court-road, Chiswick, W.

{Borradaile, L. A., M.A. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

*BosaNQuEtT, RoBert C., M.A., Professor of Classical Archeology
in the University of Liverpool. Institute of Archeology,
40 Bedford-street, Liverpool.

{Bose, Professor J. C., C.I.E., M.A., D.Sc. Calcutta, India.

§BoTHAMLEY, CHarites H., M.Sc, F.LC. F.C.S., Education
Secretary, Somerset County Council, Weston-super-Mare.

*BoTtoMLEY, JAMES THomsON, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.C.S. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.

*Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.

*Botrom.ey, W. B.,M.A., Professor of Botany in King’s College, W.C.

{Boulenger, C. L., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Birmingham.

§BouLENGER, G. A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1905.) 8 Courtfield-road, S.W.

§Boulenger, Mrs. 8 Courtfield-road, S.W.

§Boutton, W. 8., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Uni-
versity of Birmingham.

tBourdillon, R. Balliol College, Oxford.

tBourne. Sir A. G., K.C.LE., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S. Middlepark,
Paignton, South Devon.

§BouRNE, Lady. M:iddlepark, Paignton, South Devon.

*Bourne, G. C., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1910 ; Council,
1903-09 ; Local Sec. 1894), Linacre Professor of Comparative
Anatomy in the University of Oxford. Savile House, Mans-
field-road, Oxford.

*Bousfield, E. G. P. St. Swithin’s, Hendon, N.W.

§Bowater, W. H. Elm House, Arthur-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham. :

{Bowater, William. 20 Russell-road, Moseley, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 15

Year of
Election.

1881.

1898.
1908.
1898.

1880.
1887.
1899.

1899.
1887.
1901.
1892.

1872,

1894,
1893.
1904.
1903.

1892.
1863.

1911:
1905.

1906.
1885.

1905

1909.
1905.
1905.
1913.

1902.
1909.
1905.
1908.
1907.
1912.

1913.
1913.
1904.

1909.
1908.
1893.

1904.

*Bowerr, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1898,
1914; Council, 1900-06), Regius Professor of Botany in the
University of Glasgow.

*Bowker, Arthur Frank, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Whitehill, Wrotham,
Kent.

§Bowles, E. Augustus, M.A., F.L.S. Myddelton House, Waltham
Cross, Herts.

{Bowtey, A. L., M.A. (Pres. F, 1906; Council, 1906-11.) North-
court-avenue, Reading.

tBowly, Christopher. Cirencester.

{Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.

*BowMANn, Herpert Lister, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. Magdalen College,
Oxford.

*Bowman, John Herbert. Greenham Common, Newbury.

§Box, Alfred Marshall. 14 Magrath-avenue, Cambridge.

tBoyd, David T. Rhinsdale, Ballieston, Lanark.

tBoys, CHarRLEs Vernon, F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1903 ; Council, 1893-99,
1905-08.) 66 Victoria-street, S.W.

*BRABROOK, Sir Epwarp, C.B., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1898; Pres. F,
1903 ; Council, 1903-10, 1911— .) Langham House, Walling-
ton, Surrey.

*Braby, Ivon. Helena, Alan-road, Wimbledon, S.W.

§Bradley, F. L. Ingleside, Malvern Wells.

*Bradley, Gustav. Council Offices, Goole.

*Bradley, O. Charnock, D.Sc., M.D., F.R:S.E. Royal Veterinary
College, Edinburgh.

{Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

{Brapy, GrorceE 8., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Park Hurst, Endcliffe,
Sheffield.

§Braca, W. H., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1913- ), Professor of
Physics in the University of Leeds.

§Brakhan, A. 6 Montague-mansions, Portman-square, W.

{Branfield, Wilfrid. 4 Victoria-villas, Upperthorpe, Sheffield.

*Bratby, William, J.P. Alton Lodge, Lancaster Park, Harrogate.

tBrausewetter, Miss. Roedean School, near Brighton.

§ Bremner, Alexander. 38 New Broad-street, E.C.

TBremner, R. S. Westminster-chambers, Dale-street, Liverpool.

jBremner, Stanley. _Westminster-chambers, Dale-street, Liverpool.

§Brenchley, Miss Winifred E., D.Sc., F.L.S. Rothamsted Ex-

. perimental Station, Harpenden, Herts.

*Brereton, Cloudesley. 7 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N.W.

*Breton, Miss Adela C. Care of Wilts and Dorset Bank, Bath.

§Brewis, EK. 27 Winchelsea-road, Tottenham, N. ;

tBrickwood, Sir John. Branksmere, Southsea.

*Bridge, Henry Hamilton. Fairfield House, Droxford, Hants.

{Bridgman, F. J., F.L.S. Zoological Department, University
College, W.C.

{Brierley, Leonard H. 11 Ampton-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Briggs, W. Friars Croft, Park-drive, Hale, Cheshire.

*Briggs, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S. Burlington House, Cam-
bridge.

*Briggs, Mrs. William. Owlbrigg, Cambridge.

{Brindley, H. H. 4 Devana-terrace, Cambridge.

{Briscoe, Albert E., B.Sc., A.R.C.Sc. The Hoppet, Little Baddow,
Chelmsford.

tBriscoe, J. J. Bourn Hall, Bourn, Cambridge.

Year of
Election

1905.
1898.

1879.
1905.

1905.
1907.
1896.
1901.

1883.
1903.

1913.
1904.
1906.
SMe

1906.
1885.
1886.

1913.

1905.
1863.

1883.
1905.

1914.
1903.
1914.
1870.

1881.
1895.

1882.
1901.
1908.
1905.
1910.
1912.
1884.
1908.
1912.
1906.
1900.

1908.
1895.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

§Briscoe, Miss. Bourn Hall, Bourn, Cambridge.

{Bristot, The Right Rev. G. F. Brownz, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
17 The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

*Britrain, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Storth Oaks, Sheffield.

*Broadwood, Brigadier-General R. G. The Deodars, Bloemfontein,
South Africa.

{Brock, Dr. B. G. P.O. Box 216, Germiston, Transvaal.

{Brockington, W. A., M.A. Birstall, Leicester.

*Brocklehurst, §. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

{Brodie, T. G., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the
University of Toronto. The University, Toronto, Canada.

*Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. Havenwood, Peaslake, Gomshall, Surrey.

tBroprick, Haroxp, M.A., F.G.8. (Local Sec. 1903.) 7 Aughton-
road, Birkdale, Southport.

tBrodrick, Mrs. Harold. 7 Aughton-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Bromwich, T. J. PA., M.A., F.R.S. 1 Selwyn-gardens, Cambridge.

+Brook, Stanley. 18 St. George’s-place, York.

§Brooke, Colonel Charles K., F.R.G.S. Army and Navy Club, Pall
Mall, S.W.

*Brooks, F. T. 31 Tenison-avenue, Cambridge.

*Brough, Mrs. Charles 8. 4 Spencer-road, Southsea.

{Brough, Joseph, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Philosophy in Uni-
versity College, Aberystwyth.

§Brown, Professor A. J., M.Sc., F.R.S. West Heath House, North-
field, Birmingham.

tBrown, A. R. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.B.S.E.,
V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1874; Local Sec. 1871.) 8 Belgrave-
crescent, Edinburgh.

{Brown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liver-

ool.

€Bease Professor Ernest William, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Yale Uni-
versity, New Haven, Conn., U.S.A.

§Brown, F. G., B.A., B.Se. Naval College, North Geelong, Victoria.

tBrown, F. W. 6 Rawlinson-road, Southport.

§Brown, Rev. George, D.D. Kinawanua, Gordon, N.S.W.

§Brown, Horace T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. B, 1899 ; Council,
1904-11.) 52 Nevern-square, S.W.

*Brown, John, M.D. Rosebank, Cape of Good Hope.

*Brown, John Charles. 39 Burlington-road, Sherwood, Notting-
ham,

*Brown, Mrs. Mary. Rosebank, Cape of Good Hope.

Brown, Professor R. N. Rudmose, D.Sc. The University, Sheffield.

§Brown, SIDNEY G. 52 Kensington Park-road, W.

§Brown, Mrs. Sidney G. 52 Kensington Park-road, W.

*Brown, Sidney J. R. 52 Kensington Park-road, W.

{Brown, T. Graham. The University, Liverpool.

{Brown, W. G. University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A.

{Brown, William, B.Sc. 48 Dartmouth-square, Dublin.

{Brown, Dr. William. Thornfield, Horley, Surrey.

{Browne, Charles E., B.Sc. Christ’s Hospital, West Horsham.

*BROWNE, FRANK Batrour, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S. 26 Barton-
road, Cambridge.

{Browne, Rev. Henry, M.A., Professor of Greek in University
College, Dublin.

*Browne, H. T. Doughty. 6 Kensington House, Kensington-
court, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. If

Year of
Election.

1879.
1905.

1883.
1912.
1905.

1905.
1893.

1902.

1900.
1896.
1868.

1897.
1886.

1894,
1884.

1909.

1902.
1890.
1902.
1905.
1871.

1909.
1914.
1913.
1884,

1904.
1893.
1913.
1913.

1909.
1914.

1905.
1905.
1881.

1905.
1913.

1913.
1894.
1884.

1899.

{Browng, Sir J. Crtcuton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E. 41 Hans-
place, S.W.

*Browne, James Stark, F.R.A.S. Hillcrest, Castlebar-hill, Ealing,
W.

tBrowning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

§Browning, T. B., M.A. 19 Aldermary-road, Bromley, Kent.

§Bruce, Colonel Sir Davin, C.B., F.R.S., A.M.S. (Pres. I, 1905,)
Royal Society Commission, Kasu Hill (near Mvera), Central
Angoniland, Nyasaland Protectorate, British Central Africa.

{tBruce, Lady. 3p Artillery-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.

{Bruce, Witu1am &., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Scottish Oceanographical
Laboratory, Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

tBruce-Kingsmill, Major J., F.C.S. 4 St. Ann’s-square, Man-
chester.

*Brumm, Charles. Lismara, Grosvenor-road, Birkdale, Southport.

*Brunner, Right Hon. Sir J. T., Bart. Silverlands, Chertsey.

{Bronton, Sir T. Lauper, Bart., M.D., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Council,
1908-12.) 10 Stratford-place, Cavendish-square, W.

*Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

*Bryan, G. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bangor.

tBryan, Mrs. R. P. Plas Gwyn, Bangor.

*Bryce, Rev. Professor Gzoren, D.D., LL.D. Kilmadock, Winni-
peg, Canada.

tBryce, Thomas H., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the Unive: jity
of Glasgow. 2 The College, Glasgow.

*Bubb, Miss EK. Maude. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

§Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

*BuCHANAN, Miss FrorEencz, D.Sc. University Museum, Oxford.

tBuchanan, Hon. Sir John. Clareinch, Claremont, Cape Town.

{Bucuanan, JoHN Youne, M.A., F.RS., F.RS.E., F.B.G.S.,
F.C.S. 26 Norfolk-street, Park-lane, W.

{tBuchanan, W. W. P.O. Box 1658, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Buck, E. J. Menzies’ Hotel, Melbourne.

tBuckland, H. T. 21 Yateley-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road.
Mill Hill Park, W.

tBuckwell, J.C. North Gate House, Pavilion, Brighton.

§BuLtEip, Artuur, F.S.A. Dymboro, Midsomer Norton, Bath.

*Bulleid, C. H. University College, Nottingham.

*Buller, A. H. Reginald, Professor of Botany in the University
of Manitoba, Winnipeg.

{Butyza, The Hon. G. H. V. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

§Bundey, Miss E. M. Molesworth-street, North Adelaide, South
Australia.

{Burbury, Mrs. A. A. - 15 Melbury-road, W.

{Burbury, Miss A. D. 15 Melbury-road, W.

{Burdett-Coutts, William Lehmann, M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Picca-
dilly, W. 2

{Burpon, E. R., M.A. Ikenhilde, Royston, Herts.

§Burfield, Stanley Thomas. Zoology Department, The University,
Liverpool.

*Burgess, J. Howard. Shide, Newport, Isle of Wight.

{Burxke, Joun B. B. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Burland, Lieut.-Colonel Jeffrey H. 342 Sherbrooke-street West,
Montreal, Canada.

{Burls, H. T., F.G.S. 2 Verulam-buildings, Gray’s Inn, W.C.

14. B

1914

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1904.
1914.
1909.
1908.

1905.
1909.

1910.
1894.
1909.
1911.
1892.

1904.
1906.
1909.

1887.
1899.
1895.
1908.
1910.

1884

1913.
1884.

1887.
1899.

1913.
1913.
1892.
1908.
1913.

1913.
1913.
1912.
1861.

1901.
1907.
1897.
1911.
1911.
1857.

1909.
1896.

{Burn, R. H. 21 Stanley-crescent, Notting-hill, W.

*Burns. Colonel James. Gowan Brae. Parramatta, N.S.W.

{Burns, F. D. 203 Morley-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Burnside, W. Snow, D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni.
versity of Dublin. 35 Raglan-road, Dublin.

{Burroughes, James §., F.R.G.S. The Homestead, Seaford, Sussex.

{Burrows, Theodore Arthur. 187 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg,
Canada.

{Burt, Cyril. The University, Liverpool.

{Burton, C. V. Boar’s Hill, Oxford.

tBurton, E. F. 129 Howland-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

tBurton, J. H. County Education Office, Weston-super-Mare.

{Burton-Brown, Colonel A., F.G.S. Royal Societies Club, St.
James’s-street, S.W.

tBurtt, Arthur H., D.Sc. 4 South View, Holgate, York.

{Burtt, Philip. Swarthmore, St. George’s-place, York.

tBurwash, E. M., M.A. New Westminster, British Columbia,
Canada.

*Bury, Henry. Mayfield House, Farnham, Surrey.

{Bush, Anthony. 43 Portland-road, Nottingham.

tBushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. 19 Cromwell-road, S.W.

*Bushell, W. F. Rossall School, Fleetwood.

{Butcher, Miss. 25 Earl’s Court-square, S.W.

*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Holyrood, 5 Cleveland-
road, Ealing, W.

*Butler, W. Waters. Southfield, Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

*Butterworth, W. Carisbrooke, Rhin-road, Colwyn Bay, North
Wales.

*Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe.

{Byles. Arthur R. ‘ Bradford Observer,’ Bradford, Yorkshire.

§Cadbury, Edward. Westholme, Selly Oak, Birmingham.
iCadbury, W. A. Wast Hills, King’s Norton.
tCadell, H. M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Linlithgow.
tCadic, Edouard, D.Litt. Mon Caprice, Pembroke Park, Dublin.
Cadman, John, D.Sc., Professor of Mining in the University of
Birmingham. 61 Wellington-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tCadman, W. H., B.Sc. Matarieh, Cairo, Egypt.
Cahill, J. R. 49 Hanover Gate-mansions, Regent’s Park, N.W.
§Caine, Nathaniel. Spital, Cheshire.
*Cargp, Sir JAMES Key, Bart., LL.D. 8 Magdalen Yard-road.
Dundee.
Caldwell, Hugh. Blackwood, Newport, Monmouthshire.
{Caldwell, K. S. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, S.E.
tCattenDAR, Hue L., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1912;
_Council, 1900-06), Professor of Physics in the Imperial
College of Science and Technology, 8.W.
iCalman, W. 'T., D.Sc. British Museum (Natural History), Crom-
well-road, S.W.
tCameron, Alexander T. Physiological Department, University of
Manitoba, Winnipeg.
{CamERoy, Sir CuaRes A., C.B., M.D. 51 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
{Cameron, D.C. 65 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.
§Cameron, Irving H., LL.D., Professor of Surgery in the University
of Toronto. 307 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 19

Year of

Election.

1909. {Cameron, Hon. Mr. Justice J.D. Judges’ Chambers, Winnipeg,
Canada.

1901. §Campbell, Archibald. Park Lodge, Albert-drive, Pollokshields,
Glasgow.

1897. {Campbell, Colonel J. C. L. Achalader, Blairgowrie, N.B.

1909. *Campbell, R. J. Holdenhurst, Hendon-avenue, Church End,
Finchley, N.

1909. t{Campbell, Mrs. R. J. Holdenhurst, Hendon-avenue, Church
End, Finchley, N.

1902. {Campbell, Robert. 21 Great Victoria-street, Belfast.

1912, {Campbell, Dr. Robert. Geological Department, The University,
Edinburgh.

1890. {CannaNn, Professor Epwrn, M.A., LL.D., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1902.)
11 Chadlington-road, Oxford.

1905. {Cannan, Gilbert. King’s College, Cambridge.

1897. §Cannon, Herbert. Alconbury, Bexley Heath, Kent.

1904, {Capell, Rev. G. M. Passenham Rectory, Stony Stratford.

1911. {Capon, R. 8S. 494 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1905. *Caporn, Dr. A. W, Muizenberg, South Africa.

1894. {Cappsr, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, W.C.

1887. {Capstick, J. W. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1896. *Carden, H. Vandeleur. Fir Lodge, Broomfield, Chelmsford.

1913. {Carlier, E. Wace, M.Sc., M.D., F.R.S8.E., Professor of Physiology
in the University of Birmingham. The University, Edmund-
street, Birmingham.

1914. §Carne, J. E. Mines Department, Sydney, N.S.W.

1913. §Carpenter, Charles. 157 Victoria-street, S.W.

1913. *Carpenter, G. D. H., M.B. 19 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

1902. {Carpenter, G. H., B.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Royal College
of Science, Dublin.

1906. *Carpenter, H. C. H. 30 Murray-road, Wimbledon.

1905. §Carpmael, Edward, F.R.A.S., M.Inst.C.E. 24 Southampton-
buildings, Chancery-lane, W.C.

1912. *Carr, H. Wildon, D.Litt. 10 More’s Garden, Cheyne-walk, S.W.

1910. {Carr, Henry F. Broadparks, Pinhoe, near Exeter.

1893. {Carr, J. Wustzy, M.A., F.L.S., ¥.G.S., Professor of Biology in

: University College, Nottingham.

1906. *Carr, Richard E. Sylvan Mount, Sylvan-road, Upper Norwood, S.E.

1889. {Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

1911. {Carruthers, R. G., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 33 George-
square, Edinburgh.

1867. {CarRuTHERS, WitiiaM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1886.)
44 Central-hill, Norwood, S.E.

1886. {CaRsLAKE, J. BapHam. (Local Sec. 1886.) 30 Westfield-road,
Birmingham.

1899. §Carstaw, H.S., D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Sydney, N.S. W.

1914. §Carson, Rev. James. The Manse, Cowper, N.S.W.

1911. {Carter, Godfrey, M.B. 4 Lawson-road, Broomhill, Sheffield.

1900. *CartER, W. Lower, M.A., F.G.S. Bolbec, Grange Road,
Watford.

1896. {Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 21 York Street-chambers, Bryanston-
square, W.

1878. *Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. Myskyns, Ticehurst, Sussex.

1870, §Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.[. 21 Parsons-lane, Bury,

Lancashire.
B 2

20 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1862. tCarulla, F. J. R. 84 Rosehill-street, Derby.

1894. {Carus, Dr. Paul. La Salle, Illinois, U.S.A.

1913. §Carus-Wilson, Cecil, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Altmore, Waldegrave-
park, Strawberry Hill, Twickenham.

1901. {Carver, Thomas A. B., D.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Springfield-
road, Dalmarnock, Glasgow.

1899. *Case, J. Monckton. Department of Lands (Water Branch),
Victoria, British Columbia.

1897. *Case, Willard E. Auburn, New York, U.S.A.

1908. *Cave, Charles J. P., M.A. Ditcham Park, Petersfield.

1910. {Chadburn, A. W. Brincliffe Rise, Sheffield.

1905. *Challenor, Bromley, M.A. The Firs, Abingdon.

1905. *Challenor, Miss E. M. The Firs, Abingdon.

1910. §Chalmers, Stephen D. 25 Cornwall-road, Stroud Green, N.

1913. {Chalmers, Mrs. 8. D. 25 Cornwall-road, Stroud Green, N.

1913. {CHAMBERLAIN, NEVILLE. Westbourne, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1914. §Chamberlin, Dr. R. T. Geological Department, University of
Chicago, U.S.A.

1913. {Chambers, Miss Beatrice Anne. Glyn-y-mél, Fishguard.

1901. §Chamen, W. A. South Wales Electrical Power Distribution
Company, Royal-chambers, Queen-street, Cardiff.

1905. {Champion, G. A. Haraldene, Chelmsford-road, Durban, Natal.

1881. *Champney, John E. 27 Hans-place, S.W.

1908. {Chance, Sir Arthur, M.D. 90 Merrion-square, Dublin.

1888. {Chandler, S. Whitty, B.A. St. George’s, Cecil-road, Boscombe.

1907. *Chapman, Alfred Chaston, F.I.C. 8 Duke-street, Aldgate, E.C.

1902. *Chapman, D. L., F.R.S. Jesus College, Oxford.

1914. §Chapman, H. G., M.D. Department of Physiology, The Uni-
versity, Sydney, N.S.W.

1910. {Chapman, J. E. Kinross.

1899. §CHapmaN, Professor Sypnry Joun, M.A., M.Com. (Pres. F,
1909.) Burnage Lodge, Levenshulme, Manchester.

1912. *Chapman, Sydney, D.Sc., B.A., F.R.A.S. Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, S.E.

1910. {Chappell, Cyril. 73 Neill-road, Sheffield.

1905. {Chassigneux, H. 12 Tavistock-road, Westbourne-park, W.-

1904. *Chattaway, F. D., M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. 151 Woodstock-road,
Oxford.

1886. *Cuatrtock, A. P., D.Sc. Heathfield Cottage, Crowcombe,
Somerset.

1904. *Chaundy, Theodore William, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

1913. §Cheesman, Miss Gertrude Mary. The Crescent, Selby.

1900. *Cheesman, W. Norwood, J.P., F.L.S. The Crescent, Selby.

1874. *Chermside, Lieut.-General Sir Herbert, R.E.,G.C.M.G.,C.B. New-
stead Abbey, Nottingham.

1908. {Cherry, Right Hon. Lord Justice. 92 St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

1910. {Chesney, Miss Lilian M., M.B. 381 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

1879. *Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.

1911. *Chick, Miss H., D.Sc. Chestergate, Park-hill, Ealing, W.

1908. {Chill, Edwin, M.D. Westleigh, Mattock-road, Ealing, W.

1883. {Chinery, Edward F., J.P. Lymington.

1894. tCaisHotm, G. G., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.G.S. (Pres. EH, 1907.) 12
Hallhead-road, Edinburgh.

1899. §Chitty, Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle-avenue, Dover.

1899. }Chitty, Mrs. Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle-avenue, Dover.

1904. §Chivers, John, J.P. Wychfield, Cambridge.

1882. {Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 21

Year of
Election.

1909.
1893.

1913.
1900.
1875.

1870.

1903.
1901.

1905.
1907.
1877.
1902.
1881.

1909.

1908.
1908.
190T:
1907.
1902.

1889.
1908.
1909.
1909,

1861.

1905.
1905.

1902.
1904.

1909.
1861.
1906.
1914.

1883.
1914.

1912.
1891.
1884.
LIAL
1908.
1908.

1901.

tChow, H. H., M.D. 263 Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada.

*CHREE, CHARLES, D.Sc., F.R.S. Kew Observatory, Richmond,
Surrey.

§Christie, Dr. M. G. Post Office House, Leeds.

*Christie, R. J. Duke-street, Toronto, Canada.

*Christopher, George, F.C.S. Thorncroft, Chislehurst.

§Cuurcu, Sir Arrnur, K.C.V.O., M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. Shelsley,
Ennerdale-road, Kew.

{Clapham, J. H., M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

§Clark, Archibald B., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Clark, Cumberland, F.R.G.S. 22 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

*Clark, Mrs. Cumberland. 22 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

*Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.

tClark, G. M. South African Museum, Cape Town.

*Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Se. Asgarth, Riddlesdown-road,
Purley, Surrey.

{Clark, J. M., M.A., K.C. The Kent Building, 156 Yonge-street,
Toronto, Canada.

{Clark, James, B.Sc., Ph.D. Newtown School, Waterford, Ireland.

§Clark, John R. W. Brothock Bank House, Arbroath, Scotland.

*Clark, Robert M., B.Sc., F.L.S. 27 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

*Clarke, E. Russell. 11 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C.

*CLaRKE, Miss Littan J., B.Sc., F.L.S. Chartfield Cottage, Brasted
Chart, Kent.

*CiaypDEN, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. 5 The Crescent, Mount Radford,
Exeter.

*Clayton, Miss Edith M. Brackendene, Horsell, Surrey,

§Cleeves, Frederick, 1.2.8. 23 Lime-street, E.C.

{Cleeves, W. B. Public Works Department, Government-buildings,
Pretoria.

{CieLanp, Jonny, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S. Drumclog, Crewkerne,
Somerset.

§Cleland, Mrs. Drumclog, Crewkerne, Somerset.

§Cleland, Lieutenant J. R. Drumclog, Crewkerne, Somerset.

tClements, Olaf P. Tana, St. Bernard’s-road, Olton, Warwick.

§CLerK, Dr. Duca.p, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1908; Council
1912— .) 57 and 58 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.

{Cleve, Miss E. K. P. 74 Kensington Gardens-square, W.

*Curton, R. Beiiamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3 Bardwell.
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.

§CLosz, Colonel C. F., R.E., C.M.G., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1911;
Council, 1908-12.) Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.

§Close, J. Campbell. 217 Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

*CLoweEs, Professor Frank, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1893.)
The Grange, College-road, Dulwich, 8.E.

§Clowes, Mrs. The Grange, College-road, Dulwich, 8.E.

§Clubb, Joseph A., D.Sc. Free Public Museum, Liverpool.

*Coates, Henry, F.R.S.E. Balure, Perth.

{Cobb, John. Fitzharris, Abingdon.

§Cobbold, E. S., F.G.S. Church Stretton, Shropshire.

*Cochrane, Miss Constance. The Downs, St. Neots.

tCochrane, Robert, I.8.0., LL.D., F.S.A. 17 Highfield-road,

Dublin.
{Cockburn, Sir John, K.C.M.G., M.D. 10 Gatestone-road, Upper
Norwood, S.E.

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1883.
1913.
1861.

1908.
1898.
1881.
1896.
1914.
1901.
1906.

1914.
1895.

1913.
1893.

1903.
1910.
1897.

1899.
1892.
1912.
1887.

1913.
1861.

1876.
1910.
1902.
1914.

1892.
1910.
1905.

1910.
1912.
1902.
1903.

1898.
1913.

1876.
1911.
1914.

1888.
1899.

1903.

tCockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.

tCodd, J. Alfred. 7 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.

*Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. | Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,
Bournemouth.

tCoffey, Denis J., M.B. 2 Arkendale-road, Glenageary, Co. Dublin.

tCoffey, George. 5 Harcourt-terrace, Dublin.

*CoFFIN, WALTER Harris, F.C.S. National Liberal Club, S.W.

*Coghill, Percy de G. Sunnyside House, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

§Coghill, Mrs. Una. Monomeath-avenue, Canterbury, Victoria.

*Cohen, R. Waley, B.A. 11 Sussex-square, W.

*CokEeR, Ernest Grorce, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Pres. G, 1914),
Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University
College, Gower-street, W.C.

§Coker, Mrs. 3 Farnley-road, Chingford, Essex.

*Colby, William Henry. Cairn Villa, St. Brannock’s-road, Ilfra-
combe.

§CouE, Professor F. J. University College, Reading.

§CoLzE, GRENVILLE A. J., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

{Cole, Otto B. 551 Boylston-street, Boston, U.S.A.

§Cole, Thomas Skelton. Westbury, Endcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.

§CoLteman, Professor A. P., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. C, 1910.)
476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada.

tCollard, George. The Gables, Canterbury.

tCollet; Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, N.

{Collett, J. M., J.P. Kimsbury House, Gloucester.

tCox.iz, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Organic Chemistry
in the University of London. 16 Campden-grove, W.

tCollinge, Walter E., M.Sc. 8 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 8 Oakley-road, Canon-
bury, N.

{Cotuins, J. H., F.G.S. Crinnis House, Par Station, Cornwall.

*Collins, S. Hoare. 9 Cavendish-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Collins, T. R. Belfast Royal Academy, Belfast.

§Collum, Mrs. Anna Maria. 18 Northbrook-road, Leeson Park,
Dublin.

{Colman, Dr. Harold G. 1 Arundel-street, Strand, W.C.

*Colver, Robert, jun. Graham-road, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

*Combs, Rev. Cyril W., M.A. Elverton, Castle-road, Newport,
Isle of Wight.

*Compton, Robert Harold, B.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cam-
bridge.

§Conner, Dr. William. The Priory, Waterlooville, Hants.

tConway, A. W. 100 Leinster-road, Rathmines, Dublin.

{Conway, R. Seymour, Litt.D., Professor of Latin in Owens College,
Manchester.

§Cook, Ernest H., D.Sc. 27 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

§Cook, Gilbert, M.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Engineering Depart-
ment, The University, Manchester.

*CookE, ConrAD W. The Pines, Langland-gardens, Hampstead, N.W.

{Cooke, J. H. 101 Victoria-road North, Southsea.

§Cooke, William Ternant, D.Sc. Fourth-avenue, East Adelaide,
South Australia.

{Cooley, George Parkin. Constitutional Club, Nottingham.

*Coomaraswamy, A. K., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.G.S. Broad Campden,
Gloucestershire.

§Cooper, Miss A. J. 22 St. John-street, Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 25

Year of
Election.

1901.
1911.
1912.
1907.
1904.

1909.
1904.
1909,

1887.
1894.
1901.

1893.

1889.
1884.
1900.
1905.

1909.
1910.
1911.
1908.

1874.
1908.
1908.

1896.
1911.

1908.
1872.

1903.
1900.
1914.
1895.

1899.
1913.
1909.
1906.

1905.
1912.

1908.
1911.
1884.

1906.

*Cooper, C. Forster, B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Cooper, W. K. Henwick Lodge, Worcester.

§Cooper, W. F. The Laboratory, Rickmansworth-road, Watford.

{Cooper, William. Education Offices, Becket-street, Derby.

*CoprEMAN, S. Monoxton, M.D., F.R.S. Local Government Board,
Whitehall, S.W.

§Copland, Mrs. A. J. Gleniffer, 50 Woodberry Down, N.

*Copland, Miss Louisa. 10 Wynnstay-gardens, Kensington, W.

{Corbett, W. A. 207 Bank of Nova Scotia-building, Winnipeg,
Canada.

*Corcoran, Bryan. 43 Croham Park-avenue, South Croydon.

§Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. Rotherfield Cottage, Bexhill-on-Sea.

*Cormack, J. D., D.Sc., Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics
in the University of Glasgow. ;

*Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. Abbotsford House, Waverley-
street, Nottingham.

tCornisuH, Vaueuan, D.Sc., F.R.G.S. Woodville, Camberley.

*Cornwallis, F. 8. W., F.L.S. Linton Park, Maidstone.

§CortiE, Rev. A. L., S.J., F.R.A.S. Stonyhurst College, Blackburn.

tCory, Professor G. E., M.A. Rhodes University College, Grahams-
town, Cape Colony.

*Cossar, G. C., M.A., F.G.S. Southview, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.

§Cossar, James. 28 Coltbridge-terrace, Murrayfield, Midlothian.

{Cossey, Miss, M.A. High School for Girls, Kent-road, Southsea.

*Costello, John Francis, B.A. The Rectory, Ballymackey, Nenagh,
Ireland.

*CorrERILL, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. Hillerest, Parkstone, Dorset.

f{Cotton, Alderman W. F., D.L., J.P., M.P. Hollywood, Co. Dublin.

{Courtenay, Colonel Arthur H., C.B., D.L. United Service Club,
Dublin.

{Courrney, Right Hon. Lord. (Pres. F, 1896.) 15 Cheyne-walk,
Chelsea, S.W.

{Couzens, Sir G. E.,K.L.H. Glenthorne, Kingston-crescent, Ports-
mouth.

tCowan, P. C., B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. 33 Ailesbury-road, Dublin.

*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.8. Upcott House, Taunton,
Somersetshire.

tCoward, H. Knowle Board School, Bristol.

$Cowburn, Henry. Dingle Head, Leigh, Lancashire.

§Cowburn, Mrs. Dingle Head, Leigh, Lancashire.

*CowELt, Pure H., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. 62 Shooters Hill-road,
Blackheath, S.E.

{Cowper-Coles, Sherard. 1 and 2 Old Pye-street, Westminster,

S.W.

tCox, A. Hubert. King’s College, Strand, W.C.

tCox, F. J.C. Anderson-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Cox, S. Herbert, Professor of Mining in the Imperial College of
Science and Technology, S.W.

tCox, W. H. Royal Observatory, Cape Town. ;

{Craig, D. D., M.A., B.Sc., M.B. The University, St. Andrews,
N.B

{Craig, James, M.D. 18 Merrion-square North, Dublin.

§Craig, J. I. Homelands, Park-avenue, Worthing.

§CraiciE, Major P. G., C.B.,F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1900; Council,
1908- .) Bronté House, Lympstone, Devon.

tCraik, Sir Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., M.P. 5a Dean’s-yard, West-
minster, 8.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1908.
1906.
1905.
1906.
1905.
1910.
1905.
1871.
1905.
1890.
1888.
1885.
1876.

1887.
1911.

1904.
1880.

1908.

1905.
1890.
1878.

1913.
1903.
1901.

1887.
1898.

1865.

1879.
1897.
1909.
1905.
1894.
1890.

1905.
1904.

1908.
1897.
1890.
1910.
1910.

*CramEeR, W., Ph.D., D.Sc. Physiological Department, The
University, Edinburgh.

{Cramp, William. Redthorn, Whalley-road, Manchester.

*Cranswick, W. F. P.O. Box 65, Bulawayo, Rhodesia.

{Craven, Henry. (Local Sec. 1906.) Greenbank, West Lawn,
Sunderland.

tCrawford, Mrs. A. M. Marchmont, Rosebank, near Cape Town.

*Crawiord, O. G. 8. The Grove, East Woodhay, Newbury.

tCrawford, Professor Lawrence, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. South
African College, Cape Town.

*Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Colin-
ton-road, Edinburgh.

tCrawford, W. C., jun. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Colinton-road,
Edinburgh.

§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, N.

§CrEAK, Captain E. W.,C.B., R.N., F.R.S. (Pres. E, 1903 ; Council,
1896-1903.) 9 Hervey-road, Blackheath, S.E.

*Crewdson, Rev. Canon George. Whitstead, Barton-road, Cam-
bridge.

*Crewdson, Theodore. Spurs, Styall, Handforth, Manchester.

tCrick, George C., F.G.S. British Museum (Natural History),

S.W.

$Crilly, David. 7 Well-street, Paisley.

*Crisp, Sir Frank, Bart., B.A., LL.B., F.L.S., F.G.S. 5 Lansdowne-
road, Notting Hill, W.

§Crocker, J. Meadmore. Albion House, Bingley, Yorkshire.

§Croft, Miss Mary. Quedley, Shottermill.

*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.

*Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. Clouncagh, Ballingarry-Lacy, Co.
Limerick.

§Crombie, J. E. Parkhill House, Dyce, Aberdeenshire.

*Crompton, Holland. Oaklyn, Cross Oak-road, Berkhamsted.

tCrometon, Colonel R. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1901.)
Kensington-court, Ww.

{Croox, Henry T., M.Inst.C.— Lancaster-avenue, Manchester.

§CRooKkE, WILLIAM, B,A. (Pres. H, 1910; Council, 1910- .) Lang-
ton House, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

§Crooxss, Sir WittraM, O.M., D.Sc., Pres.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Prust-
DENT, 1898 ; Pres. B, 1886 ; Council, 1885-91.) 7 Kensington
Park-gardens, W.

tCrookes, Lady. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

*CROOKSHANK, E. M., M.B. Saint Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.

tCrosby, Rev. E. H. Lewis, B.D. 36 Rutland-square, Dublin.

tCrosfield, Hugh T. Walden, Coombe-road, Croydon.

*Crosfield, Miss Margaret C. Undercroft, Reigate.

tCross, H. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.

§Cross, Robert. 13 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

*CrossLtEy, A. W., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. 46 Windfield-gardens,
Hampstead, N.W.

{Crossley, F. W. 30 Molesworth-street, Dublin.

*Crosweller, “Mrs. W.T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.

*Crowley, Ralph Henry, M.D. Sollershott W., Letchworth.

tCrowther, Dr. C., M.A. The University, Leeds.

*Crowther, James Arnold. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 25

Year of
Election.

1911.
1883.

1883.
1914.
1914.
TOL.

1911.
1861.
1861.
1905.
1882.
1905.
ISG
1885.
1869.
1883,
1900.
1912.
1914.
1914.
1913.
1908.
1892.
1905.
1905.
1902.
1912.
1907.
1913.
1913.
1910.
1914.
1898.
1889.
1906.

1907.

§Crush, 8. T. Care of Messrs. Yarrow & Co., Ltd., Scotstoun West,
Glasgow.

*CULVERWELL, Epwarp P., M.A., Professor of Education in Trinity
College, Dublin.

{Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.

*Cuming, James. 65 William-street, Melbourne.

*Cuming, W. Fehon. Hyde-street, Yarraville, Victoria.

tCumming, Alexander Charles, D.Sc. Chemistry Department,
University of Edinburgh.

§Cummins, Major H. A., M.D., C.M.G., Professor of Botany in
University College, Cork.

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Manchester.

*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.

tCunningham, Miss A. 2 St. Paul’s-road, Cambridge.

*CuNNINGHAM, Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN, R.E., A.I.C.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, W.

{Cunningham, Andrew. Larlsferry, Campground-road, Mowbray,
South Africa.

{Cunningham, E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tCunnrneuaM, J. T., M.A. 63 St. Mary’s-grove, Chiswick, W.

tCunnincHaM, Rozsert O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural
History in Queen’s College, Belfast.

*CunNINGHAM, Ven. W., D.D., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1891, 1905.) Trinity
College, Cambridge.

*Cunnington, William A., M.A., Ph.D., F.Z.S. 25 Orlando-road,
Clapham Common, S.W.

§CunyncHaME, Sir Henry H., K.C.B. (Pres. F, 1912.) 15 The
Leas, Folkestone.

§Cunynghame, Lady. 15 The Leas, Folkestone.

§Curdie, Miss Jessie. Camperdown, Victoria.

{Currall, A. E. Streetsbrook-road, Solihull, Birmingham.

{Currelly, C. T., M.A., F.R.G.S. United Empire Club, 117 Picca-
dilly, W.

*Currie, James, M.A., F.R.S.E. Larkfield, Wardie-road, Edinburgh.

{Currie, Dr. O. J. Manor House, Mowbray, Cape Town.

tCurrie, W. P. P.O. Box 2010, Johannesburg.

{Curry, Professor M., M.Inst.C.E. 5 King’s-gardens, Hove.

§Curtis, Charles. Field House, Cainscross, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

{Cusany, Arruur R., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pharmacology in
University College, Gower-street, W.C.

Cutler, A. E. 5 Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tCzaplicka, Miss M. A. Somerford College, Oxford.

{Dasxrn, Dr. W. J., Professor of Biology in the University of Western
Australia, Perth, Western Australia.

§Dakin, Mrs. University of Western Australia, Perth, Western
Australia.

*Darsy, W. E., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1910),
Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering in the City and
Guilds of London Institute, Exhibition-road, S.W.

*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Garth Cottage, Oxford-road, Cambridge.

§Dale, William, F.8.A., F.G.S. The Lawn, Archer’s-road, South-
ampton.

{DatetiesH, Ricard, J.P., D.L. Ashfordby Place, near Melton
Mowbray.

Year of
Election

1904.
1862.
1905.
1901.
1914.
1896.
1897.
1903.
1905.
1904.
1899.
1882.

1878.
‘1894.

1910.
1908.
1880.
1884.
1914.

1904.

1913.
1913.
1909.
1912.
1912.

1902.
1914.
1910.
1887.
1904.
1906.
1893.

1896.
1870.
1873.
1896.
1910.
1905.
1885.
1905.

1912.
1864.

1885.
1901.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

*Datton, J. H.C., M.D. The Plot, Adams-road, Cambridge.

{Dansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.

{Daniel, Miss A. M. 3 St. John’s-terrace, Weston-super-Mare.

*DANIELL, G. F., B.Sc. Woodberry, Oakleigh Park, N.

§Danks, A. T. 391 Bourke-street, Melbourne.

§Danson, F. C. Tower-buildings, Water-street, Liverpool.

{Darbishire, F. V., B.A., Ph.D. Dorotheenstrasse 12, Dresden 20.

{DarpisHirE, Dr. Orro V. The University, Bristol.

{Darwin, Lady. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Charles Galton. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Erasmus. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Sir Francis, M.A., M.B., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S., F.LS.
(PRusIpENT, 1908; Pres. D, 1891; Pres. K, 1904; Council,
1882-84, 1897-1901.) 10 Madingley-road, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Horace, M.A., F.R.S. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road,
Cambridge.

*Darwin, Major Lronarp, F.R.G.S. (Pres. EH, 1896; Council,
1899-1905.) 12 Egerton-place, South Kensington, S.W.

{Dauncey, Mrs. Thursby. Lady Stewert, Heath-road, Weybridge.

tDavey, H. 15 Victoria-road, Brighton.

*Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Conaways, Ewell, Surrey.

tDavid, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.

§Davip, Professor T. W. Epgrwortn, C.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S.
The University, Sydney, N.S.W.

{Davidge, H. T., B.Sc., Professor of Electricity in the Ordnance
College, Woolwich.

§Davidge, W. R., A.M.Inst.C.E. Bank House, Lewisham, 8.E.

§Davidge, Mrs. Bank House, Lewisham, 8.E.

{Davidson, A. R. 150 Stradbrooke-place, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Davidson, Rev. J. The Manse, Douglas, Isle of Man.

{Davidson, John, M.A., D.Ph. Training College, Small’s Wynd,
Dundee.

*Davidson, 8. C. Seacourt, Bangor, Co. Down.

§Davidson, W. R. 15 Third-avenue, Hove.

*Davie, Robert C., M.A., B.Sc. Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.

§ Davies, Henry N., F.G.S. St. Chad’s, Weston-super-Mare.

{Davies, S. H. Ryecroft, New Earswick, York.

*Davies, Rev. T. Witton, B.A., Ph.D., D.D., Professor of Semitic
Languages in University College, Bangor, North Wales.

*Davies, Thomas Wilberforce, ?.G.8. 41 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Davis, A.S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.

*Davis, Alfred. 37 Ladbroke-grove, W.

*Davis, John Henry Grant. Dolobran, Wood Green, Wednesbury.

tDavis, Captain John King. 9 Regent-street, W.

{Davis, Luther. P.O. Box 898, Johannesburg.

*Davis, Rev. Rudolf. Mornington, Elmbridge-road, Gloucester.

{Davy, Josnen Burrr, F.R.G.S., F.L.8. Care of Messrs. Dulau
& Co., 37 Soho-square, W.

{Dawkins, Miss Ella Boyd. Fallowfield House, Fallowfield, Man-
chester.

t{Dawegins, W. Boyp, D.8Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1888 ;
Council, 1882-88.) Fallowfield House, Fallowfield, Man-
chester.

*Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R,A. Hartlington Hall, Burnsall,
Skipton-in-Craven.

*Dawson, P. The Acre, Maryhill, Glasgow.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. vA

Election.

1905
1912

. tDawson, Mrs. The Acre, Maryhill, Glasgow.
- *Dawson, Shepherd, M.A., B.Sc. Drumchapel, near Glasgow.

1906. §Dawson, William Clarke. Whitefriargate, Hull.

1859

. *Dawson, Captain W. G. Abbots Morton, near Worcester.

1900. {Deacon, M. Whittington House, near Chesterfield.

1909.

§Dean, George, F.R.G.S. 14 Evelyn-mansions, Queen’s Club-
gardens, W.

1901. *Deasy, Captain H. H. P. Cavalry Club, 127 Piccadilly, W.
1884. *Debenham, Frank, F.S8.S. 1 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, N.W.

1914.
1866.

1893.

1911.
1878.
1908.
1914.
1907.
1896.
1902.

1914.
1913.

1908.
1889.

1914.
1909.
1874.

1907.
1908.

1894,
1868.

1881.
1884.
1914.

1908

§Debenham, Frank. Caius College, Cambridge.

{Dexsvus, Henvyrica, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1869 ; Council,
1870-75.) 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel, Hessen.

*Deeley, R. M., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Abbeyfield, Salisbury-avenue.
Harpenden, Herts.

{Delahunt, C.G. The Municipal College, Portsmouth.

{De.any, Very Rev. Witt1am, LL.D. University College, Dublin.

*Delf, Miss E. M. Westfield College, Hampstead, N.W.

§Delprat, G. L. Equitable-building, Collins-street, Melbourne.

{De Lisle, Mrs. Edwin. Charnwood Lodge, Coalville, Leicestershire.

tDempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

*DENDY, ARTHUR, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1914; Coun-
eil, 1912— ), Professor of Zoology in King’s College,
London, W.C.

§Dendy, Miss. Vale Lodge, Hampstead, N.W.

*Denman, Thomas Hercy. 17 Churchgate, Retford, Nottingham-
shire.

{Dennehy, W. F. 23 Leeson-park, Dublin.

§Denny, Atrrep, M.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Sheffield. Cliffside, Ranmoor-crescent, Shef-
field.

§Denny, Mrs. Cliffside, Ranmoor-crescent, Sheffield.

§Dent, Edward, M.A. 2 Carlos-place, W.

*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M,, F.G.S. Junior Carlton Club,
Pall Mall, S.W.

*Desch, Cecil H., D.Sc., Ph.D. 3 Kelvinside-terrace North, Glasgow.

{Despard, Miss Kathleen M. 6 Sutton Court-mansions, Grove Park-
terrace, Chiswick, W.

*Deverell, F. H. 7 Grote’s-place, Blackheath, js.E.

*Dewak, Sir Jamus, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.S.,
Fullerian Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution,
London, and Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. (PRust-
DENT, 1902; Pres. B, 1879 ; Council, 1883-88.) 1 Scroope-
terrace, Cambridge.

{Dewar, Lady. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

*Dewar, William, M.A. Horton House, Rugby.

§Dickinson, Miss Desiree. Menzies’ Hotel, Melbourne.

§Dicks, Henry. Haslecourt, Horsell, Woking.

1904. tDickson, Right Hon. Charles Scott, K.C., LL.D., M.P. Carlton

1881.
1887.

Club, Pall Mall, S.W.

{Dickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S. Claughton House, Garstang,
R.S.0O., Lancashire.

§Dickson, H. N., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1913), Pro-
fessor of Geography in University College, Reading. 160
Castle-hill, Reading.

1902. §Dickson, James D. Hamilton, M.A., F.R.S.E. 6 Cranmer-road,

Cambridge.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1913.
1877.
1908.
1901.
1905.

1899.
1874.
1900.

1905.
1908.
1888.
1908.
1900.

1879.

1914.
1902.
1913.

1908.
1907.
1914.
1902.
1896.
1890.

1885.
1860.

1902.
1914.

1908.
1876.
1912.
1912.
1912.

1904.
1896.
1901.

1905.

1863.
1909.
1909.
1912.

*Dickson, T. W. 60 Jefirey’s-road, Clapham, 8.W.
{Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin.
{Dines, J. 8. Pyrton Hill, Watlington.
§Dines, W. H., B.A., F.R.S. Benson, Wallingford, Berks.
§Drxny, F. A., M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1913- .) Wadham
College, Oxford.
*Drxon, A. C., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s
University, Belfast. Hurstwood, Malone Park, Belfast.
*Drxon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in University College,
Cork.

{Dixon, A. Francis, Sc.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Dublin.

{Dixon, Miss E. K. Fern Bank, St. Bees, Cumberland.

{Dixon, Edward K., M.E., M-Inst.C.E. Castlebar, Co. Mayo.

{Dixon, Edward T. Racketts, Hythe, Hampshire.

*Dixon, Ernsst, B.Sc., F.G.5. The Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.

*Dixon, Lieut.-Colonel George, M.A. Fern Bank, St. Bees, Cumber-
land.

*Drxon, Haroxp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1894; Council
1913- ), Professor of Chemistry in the Victoria University,

Manchester.

§Dixon, Mrs. H. B., Beechey House, Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.

{Dixon, Henry H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the

University of Dublin. Clevedon, Temple-road, Dublin. ‘
{Dixon, 8. M., M.A., M.Inst.C.H., Professor of Civil Engineering in
the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London,
S.W.
*Dixon, Walter, F.R.M.S. Derwent, 30 Kelvinside-gardens, Glasgow.
*Drxon, Professor WALTER E., F.R.S. The Museums, Cambridge.
§Dixon, Mrs. W. E. The Grove, Whittlesford, Cambridge.
{Dizon, W. V. Scotch Quarter, Carrickfergus.
§Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Eccleston Park, Prescot.
tDobbie, Sir James J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of the
Government Laboratories, 13 Clement’s Inn-passage, W.C.
§Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh.
*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A., J.P., D.L. Castle Dobbs,
Carrickfergus, Co. Antrim.
{Dobbs, F. W., M.A. Eton College, Windsor.
§Docker, His Honour Judge HE. B., M.A. Mostyn, Mlizabeth Bay,
Sydney, N.S.W.
{Dopp, Hon. Mr. Justice. 26 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
tDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
§Don, A. W. R. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, Forfarshire.
{Don, Alexander, M.A., F.R.C.S. Park House, Nethergate, Dundee.
{Don, Robert Bogle, M.A. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, Forfar-
shire.
{Doncaster, Leonard, M.A. Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.
{Donnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.
{Donnan, F. G., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Gower-street, W.C.
§Dornan, Rev. 8. 8. P.O. Box 510, Bulawayo, South Rhodesia,
South Africa.
*Doughty, Charles Montagu. 26 Grange-road, Eastbourne.
{Douglas, A. J., M.D. City Health Department, Winnipeg, Canada.
*Douglas, James. 99 John-street, New York, U.S.A.
{Doune, Lord. Kinfauns Castle, Perth.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 29

Year of
Election.

1903.
1884.
1865.
1881.

1913.

1892.
1912.
1905.

1906.
1906.
1908.
1893.

1909.
1907.
1892.
1856.

1870.
1900.
1895.
1914.
1914.

1912.
1904.

1890.
1899.

1911.
1909.
1913.
1910.
1876.
1884.

1893.

1891.
1885.

1911.
1913.
1914.
1914.
1905.
1910.

1895.
1911.

{Dow, Miss Agnes R. 81 Park-mansions, Knightsbridge, S.W.
*Dowling, D. J. Sycamore, Clive-avenue, Hastings.

*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk,
*Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. Landhurst Wood, Hartfield,

Sussex.
{Dracopoli, J. N. Pollard’s Wood Grange, Chalfont St. Giles,
Buckinghamshire.

*Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

§Drever, James, M.A., B.Sc. 36 Morningside-grove, Edinburgh.

{Drew, H. W., M.B., M.R.C.S. Mocollup Castle, Ballyduff, S.0.,
Co. Waterford.

*Drew, Joseph Webster, M.A., LL.M. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.

*Drew, Mrs. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.

+Droop, J.P. 11 Cleveland-gardens, Hyde Park, W.

§Druor, G. Crariper, M.A., F.L.S. (Local Sec. 1894.) Yardley
Lodge, 9 Crick-road, Oxford.

*Drugman, Julien, Ph.D., M.Sc. 117 Rue Gachard, Brussels.

tDrysdale, Charles V., D.Sc. Queen Anne’s-chambers, 8.W.

tDu Bois, Professor Dr. H. Herwarthstrasse 4, Berlin, N.W.

*Duciz, The Right Hon. Henry Joun ReyNoLps Morszon, Earl
of, G.C.V.O., F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, W.

{Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. 7 Grey Friars, Chester.

*Duckworth, W. L. H., M.D., Sc.D. Jesus College, Cambridge.

*Duddell, William, F.R.S. 47 Hans-place, S.W.

§Duff, Frank Gee. 31 Queen-street, Melbourne.

§Duffield, D. Walter. 13 Cowra-chambers, Grenfell-street, Ade-
laide, South Australia.

§Duffield, Francis A., M.B. Holmleigh, Manor-road, Sutton
Coldfield.

*DUFFIELD, Professor W. Guorrrey, D.Sc. University College,
Reading.

{Dufton, 8. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Dugdale-Bradley, J. W., M.Inst.C.E. Westminster City Hall,
Charing Cross-road, W.C.

{Dummer, John. 85 Cottage-grove, Southsea.

tDuncan, D. M., M.A. 83 Spence-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Dunlop, Dr. Andrew. Belgrave House, St. Helier, Jersey.

{Dunn, Rey. J. Road Hill Vicarage, Bath.

{Dunnachie, James. 48 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

§Dunnington, Professor F. P. University of Virginia, Charlottes-
ville, Virginia, U.S.A.

*Dunstan, M. J. R., Principal of the South-Eastern Agricultural
College, Wye, Kent.

tDunstan, Mrs. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*DuUNSTAN, WyNnDHAM R., C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
(Pres. B, 1906; Council, 1905-08), Director of the Imperial
Institute, S.W.

tDupree, Colonel Sir W. T. Craneswater, Southsea.

§Durie, William. Sunnyside, Beechwood-avenue, Finchley, N.

§Dvu Torr, A. L., D.Sc. South African Museum, Cape Town.

§Du Toit, Mrs. South African Museum, Cape Town.

§Dutton, C. L. O’Brien. High Commissioner’s Office, Pretoria.

{Dutton, F. V., B.Sc. County Agricultural Laboratories, Rich-
mond-road, Exeter.

*DwERRYHOUSE, ARTHUR R., D.Sc., F.G.S. Deraness, Deramore
Park, Belfast.

t{Dye, Charles. Woodcrofts, London-road, Portsmouth.

Year of
Election

1885.

1895.
1905.

1910.

1912.
1899.

1909.

1893.
1906.
1909.
1903.
1908.

1870.
1858.
1911.
1911.
1884.
1887.

1870.
1883.
1888.
1901.

1914.
1899.

1913.
1903.

1903.
1903.

1901.
1909.
1909.
1907.
1890.
1913.

1901.
1904.
1904

1905.
1883.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

*Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.

§Dymond, Thomas §., F.C.S. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

*Dyson, Sir F. W., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1905-11, 1914- ),
Astronomer Royal, Royal Observatory, Greenwich, S.E.

{Dyson, W. H. Maltby Colliery, near Rotherham, Yorkshire.

tHarland, Arthur, F.R.M.S. 34 Granville-road, Watford.

tEast, W. H. Municipal School of Art, Science, and Technology,
Dover.

*Easterbrook, C. C., M.A., M.D. Crichton Royal Institution,
Dumfries.

*Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, E.C.

*Ebbs, Mrs. A. B. Tuborg, Plaistow-lane, Bromley, Kent,

{Eccles, J. R. Gresham’s School, Holt, Norfolk. ,

*KccLes, W. H., D.Sc. 26 Ridgmount-gardens, Gower-street, W.C

*Kddington, A. 8., M.A., M.Sc., F.R.S., Plumian Professor of Astro-
nomy and Experimental Philosophy in the University of
Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. The Lodge, Adel, Leeds.

*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.

*Kdge, 8. F. Gallops Homestead, Ditchling, Sussex.

*Kdgell, Miss Beatrice. Bedford College, Baker-street, W.

*Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A. Beckley Rectory, East Sussex.

§EpcEworts, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1889 ; Council,
1879-86, 1891-98), Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Oxford. All Souls College, Oxford.

*Edmonds, F. B. 6 Clement’s Inn, W.C.

{Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.

*Edmunds, Henry. Moulsecombe-place, Brighton.

*KDRIDGE-GREEN, F. W., M.D., F.R.C.S. 99 Walm-lane, Willesden

Green, N.W.
§Edwards, A. F. Chemical Department, The University, Man-
chester.

§Edwards, H. J., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 15 Acris-street, Wandsworth
Common, 8.W.

§Edwards, H. J. Royal Technical College, Glasgow.

{Edwards, Mrs. Emily. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, South-

ort.

{Edwards, Francis. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, Southport.

{Edwards, Miss Marion K. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road,
Southport.

{tEggar, W. D. Eton College, Windsor.

{Eggertson, Arni. 120 Emily-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Ehrenborg, G. B. 63 Fairfield-building, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.

*Elderton, W. Palin. 74 Mount Nod-road, Streatham, S.W.

{Elford, Perey. 115 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

{Elkington, Herbert F. Clunes, Wentworth-road, Sutton Cold-
field.

*Elles, Miss Gertrude L., D.Sc. Newnham College, Cambridge.

tElliot, Miss Agnes I. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.

tElliot, R. H. Clifton Park, Kelso, N.B.

tElliott, C. C., M.D. Church-square, Cape Town.

*ELuiott, Epwin Bartey, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.AS., Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 31

Year of
Election.

1912.
1906.
1875.
1906.
1913.

1880.
1891.
1906.
1910.
1911.
1884.
1905.
1894.

1914.
1862.

1887.
1887.
1911.
1897.

1889.
1905.
1870.

1908.

1887.
1913.
1910.

1885.
1905.
1905.
1910.
1865.
1909.

1903.
1902.
' 1883.
1881.

1874.
1913.

1913.
1876.

Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.

SElliott, Dr. W. T., F.Z.S. 21 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

*Ellis, David, D.Sc., Ph.D. Royal Technical College, Glasgow.

*Ellis, H. D. 12 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

§Eiiis, HERBERT. The Gynsills, Groby-road, Leicester.

{tEllis, Herbert Willoughby, A.M.Inst.C.E. Holly Hill, Berkswell,
Warwickshire.

*Fllis, John Henry. (Local Sec. 1883.) 10 The Crescent, Plymouth.

§Ellis, Miss M. A. Care of Miss Rice, 11 Canterbury-road, Oxford.

tExumarrst, CoarLes E. (Local Sec. 1906.) 29 Mount-vale, York.

tElnhirst, Richard. Marine Biological Station, Millport.

{Elwes, H. J., F.R.S. Colesborne Park, near Cheltenham.

tEmery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

{tEpps, Mrs. Dunhurst, Petersfield, Hampshire.

{Erskine-Murray, J., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 4 Great Winchester-street,
E.C.

§Erson, Dr. E. G. Leger. 123 Collins-street, Melbourne.

*Esson, WiiiiaM, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry in the University of Oxford. 13 Bradmore-road,
Oxford.

*Estcourt, Charles, F.I.C. 65 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

*Hstcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.C. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester. .

tErurrtron, G. Hammonp. (Local Sec. 1911.) Town Hall, Ports-

mouth.

*Hvans, Lady. Care of Union of London and Smith’s Bank,
Berkhamsted, Herts.

*Evans, A. H., M.A. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

tEvans, Mrs. A. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

*Evans, Sir Arraur Joun, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. (Pres. H,
1896.) Youlbury, Abingdon.

tEvans, Rev. Henry, D.D., Commissioner of National Education,
Treland. Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

*Evans, Mrs. Isabel. Hoghton Hall, Hoghton, near Preston.

§Evans, J. Jameson. 41 Newhall-street, Birmingham:

*Evans, JoHN W., D.Sc., LL.B., F.G.S. 75 Craven Park-road,
Harlesden, N.W.

*Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth.

tEvans, R. O. Ll. Broom Hall, Chwilog, R.S.O., Carnarvonshire.

tEvans, T. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

tEvans, T. J. The University, Sheffield.

*Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

tEvans, W. Sanrorp, M.A. (Local Sec. 1909.) 43 Edmonton
street, Winnipeg.

tAvatt, #. J., M.B. 8 Kyveilog-street, Cardiff.

*Everett, Perey W. Oaklands, Elstree, Hertfordshire.

{Eves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.

tEwart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1901), Professor of
Natural History in the University of Edinburgh.

tEwart, Sir W. Quarrus, Bart. (Local Sec. 1874.) Glenmachan,
Belfast.

*KweEn, J. T. 104 King’s-gate, Aberdeen.

*Kwen, Mrs. J. T. 104 King’s-gate, Aberdeen.

*Ewinea, Sir JamMEs ALFRED, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.RB.S.E.,
M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1906), Director of Naval Education,
Admiralty, S.W. Froghole, Edenbridge, Kent.

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1914.
1884.

1912.

1906.
1901.
1865.
1910.
1908.
1896.
1902.

1907.
1902.
1892.

1897.
1904.

1885.
1905.
1913.

1903.

1913.
1890.
1906.
1900.

1902.

1911.
1909.
1906.
1901.

1910.
1905.
1900.
1904.
1914.
1871.

1901.
1863.
1910.
1905.

1914.
1873.

§Ewing, Mrs. Peter. The Frond, Uddingston, Glasgow.

*Eyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A.

§Eyre, Dr. J. Varcas. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye,
Kent.

Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.

*Faber, George D. 14 Grosvenor-square, W.
*Fairgrieve, M. McCallum. 37 Queen’s-crescent, Edinburgh.
*FarRLEY, Toomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.
{Falconer, J. D. The Limes, Little Berkhamsted, Hertford.
{Falconer, Robert A., M.A. 44 Merrion-square, Dublin.
§Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Cheshire.
§Fallaize, E. N., B.A. Vinchelez, Chase Court-gardens, Windmill-
hill, Enfield.
*Fantham, H. B., D.Sc., B.A. 100 Mawson-road, Cambridge.
{Faren, William. 11 Mount Charles, Belfast.
*FarMER, J. BRETLAND, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1907;
Council, 1912-14.) South Park, Gerrard’s Cross.
*Farnworth, Mrs. Ernest. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolver-
hampton.
{Farnworth, Miss Olive. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolver-
hampton. :
*Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Tillydrine, Kincardine O Neil, N.B.
{Farrar, Edward. P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.
+Farrow, F. D. Rhodes University College. Grahamstown,
South Africa.
§Faulkner, Joseph M. 17 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Man-
chester.
§Faweett, C. B. University College, Southampton.
*Fawcett, F. B. 1 Rockleaze-avenue, Sneyd Park, Bristol.
§Fawcett, Henry Hargreave. Thorncombe, near Chard, Somerset.
{Fawcert, J. E., J.P. (Local Sec. 1900.) Low Royd, Apperley
Bridge, Bradford.
*Fawsitt, C. E., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Sydney, New South Wales.
*Fay, Mrs. A. Q. Chedworth, Rustat-road, Cambridge.
*Fay, Charles Ryle, M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
*Fearnsides, Edwin G., M.A., M.B., B.Sc. London Hospital, E.
*Frarnsipis, W. G., M.A., F.G.8. Sorby Professor of Geology
-in the University of Sheffield. 10 Silver Birch-avenue,
Fulwood, Sheffield.
*Fearnsides, Mrs. 10 Silver Birch-avenue, Fulwood, Sheffield.
{Feilden, Colonel H. W., C.B., F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Burwash, Sussex.
*Fennell, William John. Deramore Drive, Belfast. .
{Fenton, H. J. H., M.A., F.R.S. 19 Brookside, Cambridge.
§Ferguson, E. R. Gordon-street, Footscray, Victoria.
*Frrauson, Joun, M.A., LL.D., F.B.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.
{Ferguson, R. W. 16 Linden-road, Bournville, near Birmingham.
*Fernie, John. Box No. 2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A
*Ferranti, S. Z. de, M.Inst.C.E. Grindleford, near Sheffield.
*Ferrar, H. T., M.A., F.G.8. Geological Survey of Egypt, Giza,
Egypt.
§Ferrar, Mrs. Geological Survey of Hgypt, Giza, Egypt.
{Frrrier, Sir Davin, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 34 Cavendish-
square, W.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 33

Election,

1909.
1882.

1913.
1897.

1907.
1906.

1905.
1905.

1904.

1912.
1902.

1902.
1909.
1875,
1887.

1871.
1885.
1894.
1888.
1904.
1904,
1913.
1892.
1888.
1908.
1901.
1906.
1905.
1913.
1889.
1890.

1877.
1903.

1911.
1906.
1914.
1914.

{Fetherstonhaugh, Professor Edward P., B.So, 119 Betourney-
street, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. King Edward VI. Grammar School,
Southampton.

§Field, Miss E. E. Hollywood, Egham Hill, Surrey.

{Field, George Wilton, Ph.D. Room 158, State House, Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

*Fields, Professor J. C., F.R.S. The University, Toronto, Canada.

§Finon, L. N. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathematics
in the University of London. Lynton, Haling Park-road,
Croydon.

{Fincham, G. H. Hopewell, Invami, Cape Colony.

§Findlay, Alexander, M.A., Ph.D., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry
in University College, Aberystwyth.

*Findlay, J. J., Ph.D., Professor of Education in the Victoria
University, Manchester. Ruperra, Victoria Park, Manchester.

§Winlayson, Daniel, F.L.S. Seed Testing Laboratory, Wood Green, N.

{Finnegan, J.. M.A., B.Sc. Kelvin House, Botanic-avenue,
Belfast.

tFisher, J. R. Cranfield, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.

{Fisher, James, K.C. 216 Portage-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

*Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 47 Dartmouth-road, Willesden Green,
N.W

*Hison, Sir FRepERIcK W-, Bart., M.A., F.C.S. Boarzell, Hurst
Green, Sussex.

*HITzZGERALD, Professor Maurics, B.A. (Local Sec. 1902.) Fair-
holme, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

{Firzmavrice, Sir Maurice, C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. London County
Council, Spring-gardens, S.W.

*Firzpatrick, Rev. Tuomas C., President of Queens’ College,
Cambridge.

{Flather, J. H., M.A. Camden House, 90 Hills-road, Cambridge.

{Fleming, James. 25 Kelvinside-terrace South, Glasgow.

§Fleming, Professor J. A., D.Sc, F.R.S. University College,
Gower-street, W.C.

{Fletcher, George, F.G.S. Mona, Shankhill, Co. Dublin.

*FLErcuER, Lazarus, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.C.S. (Pres. C,
1894), Director of the Natural History Museum, Cromwell-
road, 8.W. 35 Woodville-gardens, Haling, W

*Fletcher, W. H. B. Aldwick Manor, Bognor, Sussex.

{Flett, J. S., M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Geological Survey
Office, 33 George-square, Edinburgh.

*Fieure, H. J., D.Sc., Professor of Zoology and Geology in Uni-
versity College, Aberystwyth.

*Flint, Rev. W., D.D. Houses of Parliament, Cape Town.

*Florence, P. Sargant, B.A. Caius College, Cambridge.

{Flower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, S.W.

*Fiux, A. W., M.A. Board of Trade, Gwydyr House, White-
hall, S.W.

tFoale, William. The Croft, Madeira Park, Tunbridge Wells.

}Foord-Kelcey, W., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military
Academy, Woolwich. The Shrubbery, Shooter’s Hill, S.E,

{Foran, Charles. 72 Elm-grove, Southsea.

§Forbes, Charles Mansfeldt. 14 New-street, York.

§forbes, E. J. P.O. Box 1604, Sydney, N.S.W.

§Forbes, Mrs. E. J. P.O. Box 1604, Sydney, N.S.W.

1914. ©

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1873.
1883.
1905.
1875.
1909.
1887.

1902.
1883.

1911.
1857.

1914.
1908.
1901.

LSU KE
1911.
1903.
1905.

1909.
1912.

1883.
1883.
1904.
1904.
1905.
1883.
1900.
1909.
1908,
1881.
1907.
1887.
1913.

1910.
191].

1911.
1895.

*Forses, Grorae, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 11 Little
College-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Forpes, Henry O., LLD., F.Z.S., Redcliffe, Beaconsfield,
Bucks.

{Forpes, Major W. Lacanan. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall,
S.W.

*FORDHAM, Sir Gror@E. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.

{Forcrt, The Hon. A. E. Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada.

{Forrzst, The Right Hon. Sir Jonny, G.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., F.G.8.
Perth, Western Australia.

*Forster, M. O., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 84 Cornwall-gardens, S.W.

{Forsytn, Professor A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1897, 1905 ;
Council, 1907-09.) The Manor House, Marylebone, N.W.

{Foster, F. G. Ivydale, London-road, Portsmouth.

*FostEeR, GrorGE Carey, B.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (GENERAL
TREASURER, 1898-1904; Pres. A, 1877; Council, 1871-76,
1877-82.) Ladywalk, Rickmansworth.

§Foster, Colonel H. J., R.E. The University, Sydney, N.S.W.

*Foster, John Arnold. 11 Hills-place, Oxford Circus, W.

tFoster, T. Gregory, Ph.D., Provost of University College, London.
University College, Gower-street, W.C.

{Foster, Sir T. Scorr, J.P. Town Hall, Portsmouth.

{Foster, Lady Scott. Braemar, St. Helen’s-parade, Southsea.

tF¥ourcade, H. G. P.O., Storms River, Humansdorp, Cape
Colony.

§Fowlds, Hiram. 65 Devonshire-street, Keighley, Yorkshire.

§Fowlds, Mrs. 65 Devonshire-street, Keighley, Yorkshire.

tFowler, A., F.R.S., Assistant Professor of Physics in the Imperial
College of Science and Technology, 8.W. 19 Rusthall-avenue,
Bedford Park, W.

*Fox, Charles. The Pynes, Warlingham-on-the-Hill, Surrey.

{Fox, Sir Cuartes Doveuas, M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1896.) Cross
Keys House, 56 Moorgate-street, E.C.

*Fox, Charles J. J., B.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the
Presidency College of Science, Poona, India.

§Fox, F. Douglas, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 19 The Square, Ken-
sington, W.

{Fox, Mrs. F. Douglas. 19 The Square, Kensington, W.

t{Fox, Howard, F.G.S._ Rosehill, Falmouth.

*Fox, Thomas. Old Way House, Wellington, Somerset.

*Fox, Wilson Lloyd. Carmino, Falmouth.

§Foxley, Miss Barbara, M.A. 5 Norton Way North, Letchworth.

*FOXWELL, HERBERT S., M.A., F.S.S. (Council, 1894-97), Professor
of Political Economy in University College, London. St.
John’s College, Cambridge.

tFraine, Miss Ethel de, D.Sc., F.L.S. Westfield College, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

*FRANKLAND, Prrcy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1901), Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Birmingham.

foe Cyril H. H. 38 Croydon-road, Croydon, Sydney,
N.S.W.

*FRANELIN, GEORGE, Litt.D. Tapton Hall, Sheffield.

{Fraser. Dr. A. Mearns. (Local Sec. 1911.) Town Hall, Ports-
mouth.

{Fraser, Mrs. A. Mearns. Cheyne Lodge, St. Ronan’s-road, Ports-
mouth.

tFraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 35

Year of
Election.

1871.

1911.
1906.

1909.
1912.

1905.
1886.

1887.
1906.
1912.

1892.
1882.
1911.
1887.
1898.

1908.
1905.

1898. t

1872.
1912.
1913.
1910.

1863.
1906.

1885.
1875.
1887.
1905.
1913.
1888.

1911.

1899.

1898.
1911.
1912.

1905.

1900.

1887.

{Fraser, Sir Taomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Materia Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of
Edinburgh. 13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

§Freeman, Oliver, B.Sc. The Municipal College, Portsmouth.

§French, Fleet-Surgeon A. M. Langley, Beaufort-road, Kingston-
on-Thames.

{French, Mrs. Harriet A. Suite E, Gline’s-block, Portage-avenue,
Winnipeg, Canada.

§French, Mrs. Harvey. Hambledon Lodge, Childe Okeford,
Blandford.

tFrench, Sir Somerset R., K.C.M.G. 100 Victoria-street, S.W.

{FresHrietD, Doveras W., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1904.) 1 Airlie-
gardens, Campden Hill, W.

*Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.

{Fritrscu, Dr. F. E. 77 Chatsworth-road, Brondesbury, N.W.

§Frodsham, Miss Margaret, B.Sc. The College School, 34 Cathe-
dral-road, Cardiff.

*Frost, Edmund, M.D. Chesterfield-road, Eastbourne.

§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.

tFrost, M. E. P. H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth.

*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 55 Kensington-court, W.

tFry, The Right Hon. Sir Epwarp, G.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.S.A. Failand House, Failand, near Bristol.

tFry, M. W. J., M.A. 39 Trinity College, Dublin.

*Fry, William, J.P., F.R.G.S. Wilton House, Merrion-road, Dublin.

Fryer, Alfred C., Ph.D. 13 Eaton-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.

*Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, S.E.

§Fulton, Angus R., B.Sc. University College, Dundee.

*Fyson, Philip Furley, B.A., F.L.S. Elmley Lovett, Droitwich.

{Gavow, H. F., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D., 1913). Zoological Labora-
tory, Cambridge.

*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.

tGajjar, Professor T. K., M.A., B.Sc. Techno-Chemical Laboratory,
near Girgaum Tram Terminus, Bombay.

*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

t{Gattoway, W. Cardiff.

*Galloway, W. J. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

{Galpin, Ernest E. Bank of Africa, Queenstown, Cape of Good Hope.

§GamBLE, F. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Local Sec., 1913), Professor of
Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the University of
Birmingham. 38 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*GaMBLE, J. Syxus, C.I.E., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Highfield, East
Liss, Hants.

tGarbett, Rev. C. F., M.A. The Vicarage, Fratton-road, Ports-
mouth.

*Garcke, E. Ditton House, near Maidenhead.

tGarde, Rev. C. L. Skenfrith Vicarage, near Monmouth,

{Gardiner, C. I., M.A., F.G.S. 6 Paragon-parade, Cheltenham.

§Gardiner, F. A., F.L.S. Inversnaid, West Heath-avenue, N.W.

tGardiner, J. H. 59 Wroughton-road, Balham, S.W.

{Garpuver, J. Srantey, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge.
Zoological Laboratory, Cambridge.

+GarpineR, Water, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. Awdreys, Hills-
road, Cambridge.

Year of
Election

1882.
1912.

1912.
1913.

1905.
1887.
1882.
1883.

1903.
1903.

1894.
1874.
1889.
1905.
1905.
1906.
1913.
1911.
1912.
1905

1885.
1867.

1913.
1898.

1882.

1905.
1912.

1902.
1899.
1913.

1884.
1909.

1905,

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, East-

bourne.

*GarDNER, WitLtoucuey, F.L.S. Y Berlfa, Deganwy, North
Wales. .

§Garfitt, G: A. Cartledge Hall, Holmesfield, near Sheffield.

*GARNETT, Principal J. C. Maxwext, M.A. (Locan SEcrerary,
1915) Westfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

tGarnett, Mrs. Maxwell, F.Z.S. Westfield, Victoria Park, Man-
chester.

*Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, Bromley Cross, near Bolton,
Lancashire.

{Garnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Victoria Em-
bankment, W.C.

t{Garson, J. G., M.D. (Assist. Gen. Sxo. 1902-04.) Moorcote,

Eversley, Winchfield.

{Garstang, A. H. 82 Forest-road, Southport.

*Garstang, T. James, M.A. Bedales School, Petersfield, Hamp-
shire.

*Garstana, WALTER, M.A., D.Sc., F.Z.8., Professor of Zoology
in the University of Leeds.

*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.I.A., F.S.A. Bragans-

town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

{Garwoon, E. J., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1913), Professor of
Geology in the University of London. University College,
Gower-street, W.C.

{Gaskell, Miss C. J. The Uplands, Great Shelford, Cambridge.

{Gaskell, Miss M. A. The Uplands, Great Shelford, Cambridge.

{Gaster, Leon. 32 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Gatrs, R. R., Ph.D., F.L.S. 14 Well-walk, Hampstead, N.W.

{Gates, W. ‘ Evening News’ Office, Portsmouth.

§Gavin, W., M.A. The Farms Offices, Blenheim Park, Woodstock.

*Gearon, Miss Susan. 55 Buckleigh-road, Streatham Common,
S.W

{Guppzs, Professor Patrick. 14 Ramsay-gardens, Edinburgh.

{Gurmre, Sir ArcurpaLp, O.M., K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc. F.RBS.,
F.R.S.E., F.G.8S. (Presiprent, 1892; Pres. C, 1867, 1871,
1899; Council, 1888-1891.) Shepherd’s Down, Haslemere,
Surrey.

§Geldart, Miss Alice M. 2 Cotman-road, Norwich.

*GrmMMILL, JAMES F., M.A., M.D. 12 Anne-street, Hillhead,
Glasgow.

*Gmnese, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Aberystwyth.

t{Gentleman, Miss A. A. 9 Abercromby-place, Stirling.

*George, H. Trevelyan, M.A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. 33 Ampthill-
square, N.W.

*Gepp, Antony, M.A., F.L.S. British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, S.W.

*Gepp, Mrs. A. British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
S.W,

§Gerich, Miss Emma A. P. Care of The Manager, Bank of
Australasia, Sydney, Australia.

*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. John-street, Oxford.

ioeeoe W. M., M.A. (Local Sec. 1910.) The University, Shef-
fie

{Gibbs, Miss Lilian 8., F.L.S. 22 South-street, Thurloe-square,
.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. S|

Year of
Election.

1912.

1914.
1912.
1901.
1904.

1912.
1896.

1889.

1893.
1898,
1883.
1884.
1895.

1896.
1911.
1902.
1908.
1913.
1913.
1892.
1907.
1908.
1913.
1913.

1893.
1904.

1884.
1886.

1883.
1871.

1880.
1881.
‘1881.

1878.
1880.

1879.
1878.
1908.

{tGibson, A. H., D.Sc., Professor of Engineering in University
College, Dundee.

§Gibson, A. J., Ph.D. Central Sugar Mills, Brisbane, Australia.

tGibson, G. E., Ph.D., B.Sc. 16 Woodhall-terrace, Juniper Green.

{Gibson, Professor George A., M.A. 10 The University, Glasgow.

*Gibson, Mrs. Margaret D., LL.D. Castle Brae, Chesterton-lane,
Cambridge.

*Gibson, Miss Mary H., M.A., Ph.D. 75 Colum-road, Cardiff.

{Grsson, R. J. Harvey, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany in the
University of Liverpool.

*Gibson, T. G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.0., Northumber-

land.

{Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

*Gifford, J. William. Oaklands, Chard.

tGilbert, Lady. Park View, Englefield Green, Surrey.

*Gilbert, Philip H. 63 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada.

tGicuaisr, J. D. F., M.A., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.L.S. Marine Biologist’s
Office, Department of Agriculture, Cape Town.

*GiLcHRIsT, Percy C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Reform Club, Pall
Mall, S.W.

{Gill, Rev. H. V.,S.J. Milltown Park, Clonskea, Co. Dublin.

{Gill, James F. 72 Strand-road, Bootle, Liverpool.

tGill, T. P. Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction
for Ireland, Dublin.

*Gillett, Joseph A., B.A. Woodgreen, Banbury.

tGillmor, R. E. 57 Victoria-street, S.W.

*Gilmour, Matthew A. B., F.Z.S. Saffronhall House, Windmill-
road, Hamilton, N.B.

{Gilmour, 8. C. 25 Cumberland-road, Acton, W.

tGilmour, T. L. 1 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

§Gilson, R. Cary, M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham.

§Gimingham, C. T., F.I.C. Research Station, Long Ashton,
Bristol.

*Gimingham, Edward. Croyland, Clapton Common, N.E.

{Ginn, S. R., D.L. (Local Sec. 1904.) Brookfield, Trumpington-
road, Cambridge.

tGirdwood, G. P., M.D. 615 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Gisborne, Hartley, M.Can.8.C.E. Yoxall, Rural Route No. 1—
Ladysmith, British Columbia, Canada.

*Gladstone, Miss. 19 Chepstow-villas, Bayswater, W.

*GuaIsHER, J. W. L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1890 ;
Council, 1878-86.) Trinity College, Cambridge.

*GLANTAWE, Right Hon. Lord. The Grange, Swansea.

*GLAZEBROOK, R. T., C.B., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1893;
Council 1890-94, 1905-11), Director of the National Physical
Laboratory. Bushy House, Teddington, Middlesex.

*Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbroke-grove, W.

Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.

*Godlee, J. Lister. Wakes Colne Place, Essex.

{Gopman, F. Du Canz, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 45 Pont-
street, S.W.

tGopwiy-Austen, Lieut -Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.
(Pres. E, 1883.) Nore, Godalming.

tGorr, James. (Local Sec. 1878.) 29 Lower Leeson-street,
Dublin.

*GoLp, Ernest, M.A. 8 Hurst Close, Bigwood-road, Hampstead
Garden Suburb, N.W.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of
Election.

1914.
1906.

1910.
1913,
1899.
1890.

1909.
1912.
1907.
1908,
1884.

1884.

1909.
1909.
1909.
1911.
1871.

1893.
1910.
1912.

1901.

1881.
1901.
1876.
1883.
1873.

1908.
1886.
1909.
1909.
1902.
1914.
1875.

1904.
1896.
1914.

1908.
1914.

1890.
1864.

1881.
1903.

§Gold, Mrs. 8 Hurst Close, Bigwood-road, Hampstead Garden
Suburb, N.W.

tGoxtpiz, Right Hon. Sir Groresz D. T., K.C.M.G., D.C.L., F.R.S.
(Pres. E, 1906 ; Council, 1906-07.) Naval and Military Club,
94 Piccadilly, W.

§Golding, John, F.I.C. University College, Reading.

§Golding, Mrs. University College, Reading.

tGomngE, Sir G. L., F.S.A.

*Gonner, KM. C. K., M.A. (Pres. F, 1897, 1914), Professor of Econo-
mic Science in the University of Liverpool. Undercliff,
West Kirby, Cheshire.

{Goodair, Thomas. 303 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Goodman, Sydney, C. N., B.A. 1 Brick-court, Temple, E.C.

§Goopricu, EH. §., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Merton College, Oxford.

tGoodrich, Mrs. Merton College, Oxford.

*Goodridge, Richard E. W. P.O. Box 36, Coleraine, Minnesota,
U.S.A.

tGoodwin, Professor W. L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.

§Gordon, Rev. Charles W. 567 Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada,

{tGordon, J.T. 147 Hargrave-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

{tGordon, Mrs. J. T. 147 Hargrave-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Gordon, J. W. 113 Broadhurst-gardens, Hampstead, N.W.

*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s-mansions, West-
minster, S.W.

{Gordon, Mrs. M. M. Ogilvie, D.Sc. 1 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

*Gordon, Vivian. Avonside Engine Works, Fishponds, Bristol.

§Gordon, W. T. Geological Department, King’s College, Strand,
W.C.

tGorst, Right Hon. Sir Jonn E., M.A., K.C., M.P., F.R.S. (Pres. L,
1901.) :84 Campden Hill Court, W.

tGough, Rev. Thomas, B.Sc. King Edward’s School, Retford.

{tGourtay, Rogerr. Glasgow.

tGow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow.

tGow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow.

{Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

*GRABHAM, G. W., M.A., F.G.S. P.O. Box 178, Khartoum, Sudan.

tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.

tGracr, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

{tGraham, Herbert W. 329 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

*Graham, William, M.D. Purdysburn House, Belfast.

§Graham, Mrs. Purdysburn House, Belfast.

tGrauameE, James. (Local Sec. 1876.) Care of Messrs. Grahame,
Crums, & Connal, 34 West George-street, Glasgow.

§Gramont, Comte Arnaud de, D.Sc. 179 rue de l'Université, Paris.

{tGrant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada.

§GRANT, Kerr, M.Sc., Professor of Physics in the University of
Adelaide, South Australia.

*Grant, Professor W. L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario.

§Grasby, W. C. Care of G. J. W. Grasby, Esq., Grenfell-street,
Adelaide, South Australia.

tGray, AnpRuw, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.

*Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Retford.

tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

§Gray, Ernest, M.A. 104 Tulse-hill, S.W.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 39

Election,

1904, tGray, Rev. H. B., D.D. (Pres. L, 1909). Pineroyd, Lower Bourne,

1892.
1887.

1887.
1901.
1873,

1866.
1910.
1904.

1904.
1906.

1908.

1909.

1882.

1905.
1913.

1898.

1875.
1906.

1894,

1896.
1904.

1914.

1894.

1908.
1884,

1884.

1903.

1888.

1914.
1911.
1894.

1894,

1909.
1896.
1913.

1869

Farnham.
*Gray, James Hunter, M.A., B.Sc. 3 Crown Office-row, Temple,
E.C

tGray, Joseph W., F.G.S. 6 Richmond Park-crescent, Bourne-
mouth.

tGray, M. H., F.G.S8. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

{tGray, R. Whytlaw. University College, W.C.

tGray, William, M.R.I.A. Glenburn Park, Belfast.

*Gray, Colonel Wint1AM. Farley Hall, near Reading.

§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.

{Greaves, R. H., B.Sc. 12 St. John’s-crescent, Cardiff.

*Green, Professor A. G., M.Sc, The Old Gardens, Cardigan-road,
Headingley, Leeds.

§Green, F. W. 5 Wordsworth-grove, Cambridge.

§Green, J. A., M.A., Professor of Education in the University of
Sheffield.

{Green, Rev. William Spotswood, C.B., F.R.G.S. 5 Cowper-villas,
Cowper-road, Dublin.

tGreenfield, Joseph. P.O. Box 2935, Winnipeg, Canada.

TGREENHILL, Sir A. G., M.A., F.R.S. 1 Staple Inn, W.C,

tGreenhill, William. 6a George-street, Edinburgh.

*Greenland, Miss Lucy Maud. St. Hilda’s, Hornsea, East Yorkshire.

*GruENLY, Epwarp, F.G.S. Achnashean, near Bangor, North
Wales.

{Greenwood, Dr. Frederick. Brampton, Chesterfield.

{tGreenwood, Sir Hamar, Bart., M.P. National Liberal Club,
Whitehall-place, S.W.

*Grecory, J. WatteER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1907), Pro-
fessor of Geology in the University of Glasgow.

*GrecoryY, Professor R. A., F.R.A.S. Walcot, Blyth-road, Bromley,
Kent.

*Grecory, R. P., M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§Gregory, Miss V. J. The University, Glasgow.

§Grew, Mrs. 30 Cheyne-row, 8.W.

*Griffith, C. L. T., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineering
in the College of Engineering, Madras.

§Griffith, ae John P,, M.Inst.C.—. Rathmines Castle, Rathmines,
Dublin.

{tGrirrirus, EH. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1906; Pres. L,
1913; Council, 1911- ), Principal of University College,
Cardiff.

{Griffiths, Mrs. University College, Cardiff.

{Griffiths, Thomas, J.P. 101 Manchester-road, Southport.

*Grimshaw, James Walter, M.Inst.C.E. St. Stephen’s Club, West-
minster, S.W.

§Grinley, Frank. Wandella, Gale-street, Woolwich, N.S.W.

{tGrogan, Ewart 8. Camp Hill, near Newcastle, Stafis.

{tGroom, Professor P., M.A., F.L.S. North Park, Gerrard’s Cross.
Bucks.

tGroom, T. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
University of Birmingham.

*Grossman, Edward L., M.D. Steilacoom, Washington, U.S.A.

{Grossmann, Dr. Kar]. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{Grove, W. B., M.A. 45 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

. [Gruss, ee Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Aberfoyle, Rathgar,
Dublin.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
lection.

4913.
1897.
1910.
1913.
1887.

1905.
1909.
1909.
1894.
1880.
1904.
1902.
1914.,
1904,

1895.
1906.
1905.

1908.
1881.

1914.
1911.
1888.

1913.
1905.

1911.

1906.
1894.

‘1909.
190s
1899.

1914.
1909.

1903.
1879.
1883.
1854.

1899.
1884.

1908.
1913.

§Gruchy, G. F. B. de. Bulwark House, St. Aubin, Jersey.

tGriinbaum, A. 8., M.A., M.D. School of Medicine, Leeds.

§Grundy, James. Ruislip, Teignmouth-road, Cricklewood, N.W,

tGuest, James J. 11 St. Mark’s-road, Leamington.

{GuittemaRp, F.H.H.,M.A.,M.D. The Mill House, Trumpington,
Cambridge.

*Gunn, Donald. Royal Societies Club, St. James’s-street, 8. W.

tGunne, J. R., M.D. Kenora, Ontario, Canada.

{Gunne, W. J., M.D. Kenora, Ontario, Canada.

{Giinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.

§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.

§Gurney, Sir Eustace. Sprowston Hall, Norwich.

*Gurney, Robert. Ingham Old Hall, Stalham, Norfolk.

§Guthrie, Mrs. Blanche. 72 Ladbroke-grove, W.

{Guttmann, Professor Leo F., Ph.D. Queen’s University, Kingston,
Canada.

*“GWYNNE-VauGHAN, D. T., F.L.8., Professor of Botany in Uni-
versity College, Reading.

*GWYNNE-VauGuaN, Mrs. Hexzn C. I., D.Sc., F.L.S. Department of
Botany, Birkbeck College; and 27 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

tHacker, Rev. W. J. Idutywa, Transkei, South Africa.

*Hackett, Felix E. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

*Happon, ALFRED Cort, M.A., D.Sc., F.B.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. H, 1902,
1905; Council, 1902-08, 1910- .) 3 Cranmer-road, Cam-
bridge.

§Haddon, Mrs. 3 Cranmer-road, Cambridge.

*Haddon, Miss Kathleen. 3 Cranmer-road, Cambridge.

*Hadfield, Sir Robert, D.Met., D.Sc, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 22
Carlton House-terrace, S.W.

{Hadley, H. E., B.Sc. School of Science, Kidderminster.

{Hahn, Professor P. H., M.A., Ph.D. York House, Gardens, Cape
Town.

tHaigh, B. P., B.Sc. James Watt Engineering Laboratory, The
University, Glasgow.

tHake, George W. Oxford, Ohio, U.S.A.

{Haupang, Joun Scort, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1908), Reader
in Physiology in the University of Oxford. Cherwell, Oxford.

§Hale, W. H., Ph.D. 40 First-place, Brooklyn, New York, U.S.A,

§Halket, Miss A.C. Waverley House, 135 Hast India-road, E.

tHau, A. D., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. M, 1914; Council, 1908- .)
Development Commission, 64 Dean’s-yard, S.W.

§Hall, Mrs. A. D. Ewhurst, Mostyn-road, Merton.

§Hall, Archibald A., M.Sc., Ph.D. Armstrong College, Newcastle-
on-Tyne.

tHa., E. Marsmauy, K.C. 75 Cambridge-terrace, W.

*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

*Hall, Miss Emily. 63 Belmont-street, Southport.

bmi Hvuew Ferrer, F.G.S. Cissbury Court, West Worthing,

ussex,

tHall, John, M.D. National Bank of Scotland, Nicholas-lane, E.C.

§Hall, Thomas Proctor, M.D, 13801 Davie-street, Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada.

*Hall, Wilfred, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Prior’s-terrace, Tynemouth,
Northumberland.

tHall-Edwards, J. The Elms, 112 Gough-road, Edgbaston, Bir-

mingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 41

Year of
Election,

1891.
1873.
1888.

1905.
1904.
1908.
1883.
1904.
1906.
1906.
1909.
1902.
1909.
1881,

1899.
1878.
1909.

1905,
1912.
1911.
1906.
1904.
1914.

1859.

1909.
1886.
1902.

1903.
1892.

1905.
1877.
1894.
1913.
1909.

1881.
1890.

1914.
1896.

1875.

1877.
1883.

*Hallett, George. Oak Cottage, West Malvern.

*Hatuurt, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

§Hatiipurton, W. D., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1902 ; Council,
1897-1903, 1911-__), Professor of Physiology in King’s College,
London. Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W.

tHalliburton, Mrs. Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W.

*Hallidie, A. H. 8S. Avondale, Chestertield-road, Eastbourne.

*Hamel, Egbert Alexander de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

*Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

*Hamel de Manin, Anna Countess de. 35 Circus-road, N.W.

tHamill, John Molyneux, M.A., M.B. 14 South-parade, Chiswick.

tHamilton, Charles I. 88 Twyford- avenue, Acton.

+Hamilton, F.C. Bank of Hamilton-chambers, Winnipeg, Canada.

tHamixron, Rev. T., D.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.

tHamilton, T. Glen, ‘M.D. 264 Renton-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Hammonp, Ropert, M.Inst.C.E. 64 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.

*Hanbury, Daniel. Lenqua da Ca, Alassio, Italy.

tHance, EK. M. Care of J. Hope Smith, Esq., 3 Leman-street, E.C.

tHancock, C. B. Manitoba Government Telephones, Winnipeg,
Canada.

*Hancock, Strangman. Kennel Holt, Cranbrook, Kent.

tHankin, G. T. 150 Whitehall-court, $.W.

tHann, H. F. 139 Victoria-road North, Southsea.

§ Hanson, David. Salterlee, Halifax, Yorkshire.

§Hanson, E. K. Woodthorpe, Royston Park-road, Hatch End,
Middlesex.

§Happell, Mrs. Care of Miss EK. M. Bundey, Molesworth Street,
North Adelaide, South Australia.

*Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
V.P.C.S. (Gan. Suc. 1883-97; Pres. B, 1875; Council,
1881-83.) St. Clare, Ryde, Isle of Wight.

§Harcourt, George, Department of Agriculture, Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada.

*Hardeastle, Colonel Basil W., F.S.S. 12 Gainsborough-gardens,
Hampstead, N.W.

*Harpcastie, Miss Frances. 3 Osborne-terrace, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

*Hardcastle, J. Alfred. The Dial House, Crowthorne, Berkshire.

*HaRDEN, ArtHuR, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Lister Institute of
Preventive Medicine, Chelsea-gardens, Grosvenor-road, 8. W.

tHardie, Miss Mabel, M.B. High-lane, via Stockport.

tHarding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.

tHardman, 8. C. 120 Lord-street, Southport.

tHardy, a Francis. 380 Edwardes-square, Kensington, W.

tHarpy, W. B., M.A., F.R.S. Gonville and Caius College, Cam-

tHargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.

*HARKER, ALFRED, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1911.) St. John’s
College, Cambridge.

§Harker, Dr. George. The University, Sydney, N.S8.W.

tHarker, John Allen, D.Sc., F.R.S. National Physical Laboratory,
Bushy House, Teddington.

*Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G. Sa F.L.S., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

*Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton.

*Harley, Miss Clara. Rastrick, Cricketfield-road, Torquay.

Year of
Election

1899.
1913.
1868.
1881.

1912.
1906.
1913.
1842.
1909.
1903.
1904.

1904.
1892.

1892.
1901.
1911.
1885.

1909.
1876.
1903.
1907.
1911.
1893.

1905.
1886.
1887.

1885.
1862.
1893.
1911.
1903.
1904.
1875.

1903.
1889.
1903.
1904.
1908.

1904.
1887.
1872.
1864.

1897.
1887.

1913.
1913.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

tHarman, Dr. N. Bishop, F.R.C.S. 108 Harley street, W.

¢Harmar, Mrs. 102 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

*Harnmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

*Harmer, Sripney F., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1908),
Keeper of the Department of Zoology, British Museum
(Natural History), Cromwell-road, S.W.

*Harper, Alan G., B.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

tHarper, J. B. 16 St. George’s-place, York.

tHarris, F. W. 132 and 134 Hurst-street, Birmingham.

*Harris, G. W. Millicent, South Australia.

tHarris, J. W. Civic Offices, Winnipeg.

tHarris, Robert, M.B. Queen’s-road, Southport.

*Harrison, Frank L., B.A., B.Sc. Brook-street, Soham, Cam-
bridgeshire.

tHarrison, H. Spencer. The Horniman Museum, Forest Hill, 8.E.

tHarrison, JoHN. (Local Sec. 1892.) Rockville, Napier-road,
Edinburgh.

tHarrison, Rev. S. N. Ramsey, Isle of Man.

*Harrison, W. E. 17 Soho-road, Handsworth, Staffordshire.

tHarrison-Smith, F., C.B. H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth.

tHart, ColonelC. J. (Local Sec. 1886.) Highfield Gate, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

tHart, John A. 120 Emily-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.

*Hart, Thomas Clifford. Brooklands, Blackburn.

§Hart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

tHart-Synnot, Ronald V.O. University College, Reading.

*HARTLAND, EK. Srpney, F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1906 ; Council, 1906-13.)
Highgarth, Gloucester.

{Hartland, Miss. Highgarth, Gloucester.

*Harroa, Professor M. M., D.Sc. University College, Cork.

oe P. J., B.Sc. University of London, South Kensington,

.W.

§Harvie-Brown, J. A., LL.D. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.

*Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.

§Haslam, Lewis. 8 Wilton-crescent, S.W.

*Hassé, H. R. The University, Manchester.

*Hastie, Miss J. A. Care of Messrs. Street & Co., 30 Cornhill, E.C.

tHastines, G. 23 Oak-lane, Bradford, Yorkshire.

*Hastines, G. W. (Pres. F, 1880.) Chapel House, Chipping
Norton.

tHastings, W.G. W. 2 Halsey-street, Cadogan-gardens, S.W.

tHarcn, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.S. 15 Copse-hill, Wimbledon, S.W.

{Hathaway, Herbert G. 45 High-street, Bridgnorth, Salop.

*Haughton, W. T. H. The Highlands, Great Barford, St. Neots.

§Havelock, T. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Rockliffe, Gosforth, New-
castle-on-Tyne.

tHavilland, Hugh de. Eton College, Windsor.

*Hawkins, William. Earlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, S.W.

*HawksHaw, JOHN CxiarKeE, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Council,
1881-87.) 22 Down-street, W.

§Hawks.ey, CHarzes, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Pres. G, 1903; Council,
1902-09.) Caxton House (West Block), Westminster, S.W.

*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.

tHaworth, John F. Withens, Barker-road, Sutton Coldfield.

tHaworth, Mrs. Withens, Barker-road, Sutton Coldfield.

4
ee ee ee

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 43

Year of
Election.

1885.

1900.
1903.
1913.
1903.

1896.
1883.
1882.
1909.
1908.

1902.
1898.

1909.
1883.
1913.

1892.

1889.
1888.

1888.
1887.

1912.
1881.

1901.

1911.
1911.
1887.

1908.
1899.
1905.
1905.
1891.

1905.
1907.
1906.

1909.

1880.
LOL:
1904.
1910.
1910.

*HaycraArt, JOHN Barry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physiology in University College, Cardiff.

§Hayden, H. H., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Calcutta, India.

*Haydock, Arthur. 114 Revidge-road, Blackburn.

§Hayward, Miss. 7 Abbotsford-road, Galashiels, N.B.

tHayward, Joseph William, M.Sc. Keldon, St. Marychurch,
Torquay.

*Haywood, Colonel A.G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blundellsands.

tHeape, Joseph R. Glebe House, Rochdale.

*Heape, Walter, M.A., F.R.S. 10 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C.

tHeard, Mrs. Sophie, M.B., Ch.B. Carisbrooke, Fareham, Hants.

§Heath, J. St. George, B.A. The Warden’s Lodge, Toynbee Hall,
Commercial-street, E.

tHeath, J. W. Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W.

{Heara, R. 8., M.A., D.Se., Vice-Principal and Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Birmingham.

tHeathcote, F.C. C. Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Heaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.

§HEaton, Howarp. (Local Sec., 1913.) Wayside, Lode-lane,
Solihull, Birmingham.

*Heaton, Witu1am H., M.A. (Local Sec., 1893). Principal of and
Professor of Physics in University College, Nottingham.

*Heaviside, Arthur West, 1.8.0. 12 Tring-avenue, Ealing, W.

*Hrawoop, Epwarp, M.A. Briarfield, Church-hill, Merstham,
Surrey.

*Heawood, Percy J., Professor of Mathematics in Durham Univer-
sity. High Close, Hollinside-lane, Durham.

*Hepges, Kittrnewortu, M.Inst.C.E. 10 Cranley-place, South
Kensington, S.W.

§HepLeEy, Cuarues. Australian Museum, Sydney.

*HELE-SHAW, H.S., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 64 Victoria-
street, S.W.

*HELLER, W. M., B.Sc. Education Office, Marlborough-street,
Dublin.

tHellyer, Francis E. Farlington House, Havant, Hants.

{Hellyer, George E. Farlington House, Havant, Hants.

{Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. City-chambers, 2 St.
Nicholas-street, Bristol.

{Hemmy, Professor A. 8. Government College, Lahore.

{tHemsalech, G. A., D.Sc. The Owens College, Manchester.

*Henderson, Andrew. 17 Belhaven-terrace, Glasgow.

*Henderson, Miss Catharine. 17 Belhaven-terrace, Glasgow.

*HenpeErson, G. G., D.Se., M.A., F.1.C., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College,
Glasgow.

§Henderson, Mrs. 7 Marlborough-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tHenderson, H. F. Felday, Morland-avenue, Leicester.

{Henderson, J. B., D.Sc., Professor of Applied Mechanics in the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.

tHenderson, Veylien E. Medical Building, The University, Toronto,
Canada.

*Henderson, Admiral W. H., R.N. 3 Onslow Houses, S.W.

{Henderson, William Dawson. The University, Bristol.

*Hendrick, James. Marischal College, Aberdeen.

{Heney, T. W. Sydney, New South Wales.

*HENRICI, Captain E. O., R.E., A.Inst.C.E. Ordnance Survey Office,
Southampton.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1873.

1910.

1906.

1909.

1892.
1904.
1892.

1909.
1914.

1902.

1912.
1887.

1893.
1909.

1875.

1912.

1908.

1874.
1900.
1913.

1905.
1903.

1895.
1913.
1894.
1894.

1908.
1896.
1903.
1909.
1903.

1909.

1882.
1883.

1866.
1901.

*Henrici, Otaus M. F. &., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1883 ; Council,
1883-89.) Hiltingbury Lodge, Chandler’s Ford, Hants.

tHenry, Hubert, M.D. 304 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

tHenry, Dr. T. A. Imperial Institute, S.W.

*Henshall, Robert. Sunnyside, Latchford, Warrington.

{Huppury, Davin, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in Univer-
sity College, Cardiff.

Hepworth, Commander M. W. C., C.B., R.N.R. Meteorological

Office, South Kensington, S.W.

*Herpertson, A. J., M.A., Ph.D. (Pres. E, 1910), Professor of Geo-
graphy in the University of Oxford. 9 Fyfield-road, Oxford.

tHerbinson, William. 376 Ellice-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Herdman, Miss C. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

{Herdman, G. W., B.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Irrigation and Water
Supply Department, Pretoria.

*Herdman, George Andrew. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liver-
pool.

*HerpMan, WitiiaM A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (GenrRan
SrcreTaRy, 1903- ; Pres. D, 1895; Council, 1894-1900 ;
Local Sec. 1896), Professor of Natural History in the University
of Liverpool. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Herdman, Mrs. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

{Herdt, Professor L. A. McGill University, Montreal, Canada,

{H=rerorp, The Right Rev. Joun Prrcivat, D.D., LL.D., Lord
Bishop of. (Pres. L, 1904.) The Palace, Hereford.

tHeron, David, D.Sc. Galton Eugenics Laboratory, University
College, W.C.

{Heron-Allen, Edward, F.L.8., F.G.S. 33 Hamilton-terrace, N.W.

*Herring, Percy T., M.D., Professor of Physiology in the Uni-
versity, St. Andrews, N.B.

§HurscuEt, Colonel Jonny, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.

*Herschel, Rev. J. C. W. Fircroft, Wellington College Station,
Berkshire.

{Hersey, Mayo Dyer, A.M. Bureau of Standards, Washington,

U.S.A.

{Hervey, Miss Mary F. 8. 22 Morpeth-mansions, 8.W.

*HESKETH, CHARLES H. FiteEtTwoop, M.A. Stocken Hall, Stretton,
Oakham.

§Hesketh, James. 5 Scarisbrick Avenue, Southport.

$Hett, Miss Mary L. 53 Fordwych-road, West Hampstead, N.W.

tHewerson, G. H. (Local Sec. 1896.) 39 Henley-road, Ipswich.

tHewins, W. A. S., WA., FSS. 15 Charifield-avenue, Putney

Hill, S.W.

tHewitt, Dr.C. Gordon. Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa.

§Hewitt, David Basil, M.D. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire.

tHewitt, E.G. W. 87 Princess-road, Moss Side, Manchester.

tHewitt, Sir Frederic, M.V.O., M.D. 14 Queen Anne-street, W.

t{Hewitt, John Theodore, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. Clifford
House, Staines-road, Bedfont, Middlesex.

{Hewitt, W., B.Sc. 16 Clarence-road, Birkenhead.

*Hrycoox, CHARLES T., M.A., F.R.S. 3 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cam-
bridge.

tHeyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.R.G.S. St. Barnabas
Vicarage, Bolton.

*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.

*Heys, Z. John. Stonehouse, Barrhead, N.B.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914, 45

Year of
Election.

1912.

1877.

1886.
1887.

1864.
1914.

1914.
1891.

1909.
1913.
1907.
1911.
1885.

1903.
1906.
1881.
1908.

* 1912.

1886.

1898.
1907.

IEE Ae
1903.
1903.
1870.

1910.

1883.
1898.

tol 1.

1903.

1911.
1914.
1899.
1914.
1887.

1904.

1907.

1877

§Heywood, H. B., D.Se. 40 Manor-way, Ruislip.

{Hickling, George. The University, Manchester.

§Hioxs, W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1895), Professor of
Physics in the University of Sheffield. Leamhurst, Ivy
Park-road, Sheffield.

{tHicks, Mrs. W. M. Leamhurst, Ivy Park-road, Sheffield.

*Hicxson, Sypnuy J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1903; Loca
SEorErary, 1915), Professor of Zoology in Victoria University,
Manchester.

*Hrern, W. P., M.A., F.R.S. The Castle, Barnstaple.

§Higgins, J. M. Riversdale-road, Camberwell, Victoria.

§Higeins, Mrs. J. M. Riversdale-road, Camberwell, Victoria.

tHiees, Henry, C.B., LL.B., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1899; Council,
1904-06.) H.M. Treasury, Whitehall, S.W.

tHigman, Ormond. Electrical Standards Laboratory, Ottawa.

*Higson, G. L, M.Sc. 11 Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire.

jHuiney, E. V. (Local Sec. 1907.) ‘Town Hall, Birmingham.

*Hiley, Wilfrid E. Ebbor, Wells, Somerset.

*Hint, Atexanprer, M.A., M.D. Hartley University College,
Southampton.

*Hint, Artuur W., M.A., F.L.S. Royal Gardens, Kew.

{Hill, Charles A., M.A., M.B. 13 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

*Hitt, Rev. Epwry, M.A. The Rectory, Cockfield, Bury St. Edmunds.

*Hinu, Jamus P., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in University
College, Gower-street, W.C.

tHirt, Lronarp, M.B., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1912), Professor of
Physiology in the University of London. Osborne House,
Loughton, Essex.

Hill, M. D. Angelo’s, Eton College, Windsor.

tH, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics
in University College, W.C.

*Hill, Thomas Sidney. Langford House, Langford, near Bristol.

*Hitts, Major E. H., CM.G., R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E,
1908.) 32 Prince’s-gardens, 8.W.

*Hills, William Frederick Waller. 32 Prince’s-gardens, S.W.

*Hilton, Harold. 108 Alexandra-road, South Hampstead, N.W.

*Hino, WHEELTON, M.D., F.G.S. Roxeth House, Stoke-on-Trent.

tHinvz, G. J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Ivythorn, Avondale-road,
South Croydon, Surr y.

{Hindle, Edward, B.A., Ph.D., F.L.S. Quick Laboratories, Cam-
bridge.

*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.

Hinds, Henry. 57 Queen-street, Ramsgate.

tHinks, Arthur R., M.A., F.R.S., Asgist. Sec. R.G.S. Royal
Geographical Society, Kensington Gore, S.W.

*Hinmers, Edward. Glentwood, South Downs-drive, Hale, Cheshire.

{Hitchcock, Miss A. M., M.A. 40 St. Andrew’s-road, Southsea.

§Hoadley, C. A., M.Sc. Weenabah, Ballarat, Victoria.

tHobday, Henry. Hazelwood, Crabble Hill, Dover.

§Hobson, A. Kyme. Overseas Club, 266 Flinders-street, Melbourne,

*Hopson, BrerNarD, M.S8c., F.G.S. Thornton, Hallamgate-road,
Sheffield.

tHozsson, Ernest WiLu14M, Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1910), Sadlerian
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
The Gables, Mount Pleasant, Cambridge.

tHobson, Mrs. Mary. 6 Hopefield-avenue, Belfast.

. {Hodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.

Year
Electi

1913
1887

1880.

1912.
1905.
1909.

1898.
1904.

1907.
1904.

1914.

908.

1911.
1907.

1883.

1887.
1913.
1900.

1887.
1904.
1903.

1896.

1898.

1889.

1906.

1883.

1866.

1882.
1912.

1915

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

of
on.

. [Hodges, Ven. Archdeacon George, M.A. _ Ely.

. *Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology
in the Victoria University, Manchester. 18 St. John-street,
Manchester.

tHodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of
Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Wool-
wich. 18 Glenluce-road, Blackheath, S.E.

{Hodgson, Benjamin. The University, Bristol.

tHodgson, Ven. Archdeacon R. The Rectory, Wolverhampton.

tHodgson, R. T., M.A. Collegiate Institute, Brandon, Manitoba,
Canada.

tHodgson, T. V. Municipal Museum and Art Gallery, Plymouth.

*Hodson, F., Ph.D. Bablake School, Coventry.

tHodson, Mrs. Bablake School, Coventry.

{Hoaartu, D. G., M.A. (Pres. H, 1907 ; Council, 1907-10.) 20 St.

Giles’s, Oxford.
S$Hogben, George, M.A., F.G.S8. 9 Tinakori-road, Wellington,
New Zealand.

tHogg, Right Hon. Jonathan. Stratford, Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

{Holbrook, Colonel A. R. Warleigh, Grove-road South, Southsea.

tHolden, Colonel H. C. L., C.B., R.A., F.R.S. Gifford House,

Blackheath, S.E.

{Holden, John J. 73 Albert-road, Southport.

*Holder, Henry William, M.A. Beechmount, Arnside.

§Holder, Sir John C., Bart. Pitmaston, Moor Green, Birmingham.

{Ho xpicg, Colonel Sir THomas H., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.LE., F.R.G.S.
(Pres. E, 1902.) 41 Courtfield-road, S.W.

*Holdsworth, C. J., J.P. Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

§Holland, Charles E. 9 Downing-place, Cambridge.

{Holland, J. L., B.A. 3 Primrose-hill, Northampton.

{Holland, Mrs. Lowfields House, Hooton, Cheshire.

{Houanp, Sir Tuomas H., K.C.LE., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1914),
Professor of Geology in the Victoria University, Manchester.

tHollander, Bernard, M.D. 354 Welbeck-street, W.

*Hollingworth, Miss. Leithen, Newnham-road, Bedford.

*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 23 Corfton-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

*Holmes, Charles. Makeney, Compton-road, Winchmore Hill, N.

*HoLMEs, THOMAS VINCENT, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, S.E.

t{Holmes-Smith, Edward, B.Sc. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.

. §Hoxt, Alderman E., J.P. (Locan Treasurer, 1915.) Bury Old-

road, Heaton Park, Manchester.

1903. *Hour, Atrrep, M.A., D.Sc. Dowsefield, Allerton, Liverpool.
1875. *Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.
1904. §Hooke, Rey. D. Burford, D.D. Somerset Lodge, Barnet.

1908
1865
1877

. *Hooper, Frank Henry. Deepdene, Streatham Common, 8.W.

. *Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Streatham Common, S8.W.

*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Lydlinch Rectory, Sturminster
Newton, Dorset.

1904. t{Hopewell-Smith, A., M.R.C.S. 37 Park-street, Grosvenor-square,
S.W

1905
1913
1901

“Hopkins, Charles Hadley. Junior Constitutional Club, 101 Picca-

+Hopxins, F. Gow.anp, M.A., D.Sc., M.B., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1913).
Trinity College, and Saxmeadham, Grange-road, Cambridge.

*HOPKINSON, BERTRAM, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of
Cambridge. 10 Adams-road, Cambridge. :

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 47

Year of

Election.

1884, *Hopxrnson, Caartes. (Local Sec. 1887.) The Limes, Didsbury,
near Manchester.

1882. *Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Ferns, Alderley Edge,
Cheshire.

1871. *Hopxrnson, Joun, Assoc.Inst.C.E., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
Weetwood, Watford.

1905. {Hopkiason, Mrs. John. Hllerslie, Adams-road, Cambridge.

1898. *Hornby, R., M.A. Haileybury College, Hertford.

1910. {Horne, Arthur 8. Kerlegh, Cobham, Surrey.

1885. {Horne, Jonny, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1901.)
12 Keith-crescent, Blackhall, Midlothian.

1903. {Horne, William, F.G.S. Leyburn, Yorkshire.

1902. tHorner, John. Chelsea, Antrim-road, Belfast.

1905. *Horsburgh, E. M., M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer in Technical Mathematics
in the University of Edinburgh.

1887. tHorsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.

1893. *Horstry, Sir Victor A. H., LL.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.C.S.
(Council, 1893-98.) 25 Cavendish-square, W.

1908. tHorton, F. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1884. *Hotblack, G.S. Brundall, Norwich.

1899. {Hotblack, J. T., F.G.S. 45 Newmarket-road, Norwich.

1906. *Hough, Miss Ethel M. Codsall Wood, near Wolverhampton.

1859. tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.

1896. *Hough, 8. S., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., His Majesty’s Astronomer at
the Cape of Good Hope. Royai Observatory, Cape Town.

1905. §Houghting, A.G. L. Glenelg, Musgrave-road, Durban, Natal.

1886.
1908.
1893.

1904.
1887.
1901.
1903.
1907.
Loi:

1905.
1863.

1887.
1903.
1913.
1898.
1867.
1913.
1871.

1914.
1868.

{Houghton, F. T. §., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

{Houston, David, F.L.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

{tHoward, F. T., M.A., F.G.S. West Mount, Waverton, near
Chester.

*Howard, Mrs. G. L. C. Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa,
Bengal, India.

*Howard, 8.8. 56 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.

§Howarth, E., F.R.A.S. Public Museum, Weston Park, Sheffield.

*Howarth, James H., F.G.S. Holly Bank, Halifax,

tHowarrsa, O. J. R., M.A. (Assistant Srcrerary.) 24 Lans-
downe-crescent, W.

*Hows8, Professor G. W. O., M.Sc. 22 Dorsct-road, Merton Park,
Surrey.

tHowick, Dr. W. P.O. Box 503, Johannesburg.

fHoworrz, Sir H. H., K.C.L.E., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A. 30 Colling-
ham-place, Cromwell-road, 8. W.

§Hoyitz, WittiaMm E., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. D, 1907.) National
Museum of Wales, City Hall, Cardiff.

{Hibner, Julius. Ash Villa, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.

§Huddart, Mrs. J. A. 2 Chatsworth-gardens, Eastbourne.

tHudson, Mrs. Sunny Bank, Egerton, Huddersfield.

*Hupson, Professor WiLtLt1AM H. H., M.A., LL.M. 34 Birdhurst-
road, Croydon.

§Hughes, Alfred, M.A., Professor of Education in the University of
Birmingham. 29 George-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Hughes, George Pringle, J.P., F.R.G.S. Middleton Hall, Wooler,
Northumberland.

§Hughes, Herbert W. Adelaide Club, Adelaide, South Australia.

tHuaues, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Council, 1879-86), Wood-
wardian Professor of Geology in the University of Cambridge.
Ravensworth, Brooklands-avenue, Cambridge.

Year of
Election

1912.
1867.

1903.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

{Hukling, George. The University, Manchester.

{Hutt, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.8., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1874.)
14 Stanley-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

tHulton, Campbell G. Palace Hotel, Southport.

1905. §Hume, D. G. W. 55 Gladstone-street, Dundee, Natal.

1911.
1904.

1907.
1891.
1881.
1889.
1909.
1901.
1903.
1861.

1913.

1914.
1894.

1912.
1903.
1864.
1887.
1901.
1871.
1900.
1908.
1883.
1884.

1906.
1913.

*Hume, Dr. W. F. Helwan, Egypt.

*Humphreys, Alexander C., Sc.D., LL.D., President of the Stevens
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S.A.

§Humphries, Albert E. Coxe’s Lock Mills, Weybridge.

*Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.

tHunter, F. W. 16 Old Elvet, Durham.

{Hunter, Mrs. F. W. 16 Old Elvet, Durham.

{tHunter, W. J. H. 31 Lynedoch-street, Glasgow.

*Hunter, William. LEvirallan, Stirling.

tHurst, Charies C., F.L.S. Burbage, Hinckley.

*Hurst, William John. Drumaness, Ballynahinch, Co. Down,
Treland.

§Hutchins, Miss B. L. The Glade, Branch Hill, Hampstead Heath,

N.W.

§Hutchins, D. E. Medo House, Cobham, Kent.

*Hurosinson, A., M.A., Ph.D. (Local Sec. 1904.) Pembroke
College, Cambridge.

§Hutchinson, Dr. H. B. Rothamsted Experimental Station,
Harpenden, Herts.

§Hutchinson, Rev. H.N.,M.A. 17 St. John’s Wood Park, Finchley-
road, N.W.

*Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park,

*Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

*Hutton, R. 8., D.Sc. West-street, Sheffield.

*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces-
tershire.

*Hyndman, H. H. Francis. 5 Warwick-road, Earl’s Court, 8. W.

{Idle, George. 43 Dawson-street, Dublin.

tIdris, T. H. W. 110 Pratt-street, Camden Town, N.W.

*Tles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.

tlliffe, J. W. Oak Tower, Upperthorpe, Sheffield.

§Illing, Vincent. Charles, B.A., F.G.S. The Chestnuts, Hartshill,
Atherstone, Warwickshire.

5. §m Tuurn, Sir Everarp F., C.B., K.C.M.G. (Pres. H, 1914;

Council, 1913- .) 39 Lexham-gardens, W.

. §Ingham, Charles B. Moira House, Eastbourne.

. tiverts, Jonny, LL.D. 4 Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

. §Innes, R. T. A., F.R.A.S. Union Observatory, Johannesburg.

. *Tonides, Stephen A. 802 Hquitable-building, Denver, Colorado.

. {Irvine, James, F.R.G.S. Richmond-buildings, Chapel-street, Liver-

pool.
. tIrvine, J. C., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University

of St. Andrews.

. §Irvine, Rev. A., B.A., D.Sc. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop’s Stort-

ford, Herts.

. tIrwin, Alderman John. 33 Rutland-square, Dublin.

. §Jack, A. K., B.Se. Agricultural College, Dookie, Victoria.
. tJacks, Professor L. P. 28 Holywell, Oxford,

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 49

Year of
Election.

1883

1903.
1874.

1883.
1883.
1899.
1913.
1906.

1898.
1887.

1995.
1874,
1906.
1891.
1891.
1904.
1896.

1889.
1910.

1896.
1913.
1903.

1904.
1897.
1912.

1908.
1909.

1903.
1904.
1893.
1905.

1900.
1907.
1905.

1914.
1909,

1909.
1890.

1902.
1898,

*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 349 Collins-street, Melbourne,
Australia.
tJackson, C.S. Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, S.E.
*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Somenos, Vancouver Island,
B.C., Canada.
*Jackson, F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport.
{Jackson, Mrs. F, J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport.
tJackson, Geoffrey A. 31 Harrington-gardens, Kensington, S.W.
*Jackson, H. Gordon, M.Sc. Mason College, Birmingham.
*Jackson, James Thomas, M.A. Engineering School, Trinity
College, Dublin.
*Jackson, Sir John. 51 Victoria-street, S.W.
§Jacobson, Nathaniel, J.P. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road,
Manchester.
*Jaflé, Arthur, M.A. New-court, Temple, E.C.
*Jaffé, John. Villa Jaffé, 38 Promenade des Anglais, Nice, France.
tJalland, W. H. Museum-street, York.
*James, Charles Henry, J.P. 64 Park-place, Cardiff.
*James, Charles Russell. The Bungalow, Redhill, Surrey.
{James, Thomas Campbell. University College, Aberystwyth.
*Jameson, H. Lyster, M.A., Ph.D. Borderdale, Sunningdale,
Berkshire.
*Japp, EK. R., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1898.) 36
Twyford-avenue, West Acton, W.
*Japp, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Care of Messrs. S. Pearson & Son,
507 Fifth Avenue, New York, U.S.A.
*Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire.
tJarrard, W. J. The University, Sheffield.
{Jarratr, J. Ernest (Local Sec. 1903). 10 Cambridge-road,
Southport.
*Jeans, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. 8 Ormonde-gate, Chelsea, S.W.
jeffrey, E.C., B.A. The University, Toronto, Canada.
§Jehu, T. J., M.A., M.D., Professor of Geology in the University of
Edinburgh.
*Jenkin, Arthur Pearse, F.R.Met.Soc. Trewirgie, Redruth.
*Jenkins, Miss Emily Vaughan. 31 Antrim-mansions, South
Hampstead, N.W.
tJenkinson, J. W. The Museum, Oxford.
{tJenkinson, W. W. 6 Moorgate-street, E.C.
tJennings, G. E. 60 Fosse-road South, Leicester.
{Jennings, Sydney. P.O. Box 149, Johannesburg.
Jessop, William. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.
*Jevons, H. Stanley, M.A., B.Sc. 3 Pembroke-terrace, Cardiff.
*Jevons, Miss H. W. 17 Tredegar-square, Bow, E.
§Jeyes, Miss Gertrude, B.A. Berrymead, 6 Lichfield-road, Kew
Gardens.
§Jobbins, G. G. Geelong Club, Geelong, Victoria.
*Johns, Cosmo, F.G.S., M.I.M.E. Burngrove, Pitsmoor-road,
Sheffield.
t{Johnson, C. Kelsall, F.R.G.S. The Glen, Sidmouth, Devon.
*Jounson, Tuomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
*Johnson, Rev. W., B.A., B.Sc. Archbishop Holgate’s Grammar
School, York.
*Johnson, W. Clande, M.Inst.C.E. Broadstone, Coleman’s Hatch,
Sussex.

1914. D

Year of
Election

1899.
1883.

1913.
1909.
1913.

1908.
1884.
1909.

1888.

1887.
1913.

1904.
1890.

1896.
1903.
1907.
1887.

1891.
1883.

1912.
1913.

1905.

1901.
1902.
1908.
1912.
1875.
1913.
1883.
1886.
1905.
1870.

1894.
1914.
1905.

1888.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

JOHNSTON, Colonel Sir Duncan A., K.C.M.G., C.B., B.E., F.R.G.S.
(Pres. E, 1909.) 19 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

{tJounston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. St. John’s
Priory, Poling, near Arundel.

§Johnston, James. Oak Bank-avenue, Manchester.

*Johnston, J. Weir, M.A. 129 Anglesea-road, Dublin.

§Johnston, Dr. 8. J. Department of Biology, The University,
Sydney, N.S.W.

{Johnston, Swift Paine. 1 Hume-street, Dublin.

*Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire.

§JoLty, Professor W. A., M.B., D.Sc. South African College, Cape
Town.

{Jory, Jonny, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1908), Professor
of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Dublin.

Geological Department, Trinity College, Dublin.

tJones, D. E., B.Sc. Eryl Dag, Radyr, Cardiff.

*Jones, Daniel, M.A., Lecturer on Phonetics at University College,
London, W.C.

jJones, Miss E. E. Constance. Girton College, Cambridge.

jJongs, Rev. Epwarp, F.G.S. Primrose Cottage, Embsay,
Skipton.

jJones, E. Taylor, D.Sc. University College, Bangor.

tJones, Evan. Ty-Mawr, Aberdare.

*Jones, Mrs. Evan. 39 Hyde Park-gate, S.W.

tJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra
Park, Manchester.

*Jonrs, Rev. G. HarrwEtt, D.D. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.

*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, 21 Cambridge-road,
Waterloo, Liverpool.

{tJones, J. H. The University, Glasgow.

§Jones, O. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.. Professor of Geology in the
University College of Wales. Fenton, Caradoc-road,
Aberystwyth.

tJones, Miss Parnell. The Rectory, Llanddewi Skyrrid, Aberga-
venny, Monmouthshire.

tJones, R. E., J.P. Oakley Grange, Shrewsbury.

tJones, R. M., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.

tJones, R. Pugh, M.A. County School, Holyhead, Anglesey.

§Jones, W. Neilson. University College, Reading.

*Jose, J. E. Ethersall, Tarbock-road, Huyton, Lancashire.

{Jourdain, Miss Eleanor F. St. Hugh’s College, Oxford.

tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

tJoyce, Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

tJudd, Miss Hilda M., B.Sc. Berrymead, 6 Lichfield-road, Kew.

jtJupp, Joun Wes .ey, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1885 ;
Council, 1886-92.) Orford Lodge, 30 Cumberland-road,
Kew.

§Julian, Mrs. Forbes. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road, Torquay.

§Julins, G. A., B.Sc. Culwulla-chambers, 67 Castlereagh-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.

§JouriTz, CuHartrs F., M.A., D.Sc., F.LC., Chief of the Division of
Chemistry, Union of South Africa. Department of Agri-
culture, Cape Town.

tKapp, GisBert, M.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. (Pres. G, 1913),
Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of
Birmingham. Pen-y-Coed, Pritchatts-road, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 51

Year of
Election.

1913
1913

1904.
1892.

1913.
1908.

1913.
1911.

1884.
1908.
1908.

1911.
1902.
1885.

1877.
1887.

1898.
1891.

1875.
1897.

1906.
1908.
1905.
1913.

1893.

1901.
1913.
1857.
1881.
1913.
1909.
1892.

1889.
1910.

1869

1869.

1903.
1883.
1902.
1906.

{Kay, Henry, F.G.S. 16 Wretham-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
[Kaye, G. W.C. Culver, St. James’-avenue, Hampton Hill.
tKayser, Professor H. The University, Bonn, Germany.

{Keanz, Cuartes A., Ph.D. Sir John Cass Technical Institute,
Jewry-street, Aldgate, E.C.

tKebby, Charles H. 75 Sterndale-road, West Kensington Park, W.

§KrEBLE, FrepErick, M.A., Se.D., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1912), Pro-
fessor of Botany in University College, Reading.

*Keeling, B. F. E. Survey Department, Giza Branch, Egypt.

*Keith, Arthur, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Royal College of
Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

{Kellogg, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.

{Kelly, Sir Malachy. Ard Brugh, Dalkey, Co. Dublin.

tKelly, Captain Vincent Joseph. Montrose, Donnybrook, Co.
Dublin.

{Kelly, Miss. Montrose, Merton-road, Southsea.

*Kelly, William J., J.P. 25 Oxford-street, Belfast.

§KettiEz, J. Scort, LL.D., Sec. R.G.S., F.S.S. (Pres. E, 1897 ;
Council, 1898-1904.) Royal Geographical Society, Ken-
sington Gore, S.W.

*Kelvin, Lady. Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire ; and 15 Eaton-place,
S.W

tKemp, Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man-
chester.

*Kemp, John T., M.A. 4 Cotham-grove, Bristol.

{Kenpatt, Percy F., M.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
University of Leeds.

{Kennepy, Sir AtexanpEerR B. W., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
(Pres. G, 1894.) Athenaum Club, S.W.

§Kennedy, George, M.A., LL.D., K.C. Crown Lands Department,
Toronto, Canada.

tKennedy, Robert Sinclair. Glengall Ironworks, Millwall, E.

{Kennedy, William. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.

*Kennerley, W. R. P.O. Box 158, Pretoria.

{Kenrick, W. Byne. (Local Sec. 1913.) Metchley House,
Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Kent, A. F. Stanuey, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Physiology
in the University of Bristol.

tKent, G. 16 Premier-road, Nottingham.

*Kenyon, Joseph, B.Sc., F.I.C. 51 Irving-place, Blackburn.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

{Kermopg, P.M. C. Claghbene, Ramsey, Isle of Man.

§Kerr, George L. 39 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

{Kerr, Hugh L. 68 Admiral-road, Toronto, Canada.

{Kerr, J. Granam, M.A., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Zoology
in the University of Glasgow.

{Kerry, W. H. R. The Sycamores, Windermere.

§Kershaw, J. B. C. West Lancashire Laboratory, Waterloo, Liver-

ool.
Kasicineyer, Charles Augustus. Roseville, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.
*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Edelweiss Villa, Albert-road,
Hale, Cheshire.
{Kewley, James. Balek Papan, Koltei, Dutch Borneo.
*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
{ Kidd, George. Greenhaven, Malone Park, Belfast.
{Kidner, Henry, F.G.S. 25 Upper Rock-gardens, Brighton.
p2

52 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1886. §Kipston, Rospert, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 12 Clarendon-
place, Stirling.

1901. *Kiep, J. N. 137 West George-street, Glasgow.

1885. *Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

1914. §Kiliani, R. Imperial German Consulate, Pitt-street, Sydney.
N.S.W.

1896. *Killey, George Deane, J.P. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo,
Liverpool.

1890. {Kmmmns, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Canon’s House, St. Thomas-
street, Southwark, S.H.

1875. *Kincu, Epwarp, F.1.C., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.

1875. *King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

1914. §King, Miss Georgina. Springfield, Darlinghurst, N.S.W.

1871. *King, Rev. Herbert Poole. ‘The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.

1883. *King, John Godwin. Stonelands, East Grinstead.

1883. *King, Joseph, M.P. Sandhouse, Witley, Godalming.

1908. §King, Professor L. A. L., M.A. St. Mungo’s College Medical
School, Glasgow.

1860. *King, Mervyn Kersteman. Merchants’ Hall, Bristol.

1912. *King, W. B. R., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Jermyn-street,
S.W

1912. {King, W. J. Harding. 25 York House, Kensington, W.

1870. tKing, William, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Beach-lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

1913. *King, William Wickham, F.G.S. Winds Point, Hagley, near
Stourbridge.

1909. {Kingdon, A. 197 Yale-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

1903. {Kingsford, H. 8., M.A. 8 Hlsworthy-terrace, N.W.

1900. {Kreprve, Professor F. Srantny, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B
1908.) University College, Nottingham.

1899. *Kirby, Miss C. F. 8 Windsor-court. Moscow-road, W.

1913. §Kirkaldy, Professor A. W., M.Com. The University, Edmund-
street, Birmingham.

1901. §Kitto, Edward. 2 Great Headland-terrace, Preston, Paignton,
South Devon.

1914. §Knibbs, G. H.,C.M.G., f.R.A.S., F.S.5. Commonwealth Bureau of
Statistics, Melbourne.

1886. {Knight, Captain J. M., F.G.S8. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.

1912. §Knipe, Henry R., F.L.S., F.G.8. 9 Linden-park, Tunbridge Wells.

1888. t{Kyorr, Professor Careitt G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-
street, Edinburgh.

1887. *Knott, Herbert, J.P. Sunnybank, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

1887. *Knott, John F. Edgemoor, Burbage, Derbyshire.

1906. *Knowles, Arthur J., B.A. M.Inst.C.2. 10 Banbury-road,
Wolvercote, Oxford. .

1874. {Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.

1902. {Kwox, R. Kytz, LL.D. 1 College-gardens, Belfast.

1875. *Knubley. Rev. E. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

1883. {Knubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

1890. *Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Stonycroft, Knutsford-road, Wilms-
low, Cheshire.

1888 *Kunz, G. F., M.A., Ph.D. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-
square, New York City, U.S.A.

1903. *Lafontaine, Rev. H. C.de. 52 Albert-court, Kensington Gore, S.W.
1909. {Laird, Hon. David. Indian Commission, Ottawa, Canada.
1904, tLake, Philip. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 53
Year of
Election.
1904. {Lamb, C. G. Ely Villa, Glisson-road, Cambridge.

1889.

1887.
1903.
1893.
1914.
1898.

1886.

1855.

1880.
1884,

1911.
1885.

1909.

1887.
1881.

1883.
1870.

TOL.
1900.

1911.
1913.
1892.

1907.

1870.
1905.
1911.

1908.
1908.
1914.
1888.

1913.

1883.

1914.

1894.

*Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Borden Wood, Liphook, Hants.

tLams, Horacg, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1904), Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in the Victoria University, Manchester.
6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Lambert, Joseph. 9 Westmoreland-road, Southport.

*Lamptuau, G. W., F.R.S., F.G.8. (Pres. C, 1906.) 13 Beaconsfield-
road, St. Albans.

§Lane, Charles. Care of John Sanderson & Co., William-street,
Melbourne.

*Lane, WitiiAM H., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Cryptogamic Botany
in the University of Manchester. 2 Heaton-road, Withing-
ton, Manchester.

*Laneitey, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1899; Council,
1904-07), Professor of Physiology in the University of Cam-
bridge. ‘Trinity College, Cambridge.

{LankcestER, Sir E. Ray, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
(PRESIDENT, 1906; Pres. D, 1883 ; Council, 1889-90, 1894-95,
1900-02.) 331 Upper Richmond-road, Putney, S W.

*LANSDELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. Dimsdale,
4 Pond-road, Blackheath Park, London, 8.E.

tLanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Boston, U.S.A.

tLapthorn, Miss. St. Bernard’s, Grove-road South, Southsea.

{Lapworru, CuarLes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1892.)
38 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tLarard, C. E., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 14 Leaside-avenue, Muswell
Hill, N.

t{Larmor, Alexander. Craglands, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down.

{Larmor, Sir Josurn, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1900), Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge,
St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Lascelles, B. P., M.A. Headland, Mount Park, Harrow.

*LatTHaM, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Parliament-mansions,
Westminster, S.W.

SLattey, R. T. 243 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

{Lauder, Alexander, Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry in the Edin-
burgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture, Edinburgh.

§Laurie, Miss C. L. 1 Vittoria-walk, Cheltenham.

*Laurie, Mrs. KE. B. 11 Marine-parade, Hoylake.

tLauari, Marcoum, B.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. School of Medicine, Sur-
geons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

*Laurie, Robert Douglas, M.A. Department of Zoology, The Uni-
versity, Liverpool.

*Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay.

{Lawrence, Miss M. Roedean School, near Brighton.

*Lawson, A. Anstruther, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany in the University, Sydney, N.S.W.

{Lawson, H. 8., B.A. Buxton College, Derbyshire.

t{Lawson, William, LL.D. 27 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.

SLayard, J. W. King’s College, Cambridge.

{Layard, Miss Nina F., F.L.S. Rookwood, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich.

§Lea, F. C., D.Sc. 36 Mayfield-road, Moseley, Birmingham.

*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.

§Leach, T. H. de Bluis. Yardley Lodge, Crick-road, Oxford.

*Luany, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Sheffield. 92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield.

Year of
Election

1905.
1901.
1904.
1884,

1872.
1910.

1912.
1895.
1914.
1910.
1896.
1907.
1909.
1909.

1894.
1909.
1905.

1892.

1912.
1886.
1906.
1889.

1906
1912.
1912.
3910.
1891.
1903.

1906.

1905.
1913.

1903.
1908.
1887.
1901.
1914.

1913.
1912.
1890.
1904.
1900.

1896.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

tLeake, E.O. 5 Harrison-street, Johannesburg.

*Lean, George, B.Sc. 3 Park-quadrant, Glasgow.

*Leathem, J.G. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

{Lepour, G. A., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Geology in the Armstrong
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Lebour, Miss M. V., M.Sc. Zoological Department, The University,
Leeds.

§Lechmere, A. Eckley, M.Sc. Townhope, Hereford.

*Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Protea, Doods-road, Reigate.

§Lee, Charles Alfred. Tenterfield, N.S.W.

*Lee, Ernest. Birkbeck College, Chancery-lane, E.C.

§Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. 126 Mile End-lane, Stockport.

{Lee, Mrs. Barton. 126 Mile End-lane, Stockport.

§Lee, I. L. 26 Broadway, New York City, U.S.A.

flee, Rev. J. W., D.D. 5068 Washington-avenue, St. Louis,
Missouri, U.S.A.

*Lee, Mrs. W. The Nook, Forest Row, Sussex.

{Leeming, J. H., M.D. 406 Devon-court, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Lees, Mrs. A. P. Care of Dr. Norris Wolfenden, 76 Wimpole-
street, W.

*Lrrs, CuHartes H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
East London College, Mile End. Greenacres, Woodside-road,
Woodford Green, Essex.

tLees, John. Pitscottie, Cupar-Fife, N.B.

*Lees, Lawrence W. Lynstone, Barnt Green.

tLees, Robert. Victoria-street, Fraserburgh.

*Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.

tLeetham, Sidney. Elm Bank, York.

tLeacat, W. G. Bank of Scotland, Dundee.

{Legge, James G. Municipal Buildings, Liverpool.

§Leigh, H. 8. Brentwood, Worsley, near Manchester.

tLeigh, W. W. Glyn Bargoed, Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.

{tLeighton, G. R., M.D., F.R.S.E. Local Government Board,
Edinburgh.

{Leiper, Robert T., M.B., F.Z.S. London School of Tropical
Medicine, Royal Albert Dock, E.

tLeitch, Donald. P.O. Box 1703, Johannesburg.

§Leith, Professor R. F.C. Pathological Laboratory, The University,
Birmingham.

*Lempfert, R. G. K., M.A. 66 Sydney-street, S.W.

{tLentaigne, John. 42 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Leon, John T., M.D., B.Sc. 23 Grove-road, Southsea,

§ Leonarp, J. H., B.Sc. 31 Gunterstone-road, West Kensington, W.

§Le Souef, W. H. D., C.M.Z.S. Zoological Gardens, Parkville,
Victoria.

{Lessing, R., Ph.D. 317 High Holborn, W.C.

*Lessner, C. B., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. Carril, Spain.

*Lester, Joseph Henry. 5 Grange-drive, Monton Green, Manchester.

*Le Sueur, H. R., D.Sc. Chemical Laboratory, St. Thomas’s
Hospital, 8.E.

{Letts, Professor E. A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Queen’s University,
Belfast.

{Lever, Sir W. H., Bart. Thornton Manor, ‘Thornton Hough,
Cheshire.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914, 55

Year of
Election,

1913.

1887.
1893.

1904.
1870.

1891.
1913.
1899.
1910.

1904.
1910.
1911.

1906.

1913.
1908.
1904.
1898.
1913.

1888.
1861.
1876.

1902.
1912.

1909.

1903.
1892.
1905.
1904.
1863.

1902.
1914.
1900.
1886.

1914.
1914.
1875.

1914.
1894.
1899.
1903.

§Levick, John. Livingstone House, Livingstone-road, Handsworth,
Birmingham.

*Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Luwes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

ale aS Agnes §., LL.D. Castle Brae, Chesterton-lane, Cam-
ridge.

es Atrrep LionEL. 35 Beddington-gardens, Wallington,
urrey.

{Lewis, Professor D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth.

§Lewis, E. O. Gwynfa, Alma-street, Brynmawr.

{Lewis, Professor E. P. University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.

§Lewis, Francis J., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the
University of Alberta, Kdmonton, Alberta, Canada,

tLewis, Hugh. Glanafrau, Newtown, Montgomeryshire.

*Lewis, T. C. West Home, West-road, Cambridge.

§Lewis, W. C. McC., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Physical Chemistry
in the University of Liverpool.

tLiddiard, James Edward, F.R.G.S. Rodborough Grange, Bourne-
mouth.

*Lillie, D.G. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tLilly, W. E., M.A., Sc.D. 39 Trinity College, Dublin.

tLink, Charles W. 14 Chichester-road, Croydon.

{Lippincott, R. C. Cann. Over Court, near Bristol.

*Lishman, G. P., D.Se., F.I.C. Chemical Laboratory, Lambton
Coke Works, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

flisrrr, J. J., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1906.) St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

*Liveine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1882 ; Council, 1888-95 ;
Local Sec. 1862.) Newnham, Cambridge.

*LIVERSIDGE, ARCHIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S.
Fieldhead, George-road, Kingston Hill, Surrey.

§Llewellyn, Evan. Working Men’s Institute and Hall, Blaenavon.

§Lloyd, Miss Dorothy Jordan. 16 Ampton-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Lloyd, George C., Secretary of the Iron and Steel Institute. 28
Victoria-street, S.W.

tLloyd, Godfrey I. H. The University of Toronto, Canada.

tLoca, C.8., D.C.L. Denison House, Vauxhall Bridge-road, S.W.

tLochrane, Miss T. 8 Prince’s-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

tLock, Rev. J. B. Herschel House, Cambridge.

{Locxyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Presipent,
1903 ; Council, 1871-76, 1901-02.) 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

*Lockyer, Lady. 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

§Lockyer, Ormonde H. 8. 126 Webster-street, Ballarat, Victoria.

§Lockyrr, W. J.S., Ph.D. 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

*Lopcr, AtrreD, M.A. (Council, 1913- .) The Croft, Peper-
harow-read, Godalming.

§Lodge, Miss Lorna L. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Lodge, Miss Norah M. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Lopcx, Sir Ottver J., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. (Prestpenr, 1913;
Pres. A, 1891; Council, 1891-97, 1899-1903, 1912-13),
Principal of the University of Birmingham.

§Lodge, Lady. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Lodge, Oliver W. F. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Loneq, Emile. 6 Rue de la Plaine, Laon, Aisne, France.

tLong, Frederick. The Close, Norwich.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1905.
1883.
1910.
1904.

1898.
1901.

1875.
1872.
1881.
1899.
1903.
1897.

1883.

1896

1887.

1886.
1904.
1876.
1908.
1909.

1912.
1885.
1891.
1885.
1886.
1894.
1903.
1913.

1913.
1901.
1891.
1906.

1866.
1883.
1914.
1874.

1898.
1903.
1871.
1914.

1884

1912.
1907.

tLong, W. F. City Engineer’s Office, Cape Town.

*Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

*Longden, G. A. Stanton-by-Dale, Nottingham.

*Longden, J. A., M.Inst.C.E. Chislehurst, Marlborough-road,
Bournemouth.

*Longfield, Miss Gertrude. Belmont, High Halstow, Rochester.

*Longstafi, Captain Frederick V., F.R.G.S. No. 1252 Post Office,
Victoria, B.C., Canada.

*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.S. Highlands,
Putney Heath, 8.W.

*Longstafi, Lieut.-Colonel Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands,
Wimbledon, S.W.

*Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands. Wimbledon, S.W.

*Longstaff, Tom G., M.A., M.D. Picket Hill, Ringwood.

tLoton, John, M.A. 23 Hawkshead-street, Southport.

{Loupon, Jamzs, LI..D., President of the University of Toronto,
Canada.

*Louis, D. A., F.G.S., F.L.C. 123 Pall Mall, S.W.

tLouis, Henry, D.Sc., Professor of Mining in the Armstrong College
of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Lovu, A. E. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1907), Professor
of Natural "Philosophy in the University of Oxford, 34 St.
Margarct’s-road, Oxford.

*Love, KE. F. J., M.A,, D.Sc. The University, Melbourne, Australia.

*Love, J-B.; Lew. Outlands, Devonport.

*Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.8., F.Z.S. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W.

§Low, Alexander, M.A., M.D. The University, Aberdeen.

{tLow, David, M.D. 1927 Scarth-street, Regina, Saskatchewan,
Canada.

tLow, William. Balmakewan, Seaview, Monifieth.

§Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.

§Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Glamorgan.

*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

*Lowe, John Landor, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Spondon, Derbyshire.

{Lowenthal, Miss Nellie. Woodside, Egerton, Huddersfield.

*Lowry, Dr. T. Martin, F.R.S. 130 Horseferry-road, 8.W.

§Lucas, Sir CHARLES iPS K.CB., K.C.M.G. (Pres. E, 1914.) 65
St. George’s-square, 8.W.

§Lucas, Harry. Hilver, St. Agnes-road, Moseley, Birmingham.

*Lucas, Keith, F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Lucovich, Count A. Tyn-y-pare, Whitchurch, near Cardiff.

{Ludlam, Ernest Bowman. College Gate, 32 College-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Victoria. street, S.W,

§Lupton, Mrs. 7 Victoria- street, S.W.

*Lupton, SypNEY, M.A. (Local Sec. 1890.) 102 Park-street,
Grosvenor-square, W.

{Luxmoore, Dr. C. M., F.1.C., 19 Disraeli-gardens, Putney, 8.W.

tLyddon, Ernest H. ‘Lisvane, near Cardiff.

tLyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., F.G.S. Kinnordy, Kirriemuir.

§Lyxe, Professor T. ne M.A., F.R.S. Irving-road, Toorak, Victoria.

tLyman, H. H. 384 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Lynch, Arthur, M.A., M.P. 80 Antrim-mansions, Haverstock
Hill, N.W.

*Lyons, Captain Henry Grorae, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Council, 1912- .)
3 Durham-place, Chelsea, S.W.

—
t

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914.

Yeur of
Llection,

1908. tLyster, George H. 34 Dawson-street, Dublin.
1908. tLyster, Thomas W., M.A. National Library of Ireland, Kildare-
street, Dublin.

1905. {Maberly, Dr. John. Shirley House, Woodstock, Cape Colony. "

1868. {MacatistmR, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1892;
Council, 1901-06), Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

1878. {MacAtisreR, Sir Donatp, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D., B.Sc.,
Principal of the University of Glasgow.

1904. tMacalister, Miss M. A. M. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

1896. {Macattum, Professor A. B., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1910 ;
Local Sec. 1897.) 59 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada.

1914. §McAlpine, D. Berkeley-street, Hawthorn, Victoria.

1879. §MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.

1883. t{MacAndrew, Mrs. J.J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.

1909. {MacArthur, J. A..M.D. Canada Life Building, Winnipeg, Canada.

1896. *Macaulay, F. 8., M.A. The Chesters, Vicarage-road, East Sheen,
S.W.

1904. *Macaulay, W. H. King’s College, Cambridge.

1896. {MacBripz, KE. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in the
Imperial College of Science and Technology, S.W.

1902. *Maccall, W.'T., M.Sc. Technical College, Sunderland.

1912. {McCallum, George Fisher. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1912. ¢{McCallum, Mrs. Lizzie. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1886. {MacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 50 Harborne-road, Edgbaston,

Birmingham.

§McCarthy, Edward Valentine, J.P. Ardmanagh House, Glenbrook,

Co. Cork.

1909. {McCarthy, J. H. Public Library, Winnipeg, Canada.

1884. *McCarthy, J. J.. M.D. 11 Wellington-road, Dublin.

1887. *McCarthy, James. 1Sydney-place, Bath.

1904. §McClean, Frank Kennedy. Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells.

1902. {McClelland, J. A., M.A., I.R.S., Professor of Physics in University
College, Dublin.

1906. {McClure, Rev. E. 80 Eccleston-square, S.W.

1914. §McColl, Miss Ada. Post Office, Parkville, Victoria.

1878. *M‘Comas, Henry. 12 Elgin-road, Dublin.

1908. §McComsir, Hamiiton, M.A., Ph.D. The University, Birmiagham.

1914. §McCombie, Mrs. Hamilton. The University, Birmingham.

1901. *MacConkey, Alfred. Lister Lodge, Elstree, Herts.

1901. {McCrae, John, Ph.D. 7 Kirklee-gardens, Glasgow.

1912. {MacCulloch, Rev. Canon J.A.,D.D. The Rectory, Bridge of Allan.

1905. §McCulloch, Principal J. D. Free College, Edinburgh.

1904. {McCulloch, Major T., R.A. 68 Victoria-street, S.W.

1909. {MacDonald, Miss Eleanor. Fort Qu’ Appelle, Saskatchewan, Canada.

1904. {Macponaxp, H. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
University of Aberdeen.

1905. t{McDonald, J. G. P.O. Box 67, Bulawayo.

1900. {MacDonald, J. Ramsay, M.P. 3 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

1905. {MacponaLp, J. 8., B.A. (Pres. I, 1911), Professor of Physiology in
the University of Sheffield.

1884. *Macdonald, Sir W.C. 449Sherbrooke-street West, Montreal,Canada.

1909. {MacDonell, John, M.D. Portage-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada,

1909. *MacDougall, R. Stewart. The University, Edinburgh.

1912. +MoDneae Dr. W., F.R.S. Woodsend, Foxcombe Hill, near
Oxford.

1908.

Year of
Election

1908.
1906.
1885.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

{McEwen, Walter, J.P. Flowerbank, Newton Stewart, Scotland.
§McFarlane, John, M.A. 48 Parsonage-road, Withington, Manchester.
{Maefarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania. Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.

1901. {Macfee, John. 5 Greenlaw-terrace, Paisley.
1909. {Macgachen, A. F. D. 281 River-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

1888.
1908.

1908.
1906.
1902.
1867.

1909.
1909.
1912.

1909.
1884.

1913.
1885.

1912.
1908.
1909.
1873.

1909.
1907.

1905.

1897.
1910,
1909.
1901.
1912.
1872.
1901.
1887.

1911.
1893.

1901.
1913.
1901.
1901.
1892.

1912.

MacGeorge, James. 8 Matheson-road, Kensington, W.

t{McGratu, Sir Josepn, LL.D. (Local Sec. 1908.) Royal University

of Ireland, Dublin.

McGregor, Charles. Training Centre, Charlotte-street, Aberdeen.

Macerecor, D. H., M.A. ‘Trinity College, Cambridge.

McIlroy, Archibald. Glenvale, Drumbo, Lisburn, Ireland.

McInvosu, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.BR.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. D,

1885), Professor of Natural History in the University of

St. Andrews. 2 Abbotsford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.

tMcIntyre, Alexander. 142 Maryland-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

tMcIntyre, Daniel. School Board Offices, Winnipeg, Canada.

tMcIntyre, J, Lewis, M.A., D.Sc. Abbotsville, Cults, Aberdeen-
shire.

tMcIntyre, W. A. 339 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

§MacKay, A. H., B.Sc., LL.D., Superintendent of Education.
Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Mackay, John. 85 Bay-street, Toronto, Canada.

tMackay, Joun YuteE, M.D., LL.D., Principal of and Professor of
Anatomy in University College, Dundee.

§Mackay, R. J. 27 Arkwright-road, Hampstead, N.W.

tMcKay, William, J.P. Clifford-chambers, York.

§McKee, Dr. E. 8. Sinton and Nassau-streets, Cincinnati, U.S.A.

tMcKenoprick, Joun G., M.D., LL.D., F.BS., F.R.S.E. (Pres. I,
1901 ; Council, 1903-09), Emeritus Professor of Physiology
in the University of Glasgow. Maxieburn, Stonehaven, N.B.

tMcKenty, D. E. 104 Colony-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

tMcKenziz, ALEXANDER, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. Birkbeck College,
Chancery-lane, W.C.

t{Mackenzie, Hector. Standard Bank of South Africa, Cape
Town.

tMcKenzie, John J. 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

tMackenzie, K. J. J.. M.A. 10 Richmond-road, Cambridge.

§MacKenzie, Kenneth. Royal Alexandra Hotel, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Mackenzie, Thomas Brown. Netherby, Manse-road, Motherwell, N.B.

§Mackenzie, William, J.P. 22 Meadowside, Dundee.

*Mackey, J. A. United University Club, Pall Mail East, S.W.

tMackie, William, M.D. 13 North-street, Elgin.

{Mackrnper, H. J., M.A., M.P., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1895 ; Council,

1904-05.) 25 Cadogan-gardens, 8.W.

{Mackinnon, Miss D. L. University College, Dundee.

*McLaren, Mrs. E. L. Colby, M.B., Ch.B. 137 Tettenhall-road,
Wolverhampton. » .

*Maclaren, J. Malcolm. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber-
land Avenue, W.C.

§McLaren, 8. B. University College, Reading.

{Maclay, William. Thornwood, Langside, Glasgow.

t{McLean, Angus, B.Sc. Harvale, Meikleriggs, Paisley,

*Mactran, Maaenvs, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1901), Pro-
fessor of Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Glasgow.

§McLean, R. C., B.Sc. Duart, Holmes-road, Reading.

Ket

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 59

Year of
Election.

1908.

1868.

1909.
1883.

1909.

1902.
1914.
1878.
1905.
1909.
1907.
1906.
1908.
1908.
1902.
1910.
1908.
1905.
1909.
1875.

1908.
1907.
1902.

1914.
1913.

1908.
1914,
1912.
1905.
1897.
1903.
1894.
1887.

1902.
1912.
1898.
1911.
1900.
1864.

1905.
1905.
1881.
1903.

1892,

§McLennan, J. C., Professor of Physics in the University of
Toronto, Canada.

§McLrop, Hersert, LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1892; Council,
1885-90.) 37 Montague-road, Richmond, Surrey.

tMacLeod, M. H. C.N.R. Depot, Winnipeg, Canada.

¢MacMauon, Major Percy A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (TRusrer,
1913- ; Genera Secretary, 1902-13; Pres. A, 1901 ;
Council, 1898-1902.) 27 Evelyn-mansions, Carlisle-place,
S.W.

{McMittan, The Hon. Sir Danret H., K.C.M.G. Government
House, Winnipeg, Canada.

tMcMordie, Robert J. Cabin Hill, Knock, Co. Down.

§Macnicol, A. N. 31 Queen-street, Melbourne.

{tMacnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.

§Macphail, Dr. 8. Rutherford. Rowditch, Derby.

{MacPhail, W. M. P.O. Box 88, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Macrosty, Henry W. 29 Hervey-road, Blackheath, S.K.

tMacturk, G. W. B. 15 Bowlalley-lane, Hull.

{McVittie, R. B., M.D. 62 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin.

tMcWalter, J. C., M.D., M.A. 19 North Earl-street, Dublin.

tMcWeeney, Professor E.J., M.D. 84 St. Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

{MecWilliam, Dr. Andrew. Kalimate, B.N.R., near Calcutta.

tMappen, Rt. Hon. Mr. Justice. Nutley, Booterstown, Dublin.

{Magenis, Lady Louisa. 34 Lennox-gardens, S.W

{Magnus, Laurie, M.A. 12 Westbourno-terrace, W.

*Maanus, Sir Purp, B.Sc., B.A., M.P. (Pres. L, 1907.) 16 Glouces-
ter-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

*Magson, Egbert H. Westminster College, Horseferry-road, 8.W.

*Mair, David. Civil Service Commission, Burlington-gardens, W.

*Mairet, Mrs. Ethel M. The Thatched House, Shottery, Stratford-
on-Avon.

§Maitland, A. Gibb. Geological Survey, Perth, Western Australia.

tMaitland, T. Gwynne, M.D. The University, Edmund-street,

Birmingham.

*Makower, W. The University, Manchester.

§Malinowski, B. London School of Economics, Clare Market, W.C.

{Malloch, James, M.A., F.S.A. (Scot.) Training College, Dundee.

Maltby, Lieutenant G. R., R.N. 54 St. George’s-square, S.W.

Mancz, Sir H.C. Old Woodbury, Sandy, Bedfordshire.

tManifold, C. C. 16 St. James’s-square, S.W.

{Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts.

*March, Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester,
Dorsetshire.

*Marcuant, Dr. E. W. The University, Liverpool.

§Marchant, Rev. James, F.R.S.E. 42 Great Russell-street, W.C.

*Mardon, Heber. 2 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

*Marerr, R. R., D.Sc. Exeter College, Oxford.

tMargerison, Samuel. Calverley Lodge, near Leeds.

{Markuam, Sir Clements R., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.S.A.
(Pres. E, 1879; Council, 1893-96.) 21 Eccleston-square, S.W.

§Marks, Samuel. P.O. Box 379, Pretoria.

tMartors, R., M.A., Ph.D. P.O. Box 359, Cape Town.

*Marr, J. E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.8S. (Pres. C, 1896 ; Council,
1896-1902, 1910-14.) St. John’s College, Cambridge,

{Marriott, William. Royal Meteorological Society, 70 Victoria-
street, S.W.

*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

1883. *Marsh, Henry Carpenter. 3 Lower James-street, Golden.
square, W.

1887. {Marsh, J. E,, M.A., F.R.S. University Museum, Oxford.

1889. *MaRsHALL, ALFRED, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1890.) Balliol

1912.
1904.
1905.
1901.
1907.
1899.
1911.
1884.
1889,
1912.
1911.
1913.
1913.
1907.
1905.
1913.

1893.
1913.

1891.
1885.
1910.
1905.
1y0i.
1910.
1887.

1909.
1913.

1908.
18° 4.
1902.

1904.
1899.

1914.

Croft, Madingley-road, Cambridge.

tMarshall, Professor C. R., M.A., M.D. The Medical School,
Dundee.

*+Marshall, F. H. A. University of Edinburgh.

tMarshall, G. A. K. 6 Chester-place, Hyde Park-square, W.

{Marshall, Robert. 97 Wellington-street, Glasgow.

tMarston, Robert. 14 Ashleigh-road, Leicester.

{Martin, Miss A. M. Park View, 32 Bayham-road, Sevenoaks.

§Martin, Professor CHARLES Jamus, M.B., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director
of the Lister Institute, Chelsea-gardens, 5.W.

§Martin, N. H., J.P., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Ravenswood, Low Fell,
Gateshead.

*Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Windermere, Mount
Pleasant-road, Hastings.

{Martin, W. H. Buiyrx. (Local Sec. 1912.) City Chambers,
Dundee.

§Martindell, HK. W., M.A. Royal Anthropological Institute, 50 Great
Russell-street, W.C.

{Marrivnau, Lieut.-Colonel Ernest, V.D. Ellerslie, Augustus-
road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Martineau, P. E. The White House, Wake Green-road, Moseley,
Birmingham.

{Masefield, J. R. B., M.A. Rosehill, Cheadle, Staffordshire.

*Mason, Justice A. W. Supreme Court, Pretoria.

*Mason, Edmund W., B.A. 2 York-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

*Mason, Thomas. Enderleigh, Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

{Mason, William. Engineering Laboratory, The University,
Liverpool.

*Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.0., Berkshire.

§Masson, Davip Orme, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in
the University of Melbourne.

tMasson, Irvine, M.Sc. University College, W.C.

§Massy, Miss Mary. 2 Duke-street, Bath.

*Mather, G. R. Boxlea, Wellingborough.

*Mather, Thomas, I'.R.S., Professor of Electrical Engineering in the
City and Guilds of London Institute, Exhibition-road, 5.W.

*Mather, Right Hon. Sir William, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works,
Manchester.

{Mathers, Mr. Justice. 16 Edmonton-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

$Matheson, Miss M. Cecile. Birmingham Women’s Settlement,
318 Summer-lane, Birmingham.

{Matheson, Sir R. E., LL.D. Charlemont House, Rutland-square,
Dublin.

{Maruews, G. B., M.A., F.R.S. 10 Menai View, Bangor, North
Wales.

{Martey, C. A., D.Sc. Military Accounts Department, Naina Tal,
U.P., India.

{Matthews, D. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

*Maufe, Herbert B., B.A., F.G.S. P.O. Box 168, Bulawayo,
Rhodesia.

§Maughan, M. M., B.A., Director of Education. Parkside, South
Australia.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 61

Election.

1893.
1894.

1905.
1905.
1878.
1904.
1912.

1913.
1879.
1905.
1881.

{Mavor, Professor James. University of Toronto, Canada.

§Maxim, Sir Hiram S. Thurlow Park, Norwood-road, West
Norwood, S.E.

*Maylard, A. Ernest. 12 Blythswood-square, Glasgow.

tMaylard, Mrs. 12 Blythswood-square, Glasgow.

*Mayne, Thomas. 19 Lord Edward-street, Dublin.

{Mayo, Rev. J., LL.D. 6 Warkworth-terrace, Cambridge.

§Mnpx, ALEXANDER, M.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Armstrong
College of Science, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

§Megson, A. L. The Elms, Vale-road, Bowdon.

§Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W.

{Mein, W. W. P.O. Box 1145, Johannesburg.

*MELDOLA, RAPHAEL, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.C., F.R.AS.,
F.E.S., Officier de lInstr. Publ. France (Pres. B, 1895;
Council, 1892-99, 1911- ), Professor of Chemistry in the
Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds of London
Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, W.C.

. [Meldrum, A. N., D.Sc. Chemical Department, The University,

Manchester.

. {Mellis, Rev. James. 23 Part-street, Southport.

. *Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

. §Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.

. *Melvill, E. H. V., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. P.O. Val, Standerton District,

Transvaal.

. {Mennell, F. P., F.G.8. 49 London Wall, E.C.

. *Mentz-Tolley, Richard. Moseley Court, near Wolverhampton.

. t{Menzies, Rev. James, M.D. Hwaichingfu, Honan, China.

. §Meredith, Mrs. C. M. 55 Bryansburn-road, Bangor, Co. Down.

. tMeredith, H. O.,M.A., Professor of Economics in Queen’s University,

Belfast. 55 Bryansburn-road, Bangor, Co. Down.

. {Mzrrivace, Jonn Herman, M.A. (Local Sec. 1889.) Togston Hall,

Acklington.

. *Merrett, William H., F.I.C. Hatherley, Grosvenor-road, Walling-

ton, Surrey.

. {Merryweather, J.C. 4 Whitehall-court, S.W.

. *Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

. §Messent, A. K. The Observatory, Adelaide, South Australia.

. t{Methven, Cathcart W. Club Arcade, Smith-street, Durban.

. §Metzler, W. H., Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse

University, Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.

. ¢{Mraxz, Louis C., D.Sc, F.RS., F.LS., F.GS. (Pres. D, 1897 ,

Pres. L, 1908; Local Sec. 1890.) Norton Way North, Letch-
worth.

. *Micklethwait, Miss Frances M. G. 15 St. Mary’s-square, Padding-

ton, W.

. §Middlemore, Thomas, B.A. Melsetter, Orkney.
. *Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of,

Bishop’s House, Middlesbrough.

. {Mrppteroy, T. H., C.B., M.A. (Pres. M, 1912.) Board of Agri-

culture and Fisheries, 4 Whitehall-place, 8.W.

. *Mirrs, Sir H. A., M.A., D.Sc., F.B.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1905; Pres.

L, 1910), Principal of the University of London. 23 Wetherby-
gardens, S.W.

. {Mitx, Hven Roser, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E,

1901.) 62 Camden-square, N.W

_ {Mill, Mrs. H.R. 62 Comden-square, N.W.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1912.
1889.

1909.
1897.

1895.
1904,

1905.

1908.

1868.
1908.

1908.
1902.
1907.
1910.
1910.

1903.
1898.
1908.

1907.
1912.

1914.
1901.
1915.

1901.
1909.
1885.

1905.
1908.
1914.

1895.
1908.
1905.
1905.

1883.
19096.

1905.

1905.
1891.

1909,
1909,

tMiinar, Dr. A. H. (Local Sec. 1912.) Albert Institute, Dundee.

*Mittan, RopertT Cocksurn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.

§Miller, A. P. Glen Miller, Ontario, Canada.

*Miller, G. Willet, Provincial Geologist. Provincial Geologist’s

Office, Toronto, Canada.

tMiller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.H. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich.

{Millis, C. T. Hollydene, Wimbledon Park-road, Wimbledon.

{Mills, Mrs. A. A. Ceylon Villa, Blinco-grove, Cambridge.

{Mills, Miss E. A. Nurney, Glenagarey, Co. Dublin.

*Mitts, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 64 Twyford-avenue,

West Acton, W.

§Mills, John Arthur, M.B. Durham County Asylum, Winterton,
Ferryhill.

§Mills, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Nurney, Glenagarey, Co. Dublin.

{Mills, W. Sloan, M.A. Vine Cottage, Donaghmore, Newry.

tMilne, A., M.A. University School, Hastings.

§Milne, J. B. Cross Grove House, Totley, near Sheffield.

*Milne, James Robert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 11 Melville-crescent, Edin-
burgh.

*Milne, R. M. Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, South Devon.

*Mitner, 8. Rostineton, D.Sc. The University, Sheffield.

§Milroy, T. H., M.D., Dunville Professor of Physiology in Queen’s
University, Belfast.

§Mixton, J. H., F.G.S., F.L.8., F.R.G.S. 8 College-avenue, Crosby,
Liverpool.

§Minchin, E. A., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Protozoology in the
University of London. 53 Cheyne-court, Chelsea, S.W.

§Minchin, Mrs. 53 Cheyne-court, Chelsea, S.W.

*Mitchell, Andrew Acworth. 7 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.

*Mitchell, Francis W. V. 25 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

*Mitchell, G. A. 5 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Mitchell, J. F. 211 Rupert-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

{MircHEty, P. Coaumers, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sec.Z.S. (Pres. D,
1912; Council, 1906-13.) Zoological Society, Regent’s
Park, N.W.

*Mitchell, W. E.C. Box 129, Johannesburg.

tMitchell, W. M. 2St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

§Mitchell, William, M.A., D.Se., Hughes Professor of Philosophy
and NMeonomics in the University of Adelaide, South Aus-
tralia.

*Moat, William, M.A. Johnson Hall, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.

tMoffat, C. B. 36 Hardwicke-street, Dublin.

tMoir, James, D.Sc. Mines Department, Johannesburg.

§Molengraaff, Professor G. A. F. Voorstreat 60, Delft, The
Hague.

tMollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

*Moncreton, H. W., Treas. L.S., F.G.S. 3 Harcourt-buildings,
Temple, E.C.

*Moncrizrr, Colonel Sir C. Scort, G.C.S.I, K.C.M.G., R.E. (Pres.
G, 1905.) 11 Cheyne-walk, S.W.

tMoncrieff, Lady Scott. 11 Cheyne-walk, S.W.

*Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., ¥.R.S.E., F.G.S. 20 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

tMoody, A. W., M.D. 4324 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Moopy, G. T., D.Se. Lorne House, Dulwich, S.E.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 63

Year of
Election.

1914.
1912.

1911.

1908.
1894.
1908.
1901.

1905.
1892.

1912.
1896.
1901.
1905.

1895,
1902.

1902.
1901.
1883.

1906.
1896.
1892.

1896.
1880.
1907.

1899.

1909.
1886.
1896.

1883.
1913.
1913.
1908.
1912.
1876.

1892.
1913.
1913.
1912.
1878.

1899

1905.
1905.
1911.
1912.

§Moody, Mrs. Lorne House, Dulwich, §.E.

§Moor®, BENJAMIN, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. 1, 1914.) 84 Shrewsbury-
road, Birkenhead.

§Moore, E. S., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the School
of Mines, Pennsylvania State College, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

*Moore, Sir F. W. Royal Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, Dublin.

tMoore, Harold E. Oaklands, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent.

tMoore, Sir John W., M.D. 40 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin.

*Moore, Robert T. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

tMoore, T. H. Thornhill Villa, Marsh, Huddersfield.

tMoray, The Right Hon. the Earl of, F.G.S. Kinfauns Castle,
Perth.

{Moray, The Countess of. Kinfauns Castle, Perth.

*Morpny, W.M. 82 Victoria-street, 8. W.

*Moreno, Franc’sco P. Parana 915, Buenos Aires.

*Morgan, Miss Annie. Care of London County and Westminster
Bank, Chancery-lane, W.C.

tMoraan, C. Lioyp, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Psychology in the
University of Bristol.

{Moraan, Gitsert T., D.Sc., F.1.C., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.

*Morgan, Septimus Vaughan. 37 Harrington-gardens, S.W.

*Morison, James. Perth.

*Mortry, Henry Forsrer, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. 5 Lyndhurst-road,
Hampstead, N.W.

tMorrell, H. R. Scarcroft-road, York.

*Morrell, Dr. R. 8. Tor Lodge, Tettenhall Wood, Wolverhampton.

tMorris, Sir Dantut, K.C.M.G., D.Sc., F.LS. 14 Crabton-close,
Boscombe, Hants.

*Morris, J. T. 36 Cumberland-mansions, Seymour-place, W.

§Morris, James. 23 Brynymor-crescent, Swansea.

{Morris, Colonel Sir W. G., K.C.M.G. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co.,
16 Charing Cross, W.C.

*Morrow, Jonny, M.Sc., D.Eng. Armstrong College, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

{Morse, Morton F, Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Morton, P. F. 15 Ashley-place, Westminster, S.W.

*Morton, Wriu1aM B., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Queen’s University, Belfast.

+Moseley, Mrs. 48 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

*Moseley, Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys. 48 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

§Mosely, Alfred. West Lodge, Barnet.

{Moss, Dr. C. E. Botany School, Cambridge.

{Moss, Mrs. 154 Chesterton-road, Cambridge.

§Moss, Ricwarp Jackson, F.I.C., M.R.I.A. Royal Dublin Society,
and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

*Mostyn, 8S. G., M.A., M.B. Health Office, Houndgate, Darlington.

{Mott, Dr. F. W., F.R.S. 25 Nottingham-place, W.

tMottram, V.H. 256 Lordship-lane, East Dulwich, S.E.

*Moulton, J. C. Sarawak Museum, Sarawak.

*Moutron, The Right Hon. Lord Justice, M.A., K.C., F.R.S.
57 Onslow-square, S.W.

tMowll, Martyn. Chaldercot, Leyburne-road, Dover.

tMoylan, Miss V.C. 3 Canning-place, Palace Gate, W.

*Moysey, Miss E. L. Pitcroft, Guildford, Surrey.

*Moysey, Lewis, B.A.,M.B. St. Moritz, Ilkeston-road, Nottingham.

tMudie, Robert Francis. 6 Fintry-place, Broughty Ferry.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1902

1907.

1874

1909.

1912
1904

1872.

1913

1905.
1876.

1902
1884

1904.
1911.
1898.
1901.
1906.
1904.
1909.
1883.

1909.
1914.

TOU.
1909.

1908.
1908.
1905.

1903.
1905.
1905.
1914.
1892.
1909.

- 1906.
1912.

1870.
1906.

1913.

1902.
1902.
1909.
1906.

H+ t+++eommumum

§Muir, Arthur H. 7 Donegall-square West, Belfast.
*Muir, Professor James. 31 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
More, M. M. Parrison, M.A. Hillcrest, Farnham, Surrey.
{Muir, Robert R. Grain Exchange-building, Winnipeg, Canada.
§Muir, Thomas Scott. 19 Seton-place, Edinburgh.
{Muir, William, I.S.0. Rowallan, Newton Stewart, N.B.
*MUIRHEAD, ALEXANDER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 12 Carteret-street,
Queen Anne’s Gate, Westminster, S.W.
§Muirhead, Professor J. H. The Rowans, Balsall Common, near
Coventry.
*Muirhead, James M. P., F.R.S.E. Dunlop Rubber Co., 3 Wal-
lace-street, Bombay.
*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, B.A., D.Sc. 64 Great George-street,
Hillhead, Glasgow.
{Mullan, James. Castlerock, Co. Derry.
*MULLER, Hueco, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 13 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, N.W.
{Mullinger, J. Bass, M.A. 1 Bene’t-place, Cambridge.
tMumby, Dr. B. H. Borough Asylum, Milton, Portsmouth.
tMumford, C. E. Cross Roads House, Bouverie-road, Folkestone.
*Munby, Alan E. 44 Downshire-hill, Hampstead, N.W.
tMunby, Frederick J. Whixley, York.
tMunro, A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
{Munro, George. 188 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.
*Munro, Rosert, M.A., M.D., LL.D. (Pres. H, 1893.) Elmbank,
Largs, Ayrshire, N.B.
tMunson, J. H., K.C. Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.
*Murchison, Roderick. Melbourne-mansions, Collins-street, Mel-
bourne.
tMurdoch, W. H. F., B.Sc. 14 Howitt-road, Hampstead, N.W.
§Murphy, A. J. Vanguard Manufacturing Co., Dorrington-street,
Leeds.
tMurphy, Leonard. 156 Richmond-road, Dublin.
t{Mureuy, Wittiam M., J.P. Dartry, Dublin.
tMurray, Charles F. K., M.D. Kenilworth House, Kenilworth,
Cape Colony.
Murray, Colonel J. D. Rowbottom-square, Wigan.
Murray, Sir James, LL.D., Litt.D. Sunnyside, Oxford.
Murray, Lady. Sunnyside, Oxford.
Murray, John. Tullibardin New Farm. Brisbane, Australia.
Murray, T. S., D.Sc. 27 Shamrock-street, Dundee.
Murray, W. C. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. Sas-
katchewan, Canada.
Musgrove, Mrs. Edith M. S., D.Sc. The Woodlands, Silverdale,
Lancashire.
*Musgrove, James, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of St. Andrews.
*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
tMyddelton-Gavey, E. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Stanton Prior, Meads,
Eastbourne.
§Myddelton-Gavey, Miss Violet. Stanton Prior, Meads, East-
bourne.
{Myddleton, Alfred. 62 Duncairn-street, Belfast.
*Myers, Charles 8., M.A., M.D. Great Shelford, Cambridge.
*Myers, Henry. The Long House, Leatherhead.
tMyers, Jesse A. Glengarth, Walker-road, Harrogate.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 65

Election,

1890. *Myrus, Joun L., M.A., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1909 ; Council, 1909- ),
Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of
Oxford. 101 Banbury-road, Oxford.

1914. *Myres, Miles Claude. 101 Banbury-road, Oxford.

1886. {NaceL, D. H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1894.) Trinity College, Oxford.

1892. *Nairn, Sir Michael B., Bart. Kirkcaldy, N.B.

1890.
1908.
1909.
1883.
1914.
1914.
1914.
1898.
1866.

1889.
1889.

1912.
1901.
1901.
1913.
1889.
1912.
1892.
1914.

1914.
1908.

1908.

1908.
1887.

1884.

1911.
1908.

1863.

1888.
_ 1913.
1912.

1914.

{Nalder, Francis Henry. 34 Queen-street, E.C.

{Nally, T. H. Temple Hill, Terenure, Co. Dublin.

{Neild, Frederic, M.D. Mount Pleasant House, Tunbridge Wells.

*Neild, Theodore, M.A. pe eee Court, Leominster.

sNelson, Miss Edith A., M.A., M.Sc. 131 Williams-road, Fast
Prahran, Victoria.

*Nettlefold, J. S. Winterbourne, Edgbaston Park-road, Bir-

mingham.

§Nettlefold, Miss. Winterbourne, Edgbaston Park-road, Birming-
ham.

*Nevill, Rev. J. H. N., M.A. The Vicarage, Stoke Gabriel, South
Devon.

*Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

{tNevittez, F. H., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney College, Cambridge.

*NEwaALL, H. Frank, M.A.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Astrophysics
in the University of Cambridge. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.

tNewberry, Percy E., M.A., Professor of Egyptology in the Uni-
versity of Liverpool. Oldbury Place, Ightham, Kent.

tNewbigin, Miss Marion, D.Sc. Royal Scottish Geographical Society,
Edinburgh.

{Newman, F. H. Tullie House, Carlisle.

§Newman, L. F. 2 Warkworth-street, Cambridge.

tNewstead, A. H. L., B.A. 38 Green-street, Bethnal Gals 3 N.E,

*Newton, Arthur U. University College, W.C.

tNrewrton, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.S. Florence House, Willow Bridge-
road, Canonbury, N.

§Newton, R. Bullen, F.G.S. British Museum (Natural History),
South Kensington, S8.W.

§Nicholls, Dr. E. Brooke. 174 Victoria-street, North Melbourne.

tNicholls, W. A. 11 Vernham-road, Plumstead, Kent.

tNichols, Albert Russell. 30 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines, Co.
Dublin.

§Nicholson, J. W., M.A., D.Sc. Highcliffe, Redcar, Yorkshire.

{Nicholson, Jobn Carr, J.P. Moorfield House, Headingley,
Leeds.

tNicHotson, JosnpH S., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1893), Professor of
Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh.

{Nicol, J. C., M.A. The Grammar School, Portsmouth.

{Nrxon, The Right Hon. Sir CuristopuER, Bart., M.D., LL.D., D.L.
2 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*NoBLE, Sir ANDREW, Bart., K.C.B., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S.
(Pres. G, 1890 ; Council, 1903-06 ; Local Sec. 1863.) Elswick
Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Norman, Rev. Canon Atrrep Merz, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
FE.R.S., F.L.S. The Red House, Berkhamsted.

{Norman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.

§Norman, Sir Henry, M.P. The Corner House, Cowley-street. 8. W.

{Norrie, Robert. University College, Dundee.

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1913.
1894,
1909.
1910.
1913.
1912.
1908.
1898.
1908.
1913.
1883.
1910.
1858.
1911.
1908.
1902.
1913.
1876.
1914.
1885.

1912.
1905.

1905.
1908.

1892.
1893.
1912.
1914.
1863.
1887,
1889.
1882.

1880.
1908.

§Norris, F. Edward. Seismograph Station, Hill View, Woodbridge
Hill, Guildford.

§Norcutt, S. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. (Local Sec. 1895.) Constitu-
tion-hill, Ipswich.

{Nugent, F.S. 81 Notre Dame-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Nunn, T. Percy, M.A., D.Se., Professor of Education in the Uni-
versity of London. London Day Training College, South-
ampton-row, W.C.

§Nuttall, T. E., M.D. Middleton, Huncoat, Accrington.

{Nuttall, W. H. Cooper Laboratory for Economic Research,
Rickmansworth-road, Watford.

tNutting, Sir John, Bart. St. Helen’s, Co. Dublin.

*O’Brien, Neville Forth. Fryth, Pyrford, Surrey.

tO’Carroll, Joseph, M.D. 43 Merrion-square East, Dublin.

§Ockenden, Maurice A., F.G.S. Oil Well Supply Company, Dash-
wood House, New Broad- street, E.C.

tOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D., K.C. 15 Old-square,
Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

*Odling, Marmaduke, B.A., F.G.S. Geological Department, The
University, Leeds.

*OpLina, WiLLiAM, M.B., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1864 ; Council,
1865-70.) 15 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*O’DonogHusE, CHartes H., D.Sc. University College, Gower-
street, W.C.

§O’Farrell, Thomas A., J.P. 30 Lansdowne-road, Dublin

tOgden, James Neal. Claremont, Heaton Chapel, Stockport.

§Ogilvie, A.G. 15 Evelyn-gardens, 8.W.

{Ogilvie, Campbeli P. Lawford-place, Manningtree.

§Ogilvie, Mrs. Campbell P. Lawford-place, Manningtree.

tOcitvin, F. Grant, C.B., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec.
1892.) Board of Education, S.W.

§Ogilvy, J. W. 18 Bloomsbury-square, W.C.

*Oke, Alfred William, B.A., LL.M., F.G.S8., F.L.S. 32 Denmark-
villas, Hove, Brighton.

§Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.S. Overley, Langham-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

§Oldham, Charles Hubert, B.A., B.L., Professor of Commerce in
the National University of Ireland. 5 Victoria-terrace, Rath-
gar, Dublin.

{OLpHam, H. Yuuz, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the
University of Cambridge. King’ s College, Cambridge.

*Otpuam, R. D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 8 North-street, Horsham, Sussex.

§O’Leary, Rev. William, S.J. Mungret College, ‘Limerick.

§Oliver, Calder E. Manor-street, Brighton, Victoria.

tOxiver, Daniet, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of
Botany in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-
road, Kew, Surrey.

tOxtver, F. W., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1906), Professor
of Botany in University College, London, W.C.

{Oliver, Professor Sir Thomas, M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

§OxsEn, O. T., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-
terrace, Grimsby.

*Ommanney, Rev. .A. St. Michael and All Angels, Portsea, Hants.

tO’ Neill, sek G., M.A. University College, St. Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.

Year
Electi

1902

1913.

1905.
1884.
1901.
1909.
1908.
1904,

1910.

1901.
1908.
1887.
1884.

1881,
1906.
1903.
1911.
1910.

1909

1908.

1906.
1903.
1883.
1913.
1911.
1912.
1911.
1870.

1896.
1878.

1866.
1904.
1909.

1891.

1905.
1899.
1905.
1906.

1879.
1911.
1913.
1903.
1908.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 67

of
on.

. tO’Neill, Henry, M.D. 6 College-square East, Belfast.

§Orange, J. A. General Electric Company, Schenectady, New
York, U.S.A.

tO’Reilly, Patrick Joseph. 7 North Earl-street, Dublin.

*Orpen, Rev. T. H., M:A. Mark Ash, Abinger Common, Dorking.

fOrr, Alexander Stewart. 10 Medows-street, Bombay, India.

{Orr, John B. Crossacres, Woolton, Liverpool.

*Orr, William. Dungarvan, Co. Waterford.

*Orton, K. J. P., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Bangor.

*OsBORN, T. G. B., M.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of
Adelaide, South Australia.

§Osborne, Professor W. A., D.Sc. The University, Melbourae.

tO’Shaughnessy, T. L. 64 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

{O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. University College, Sheffield.

Oster, Sir Witt1aM, Bart., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor
of Medicine in the University of Oxford. 13 Norham-
gardens, Oxford.

*Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.

tOwen, Rev. E. C. St. Peter’s School, York.

*Owen, Edwin, M.A. ‘Terra Nova School, Birkdale, Lancashire.

§Owens, J. 8., M.D., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.

*Oxley, A. E. Rose Hill View, Kimberworth-road, Rotherham.

tPace, F. W. 388 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Pack-Beresford, Denis, M.R.I.A. Fenagh House, Bagenalstown,
Treland.

§Page, Carl D. Wyoming House, Aylesbury, Bucks.

*Page, Miss Ellen Iva. Turret House, Felpham, Sussex.

tPage, G. W. Bank House, Fakenham.

§Paget, Sir Richard, Bart. Old Fallings Hall, Wolverhampton.

§Paget, Stephen, M.A., F.R.C.S. 21 Ladbroke-square, W.

{Pahic, Paul. 52 Albert Court, Kensington Gore, S.W.

{Paine, H. Howard. 50 Stow-hill, Newport, Monmouthshire.

*PatGRave, Sir Ropert Harry Ineus, F.R.S., F.S.S. (Pres. F,
1883.) Henstead Hall, Wrentham, Suffolk.

{Pallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Royal Societies Club, St. James’s-street,
S.W

§Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham.

{Parxker, E. H., M.A. Thorneycreek, Herschel-road, Cambridge.

§Parker, M. A., B.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1909), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.

{ParKker, WittraM Newron, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.

*Parkes, Tom E. P.O. Box 4580, Johannesburg.

*Porkin, John. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

*Parkin, Thomas. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

§Parkin, Thomas, M.A., F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.G.S. Fairseat, High
Wickham, Hastings.

*Parkin, William. Broomhill House, Watson-road, Sheffield.

{Parks, Dr. G. J. 18 Cavendish-road, Southsea.

§Parry, Edward, M.Inst.C.E. Rossmore, Leamington.

§Parry, Joseph, M.Inst.C.E. Woodbury, Waterloo, near Liverpool.

tParry, W. K., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Charlemont-terrace, Kingstown,
Dublin.

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1878.

1904.
1995.
1898.
1887.

1908.
1909.
1897.

1883.
1884.
1913.
1908.

1874.
1913.

1913.
1879.
1883.
1887.
1912.
1887.
1914.

1888.
1876.

1906.
1885.

1911.
1913.
1886.
1883.
1893.
1898.
1905.
1883.
1906.
1904.
1909.
1855.
1888,
1885.

1884.

{Parsons, Hon. Sir C. A., K.C.B., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
(Pres. G, 1904.) Holeyn Hall, Wylam-on-Tyne.

{Parsons, Professor F. G. St. Thomas’s Hospital, S.E.

*Parsons, Hon. Geoffrey L. Worting House, Basingstoke, Hants.

*Partridge, Miss Josephine M. 15 Grosvenor-crescent, S.W.

{Parerson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Liverpool.

{Paterson, M., LL.D. 7 Halton-place, Edinburgh.

{Paterson, William. Ottawa, Canada.

tPaton, D. Noél, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the
University of Glasgow.

*Paton, Rev. Henry, M.A. Airtnoch, 184 Mayfield-road, Edinburgh.

*Paton, Hugh. Box 2646, Montreal, Canada.

§Patrick, Joseph A. North Cliff, King’s Heath, Birmingham.

§PatrEn, C. J., M.A., M.D., Sc.D., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Sheffield.

{Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast.

{Patterson, W. Hamilton, M.Sc. The Monksferry Laboratory,
Birkenhead.

*Pattin, Harry Cooper, M.A.,M.D. King-street House, Norwich.

*Patzer, F. R. Clayton Lodge, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

tPaul, George. 32 Harlow Moor-drive, Harrogate.

*Paxman, James. Standard Iron Works, Colchester.

*Payne, Miss Edith. Care of Mrs. Roberts, Lothair, St. Mary-
church, Torquay.

*Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s
Heath.

*Payne, Professor Henry, M.Inst.C.E. The University, Mel-
bourne.

*Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor, Yeovil.

{tPeace, G. H., M.Inst.C.E. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Man-
chester.

tPeace, Miss Gertrude. 39 Westbourne-road, Sheffield.

Praca, B. N., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S8. (Pres. C, 1912.)
Geological Survey Office, George-square, Edinburgh.

§Peake, Harold J. E. Westbrook House, Newbury.

iPear, T. H. Dunwood House, Withington, Manchester.

*Pearce, Mrs. Horace. Collingwood, Manby-road, West Malvern.

{Pearson, Arthur A., C.M.G. Hillsborough, Heath-road, Petersfield,
Hampshire.

*Pearson, Charles E. Hillcrest, Lowdham, Nottinghamshire.

{Pearson, George. Bank-chambers, Baldwin-street, Bristol.

*PrarsoNn, Professor H. H. W., M.A., F.L.S. National Botanic
Gardens, Kirstenbosch, Newlands, Cape Town.

tPearson, Miss Helen E. Oakhurst, Birkdale, Southport.

{Pearson, Dr. Joseph. The Museum, Colombo, Ceylon.

{Pearson, Karl, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Eugenics in the University
of London. 7 Well-road, Hampstead, N.W.

{Pearson, William. Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

*PrcKover, Lord, LL.D., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Bank House,
Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

tPeckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridge-
shire.

{Peddie, William, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in University College, Dundee.

tPeebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1914. 69

Year of
Election.

1878.
1901.
1905.
1905.
1887.

1894.
1896.
1898.
1908.
1905.

1894,
1902.
1884,

1864.
1898.
1909,

1874.
1913.
1904,
1900.
1914.
1901.
1910.
1895.
1871.
1886.
1911.
1903.
1853.
1877.
1863.
1905.
1899.
1910.

1890.

1909.
1883.
1901.

1885.
1907.

*Peek, William. Villa des Jonquilles, Rue des Roses, Monte Carlo.
*Peel, Right Hon. Viscount. 13 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, H.C,
§Peirson, J. Waldie. P.O. Box 561, Johannesburg.

{Pemberton, Gustavus M. P.O. Box 93, Johannesburg.

{PrenpLesuRy, Wituiam H., M.A., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1899.)
Woodford House, Mountfields, Shrewsbury.

{Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.

{Pennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph.

tPercival, Francis W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Chesham-street, S.W.

tPercival, Professor John, M.A. University College, Reading.

{Péringuey, L., D.Sc., F.Z.S.. South African Museum, Cape

‘own.

tPrernr, A. G., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.1.C. 8 Montpelier-
terrace, Hyde Park, Leeds.

*Perkin, F. Mollwo, Ph.D. 199 Piccadilly, W.

{Prrxiw, Witt1am Henry, LL.D. Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres.
B, 1900; Council, 1901-07), Waynflete Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Oxford. The Museums, Oxford.

*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

*Perman, E. P., D.Sc. University College, Cardiff.

tPerry, Rev. Professor E. Guthrie. 246 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg,
Canada.

*PrrRRy, Professor Joun, M.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (GENERAL
TREASURER, 1904— ; Pres. G, 1902; Pres. L, 1914; Coun-
cil, 1901-04). 25 Stanley-crescent, W.

tPerry, W. J. Care of W. J. Roberts, The Mount, Church Stretton.

*Pertz, Miss D. F. M. - 2 Cranmer-road, Cambridge.

*PrraveL, J. E., M.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering in the
University of Manchester.

*Peters, Thomas. Burrinjuck vid Goondah, N.S.W.

tPethybridge, G. H., Ph.D. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

*Petrescu, Captain Dimitrie, R.A., M.Eng. Scoala Superiora de
Messern, Bucharest, Rumania.

{Pxrreiz, W. M. Furpers, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1895), Professor
of Egyptology in University College, W.C.

*Peyton, John H. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Vale House, St. Helier,
Jersey.

{Phelps, Lieut.-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

{Philip, Alexander. Union Bank Buildings, Brechin.

{Philip, James C. 20 Westfield-terrace, Aberdeen.

*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

§Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, Crescent-road, South
Woodford, Essex.

{Philipson, Sir G. H., D.C.L. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Phillimore, Miss C. M. Shiplake House, Henley-on-Thames.

*Phillips, Charles E. S., F.R.S.E. Castle House, Shooter’s Hill,

Kent.
*Phillips, P. P., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Thomason
Engineering College, Rurki, United Provinces, India.
{Putures, R. W.,M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Uni-
versity College, Bangor. 2 Snowdon-villas, Bangor.
*Phillips, Richard. 15 Dogpole, Shrewsbury.
*Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands. Lancaster.
§Pickard, Robert H., D.Sc. Billinge View, Blackburn.
*PICKERING, SPENCER P. U., M.A., F.R.S. Harpenden, Herts.
tPickles, A. R., M.A. Todmorden-road, Burnley.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1888.

1865.
1896.
1905.
1896.
1905.
1911.
1911.
1911.
1908.
1908.

1909.
1893.
1900.
1911.
1898.

1908.

1908.
1907.

1900.

1913.
1914.
1908.
1906.
1891.
1911.
1907.
1900.

1892.
1901.
1905.
1905.
1883.

1906.
1907.
1908.

1886.

1905.
1898.

*Pidgeon, W. R. Lynsted Lodge, St. Edmund’s-terrace, Regent’s
Park, N.W.

{Pixn, L. OwEn, 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Pilkington, A.C. Rocklands, Rainhill, Lancashire.

{Pilling, Arnold. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

*Pilling, William. Rosario, Heene-road, West Worthing.

{Pim, Miss Gertrude. Charleville, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

tPink, H.R. The Mount, Fareham, Hants.

tPink, Mrs. H. R. The Mount, Fareham, Hants.

{Pink, Mrs. J. E. The Homestead, Eastern-parade, Southsea.

*Pio, Professor D. A. 14 Leverton-street, Kentish Town, N.W.

{Pirrie, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., M.Inst.C.E. Downshire House,
Belgrave-square, S.W.

tPitblado, Isaac, K.C. 91 Balmoral-place, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Pirt, WauTeER, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Lansdown-grove, Bath.

*Platts, Walter. Morningside, Scarborough.

*Plimmer, R. H. A. 3 Hall-road, N.W.

{Plummer, W. E., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Bidston,
Birkenhead.

{Plunkett, Count G. N. National Museum of Science and Art,
Dublin.

{Plunkett, Colonel G. T.,C.B. Belvedere Lodge, Wimbledon, S.W.

*PLUNKETT, Right Hon. Sir Horace, K.C.V.O., M.A. F.R.S.
Kilteragh, Foxrock, Co. Dublin.

*Pocklington, H. Cabourn, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 5 Wellclose-place,
Leeds.

tPocock, R. J. St. Aidan’s, 170 Eglinton-road, Woolwich, S.E.

§Pollock, Professor J. A., D.Sc. The University, Sydney, N.S.W.

Pollok, James H., D.Sc. 6 St. James’s-terrace, Clonshea, Dublin,

*Pontifex, Miss Catherine E. 7 Hurlingham-court, Fulham, S.W.

{Pontypridd, Lord. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.

{Poore, Major-General F. H. 1 St. Helen’s-parade, Southsea.

§Pope, Alfred, F.S.A. South Court, Dorchester.

*Popr, W. J., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1914), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Cambridge. Chemical Labora-
tory, The University, Cambridge.

{Popplewell, W. C., M.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bowden-lane,
Marple, Cheshire.

§PorTER, ALFRED W., B.Sc., F.R.S. 87 Parliament Hill-mansions,
Lissenden-gardens, N.W.

§PortER, J. B., D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Mining in the

McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

{Porter, Mrs. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

{Porrrr, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Arm-
strong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 13 Highbury, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

{Potter-Kirby, Alderman George. Clifton Lawn, York.

{Potts, F. A. University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.

*Potts, George, Ph.D., M.Sc. Grey University College, Bloem-
fontein, South Africa.

*PouLTon, Epwaprp B., M.A., F.RB.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. D,
1896 ; Council, 1895-1901, 1905-12), Professor of Zoology in
the University of Oxford. Wykeham House, Banbury-road,
Oxford.

}Poulton, Mrs. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

pean Edward Palmer, M.A. Wykeham House, Banbury-road,

xford. ;

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 71

Year of
Election.

1913. §Poulton, Miss. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1894,

1887.
1913.
1908.

1907.

1884.
1913.
1888.
1904.
1892.
1906.
1889.

1914.
1914.
1903.
1888.

1875.

1913.

1897

1914.

1908.
1909.

1914.
1889.

1876.
1881.
1884.

1879.
1872.
1883.
1913.
1903.
1904.

1885.

1881.

1913.
1913.
1884.
1911.
1912.

*Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 62 Wimpole-street,
Cavendish-square, W.

§Pownall, George H. 20 Birchin-lane, E.C.

{Poynting, Mrs. J. H. 10 Ampton-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Prarcer, R. Luoyp, B.A., M.R.LA. Lisnamae, Rathgar, Dublin.

*Prain, Lieut.-Col. Sir Davin, C.1.E., C.M.G., M.B., F.R.S. (Pres.
K, 1909 ; Council, 1907-14.) Royal Gardens, Kew.

*Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Prankerd, Mrs. Theodora Lisle. 25 Hornsey Lane-gardens, N.

*Preece, W. Llewellyn, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

§Prentice, Mrs. Manning. Thelema, Undercliff-road, Felixstowe.

t{Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.

¢Pressly, D. L. Coney-street, York.

{Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange,
Bradford, Yorkshire.

§Preston, C. Payne. Australian Distillery Co., Byrne-street, South
Melbourne.

§Preston, Miss E. W. 153 Barry-street, Carlton, Victoria.

§Price, Edward E. Oaklands, Oaklands-road, Bromley, Kent.

{Pricz, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1895 ; Council, 1898-
1904.) Oriel College, Oxford.

*Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.

§Price, T. Slater. Municipal Technical School, Suffolk-street,

Birmingham.

*Pricr, W. A., M.A. 135 Sandyford-road, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Priestley, Professor H. J. Edale, River-terrace, Kangaroo Point,
Brisbane, Australia.

§PrinstLey, J. H., B.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of
Leeds.

*Prince, Professor E. E., LL.D., Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries.
206 O’Connor-street, Ottawa, Canada.

§Pringsheim, Dr. Peter. Lutzemstrasse 63, Berlin.

*Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 70 Fairhazel-gardens, South
Hampstead, N.W.

*PRITCHARD, Ursan, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, W.

§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York.

*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. Care of E. C. 8. Scholefield, Esq.,
Provincial Librarian, Victoria, B.C., Canada.

*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Ilfracombe.

*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts.

*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Brahan, Perth.

§Pullar, W. B. Coniston, Bridge of Allan, N.B.

{Pullen-Burry, Miss. Lyceum Club, 128 Piccadilly, W.

{Punnett, R. C., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Biology in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Caius College, Cambridge.

{Purpisz, Tuomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of
Chemistry in the University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street,
St. Andrews, N.B.

{Purey-Cust, Very Rev. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.

{Purser, G. Leslie. Gwynfa, Selly Oak, Birmingham.

{Purser, John, M.Sc. The University, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, W.

{Purvis, J. E. Corpus Christi College, Oxford.

{Pycraft, Dr. W. P. British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, S.W.

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Election.

1898.
1883.
1883.
1879.
1911.

1893.
1906.

1879.
1912.
HST

1887.
1913.

1898.

1896.
1894.

1908.
1912.

1876.

1883.
1914.
1913.
1907.
1868.
1861.

1903.
1914.
1892.
1913.

1914.

1908.
1905.

1868.

1883.
1912.
1897.

1907.
1913.

*Pye, Miss E. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester.
§Pye-Smith, Arnold. 32 Queen Victoria-street, E.C.
tPye-Smith, Mrs. 32 Queen Victoria-street, E.C.
{Pye-Smith, R. J. 450 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
{tPye-Smith, Mrs. R. J. 450 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

{Quick, James. 22 Podvarienaad West, Folkestone.
*Quiggin, Mrs. A. Hingston. 88 Hartington-grove, Cambridge.

tRadford, R. Heber. 15 St. James’s-row, Sheffield.

tRadok, F. 12 Central-hill, Upper Norwood, S.E.

§Rae, John T. National Temperance League, Paternoster House,
Paternoster-row, E.C.

*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Stand, near Manchester.

tRailing, Dr. A. H., B.Sc. The General Electric Co., Ltd., Witton,
Birmingham.

*Raisin, Miss Catherine A., D.Sc. Bedford College, York-place,
Baker-street, W.

*RamaceE, Hueu, M.A. The Technical Institute, Norwich.

*RamMBAvuT, ARTHUR A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A.
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

{Rambaut, Mrs. Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

tRamsay, Colonel R. G. Wardlaw. Whitehill, Rosewell, Mid-
lothian.

*Ramsay, Sir Witt1am, K.C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT,
1911; Pres. B, 1897; Council 1891-98). Beechcroft, Hazle-
mere, High Wycombe,

tRamsay, Lady. Beechcroft, Hazlemere, High Wycombe.

§Ramsbottom, J. W. 23 Rosebery-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Ramsden, William. Blacker-road, Huddersfield.

tRankine, A. O., D.Sc. 18 Loveday-road, Ealing, W.

*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.

tRansomz, Arraur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1861.)
Sunnyhurst, Dean Park, Bournemouth.

tRastall, R. H. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

§Rathbone, Herbert R. 15 Lord-street, Liverpool.

*Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.

tRaw, Frank, B.Sc., F.G.S. The University, Edmund-street,
Birmingham.

§Rawes-Whittell, H. Manchester Hall, 183 Elizabeth-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.

*Raworth, Alexander. St. John’s Manor, Jersey.

{Rawson, Colonel Herbert E., C.B., R.E., F.R.G.S. Home Close,
Heronsgate, Herts.

*RayYLeIcH, The Right Hon. Lord, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.B.A.S., F.R.G.S. (Presipent, 1884; Trustees,
1883- ; Pres. A, 1882; Council, 1878-83), Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution, London. Terling
Place, Witham, Essex.

*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster.

§Rayner, Miss M. C., D.Sc. University College, Reading.

*Rayner, Edwin Hartree, M.A. 40 Gloucester-road, Teddington,
Middlesex.

tRea, Carleton, B.C.L. 34 Foregate-street, Worcester.

§Read, Carveth, M.A. 73 Kensington Gardens-square, W.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. +s)

Election.

1896. *Ruap, Sir Cuarutzes H., LL.D., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1899.) British

1913.
1914.
1902.
1884.

Museum, W.C.
§Reade, Charles C. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, Gray’s Inn, W.C. —'
$Reade, Mrs. C. C. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, Gray’s Inn, W.C.
tReade, R. H. Wilmount, Dunmurry.
§Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Belmont, Hereford.

1890. *Redwood, Sir Boverton, Bart., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. The

1908.

1905.
1891.
1894.
1903.
1911.

1906.

1910.
1901.
1904.
1881.

Cloisters, 18 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park, N.W.

tReed, ag a K.C.B., C.V.0., LL.D. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,
Dublin.

tReed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S. 16St. Mary’s Parsonage, Manchester.

*Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.

*Rees, Edmund 8. G. Dunscar, Oaken, near Wolverhampton.

tReeves, E. A., F.R.G.S. Hillside, Reigate-road, Reigate.

§REEVES, Hon. W. Pemper. (Pres. F, 1911.) London School of
Economics, Clare Market, W.C.

*Reichel, Sir Harry R., M.A., LL.D., Principal of University
College, Bangor. Penrallt, Bangor, North Wales.

“Reid, Alfred, M.B., M.R.C.S. Kuala, Lumpur, Selangor, F.M.S.

*Reid, Andrew T. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

tReid, Arthur H. 30 Welbeck-street, W.

§Reid, Arthur 8., M.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.

1883. *Rerp, Crement, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. One Acre, Milford-on-

1903.
1892.

1908.

1901.
1901.
1909.
1904.
1912.
1897.

Sea, Hants.

*Reid, Mrs. E. M., B.Sc. One Acre, Milford-on-Sea, Hants.

{Rem, E. Waymours, B.A., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology
in University College, Dundee.

tReErD, GEorRGE ARCHDALL, M.B., C.M., F.R.S.E. 9 Victoria-road
South, Southsea.

*Reid, Hugh. Belmont, Springburn, Glasgow.

tReid, John. 7 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

tReid, John Young. 329 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

tReid, P. J. Marton Moor End, Nunthorpe, R.S.O., Yorkshire.

§Reid, Professor R. W., M.D. 37 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

tReid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury.

1892. {Reid, Thomas. Municipal Technical School, Birmingham.

1887.
1912.
1875.

*Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

§Reinheimer, Hermann. 43 King Charles-road, Surbiton.

¢REINOLD, A. W., C.B., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1890-95.) 3 Lennox-
mansions, Southsea.

1894. tRendall, Rev. G. H., M.A., Litt.D. Charterhouse, Godalming.

1891. *Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road,
Accrington.

1903. *REnDLE, Dr. A. B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. 28 Holmbush-road,
Putney, S.W.

1889. *Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, S.W.

1906. tRennie, John, D.Sc. Natural History Department, University of
Aberdeen.

1905. *Renton, James Hall. Rowfold Grange, Billingshurst, Sussex.

1912. {Rettie, Theodore. 10 Doune-terrace, Edinburgh.

1904. {ReuneERT, THEopor:E, M.Inst.C.E. P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.

1912. {Rew, R. H., C.B. Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 3 St.
James’s-square, S.W.

1905. §Reyersbach, Louis. Care of Messrs. Wernher, Beit, & Co.,
1 London Wall-buildings, E.C.

1883. *Reynolds, A. H. 271 Lord-street, Southport.

1913. tReynolds, J. H. Low Wood, Harborne, Birmingham.

Year

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1871

1900.

1906

1907.

1899

1877.
1905.

1906.
1914.

1869.
1912.

1889.
1884.
1896.

1901.

1914.
1883.
1911.
1902.

1913.
1894.

1881.
1883.
1892.
1912.
1910.

1903.
1913.
1908.
1898.
1914.
1902.
1887.
1896.
1913.

1897.

1897

. [Reynotps, James Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.CS.,
M.R.J.A. (Pres. B, 1893; Council, 1893-99.) 3 Inverness-
gardens, W.

*Reynolds, Miss K. M. 8 Darnley-road, Notting Hill, W.

. Reynolds, S. H., M.A., Sc.D., Professor of Geology in the Univer-
sity of Bristol.

§Reynolds, W. Birstall Holt, near Leicester.

. *Ruys, The Right Hon. Professor Sir Joun, D.Sc. (Pres. H, 1900.)
Jesus College, Oxford.

*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Riva
Muro 14, Modena, Italy.

§Rich, Miss Florence, M.A. Granville School, Granville-road,
Leicester.

{Richards, Rev. A. W. 12 Bootham-terrace, York.

§Richardson, A. EK. V., M.A., B.Sc. Department of Agriculture,
Melbourne.

*Richardson, Charles. 3 Cholmley-villas, Long Ditton, Surrey.

{Richardson, Harry, M.Inst.H.E. Electricity Supply Department,
Dudhope Crescent-road, Dundee.

{Richardson, Hugh, M.A. 18 Bootham-crescent, York.

*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.

*Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S. Montevideo, Chickerell,
near Weymouth.

*Richardson, Owen Willans, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Wheatstone
Professor of Physics in King’s College, London, W.C.

*Rideal. Eric K., B.A., Ph.D. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

*RIDEAL, SAMUEL, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

{Ridgeway, Miss A. R. 83 The Broadway, Watford.

§Ripeeway, Wituam, M.A., D.Litt., F.B.A. (Pres. H, 1908),
Professor of Archzology in the University of Cambridge.
Flendyshe, Fen Ditton, Cambridge.

§Ridler, Miss C.C. Coniston, Hunsdon-road, Torquay.

{Ripiey, E. P., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1895.) Burwood, Westerfield-
road, Ipswich.

*Rigg, Arthur. 150 Blomfield-terrace, W.

*Riaa, Epwarp, C.B., I.8.0., M.A. Royal Mint, E.

{Rintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

§Rintoul, Miss L. J. Lahill, Largo, Fife.

{Ripper, William, Professor of Engineering in the University of
Sheffield.

*Rivers, W. H. R., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1911.) St. John’s
College, Cambridge.

§Riverr, A. C. D., B.A., Ph.D. (General Organising Secretary,
1914.) The University of Melbourne, Victoria.

*Roaf, Herbert E., M.D., D.Sc. 44 Rotherwick-road, Hendon, N.W.

*Robb, Alfred A., M.A., Ph.D. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast.

§Robb, James Jenkins, M.D. Harlow, 19 Linden-road, Bournville,
Birmingham.

*Roberts, Bruno. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Roberts, Evan. 27 Crescent-grove, Clapham Common, 8.W.

{Roberts, Thomas J. Ingleside, Park-road, Huyton, near Liverpool.

§Robertson, Andrew. Engineering Laboratories, Victoria Uni-

versity, Manchester.

§Rogertson, Sir Grorce S., K.C.S.I., M.P. (Pres. E, 1900.)

2 Mitre Court-buildings, Temple, E.C.
. [Robertson, Professor J. W., C.M.G., LL.D. The Macdonald
College, St. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914.

ba |
Or

Year of
Election.

1912.
1901.
1913.

1913.
1886.
1909.
1903.
1902.
1911.
1902.
1912.
1888.
1908.
1910.

1895.
1899.

1875.
1908.
1904.
1909.
1909.
1904.
1870.
1912.
1896.
1885.
1905.
1908.

1898.
1913.
1913.

1907.
1890.

1906.
1909.
1884.
1876.

1855.

1905.

1883.
1894.

§Robertson, R. A., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Botany in
the University of St. Andrews.

*Robertson, Robert, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Carnbooth, Carmunnock,
Lanarkshire.

*Robins, Edward, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Lobito, Angola, Portu-
guese South-West Africa.

tRobinson, A. H., M.D. St. Mary’s Infirmary, Highgate Hill, N.

*Robinson, Charles Reece. 176 Gerrard-street, Aston, Birmingham.

tRobinson, E. M. 381 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

tRobinson, G. H. 1 Weld-road, Southport.

+Robinson, Herbert C. Holmfield, Aigburth, Liverpool.

{Robinson, J. J. ‘ West Sussex Gazette’ Office, Arundel.

tRobinson, James, M.A., F.R.G.S. Dulwich College, Dulwich, S.E.

§Robinson, James. 42 Fordbrook-avenue, Ealing Common, W.

tRobinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.

*Robinson, John Gorges, B.A. Cragdale, Settle, Yorkshire.

tRobinson, John Hargreaves. Cable Ship ‘ Norseman,’ Western
Telegraph Co., Caixa no Correu No. 117, Pernambuco, Brazil.

*Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, South-

port.
*Robinson, Mark, M.Inst.C.E. Parliament-chambers, Westminster,
S.W.

*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Beechwood, Darlington.

tRobinson, Robert. Field House, Chesterfield.

{Robinson, Theodore R. 25 Campden Hill-gardens, W.

{Robinson, Captain W. 264 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada,

{Robinson, Mrs. W. 264 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.

tRobinson, W. H. Kendrick House, Victoria-road, Penarth.

*Robson, E. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Robson, W. G. 50 Farrington-street, Dundee.

tRodger, A. M. Natural History Museum, Perth.

*Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

{Roebuck, William Denison, F.L.S. 259 Hyde Park-road, Leeds.

+Rogers, A.G. L. Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 8 Whitehall-
place, S.W.

+Rocrrs, Brrrram, M.D. (Local Sec. 1898.) 11 York-place,
Clifton, Bristol.

{Rogers, F., D.Eng., B.A., M.Sc. Rowardennan, Chelsea-road,
Sheffield. :

+Rogers, Sir Hallewell. Greville Lodge, Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

tRogers, John D. 85 St. George’s-square, S.W.

*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Leeds. 6 Hollin-lane, Leeds.

tRogers, Reginald A. P. Trinity College, Dublin.

+Rogers, Hon. Robert. Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Rogers, Walter. Lamorva, Falmouth.

tRottit, Sir A. K., LL.D., D.C.L., Litt.D. St. Anne’s Hall, near
Chertsey-on-Thames, Surrey.

*Roscor, The Right Hon. Sir Henry Enrrevp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. (PResmpent, 1887; Pres. B, 1870, 1884 ;
Council, 1874-81 ; Local Sec. 1861.) 10 Bramham-gardens, S.W.

tRose, Miss G. Mabel. Ashley Lodge, Oxford.

*Rose, J. Holland, Litt.D. Walsingham, Millington-road, Cam-
bridge.

*RossE, Sir 'T, K., D.Sc., Chemist and Assayer to the Royal Mint.
6 Royal Mint, E.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1905.
1905.

1900.

1914.
1914.
1914.

1909.
1859.
1908.

1912.
1902.
1901.

1891.
1911.

1901.

1899.
1884.
1905.
1901.
1903.
1890.
1881.
1910.
1875.

1901.
1905.

1905.
1904.
1909.
1896.
1911.
1912.
1904.

1883.
1852.
1908.
1908.
1886.

1909.

1907.

*Rosedale, Rev. H. G., D.D., F.S.A. 7 Gloucester-street, S.W.

*Rosedale, Rev. W. E., D.D. St. Mary Bolton’s Vicarage, South
Kensington, S8.W.

tRosEnHAIN, Water, B.A., F.R.S. Warrawee, Coombe-lane,
Kingston Hill, Surrey.

§Rosenhain, Mrs. Warrawee, Coombe-lane, Kingston Hill, Surrey.

§Rosenhain, Miss. Warrawee, Coombe-lane, Kingston Hill, Surrey.

§SRoss, Alexander David, M.A.. D.Sc., F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Mathematics and Physics in the University of Western
Australia, Perth, Western Australia.

{Ross, D. A. 116 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.

{Ross, Sir John, of Bladensburg, K.C.B. Rostrevor House,
Rostrevor, Co. Down.

{Ross, Miss Joan M. Hazelwood, Warlingham, Surrey.

{Ross, John Callender. 46 Holland-street, Campden-hill, W.

{Ross, Colonel Sir Ronaup, K.C.B., F.R.S., Professor of Tropical
Sanitation in the University of Liverpool. The University,
Liverpool.

*Roth, H. Ling. Briarfield, Shibden, Halifax, Yorkshire.

*Rothschild, Hon. L. Walter, M.P., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. Tring Park,
Tring.

*Rottenburg, Paul, LL.D. Care of Messrs. Leister, Bock, & Co.,
Glasgow.

*Round, J. C., M.R.C.S. 19 Crescent-road, Sydenham Hill, 8.E.

*Rouse, M. L., B.A. 47 Berlin-road, Catford, S.E.

§Rousselet, Charles F. Fir Island, Bittacy Hill, Mill Hill, N.W.

{Rowallan, the Right Hon. Lord. Thornliebank House, Glasgow.

*Rowe, Arthur W., M.B., F.G.S. Shottendane, Margate.

tRowley, Walter, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood Leeds.

*Rowntree, Joseph. 38 St. Mary’s, York.

tRowse, Arthur A., B.A., B.Sc. Engineering Laboratory, Cambridge.

*Ricker, Sir Arruur W., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (PReEst-
DENT, 1901; TRusrmE, 1898—- ; GENERAL TREASURER,
1891-98; Pres. A, 1894; Council, 1888-91.) Everington
House, Newbury, Berkshire.

*Rudorf, C.C. G., Ph.D., B.Sc. 52 Cranley-gardens, Muswell Hill, N.

*Ruffer, Marc Armand, C.M.G., M.A., M.D., B.Sc. Quarantine
International Board, Alexandria.

tRuffer, Mrs. Alexandria.

{Ruhemann, Dr. S., F.R.S. 3 Selwyn-gardens, Cambridge.

tRumball, Rev. M. C., B.A. Morden, Manitoba, Canada.

*Rundell, T. W., F.R.Met.Soc. Terras Hill, Lostwithiel.

{Rundle, Henry, F.R.C.S.. 13 Clarence-parade, Southsea.

*Rusk, Robert R., M.A., Ph.D. 4 Barns-crescent, Ayr.

{Russell, EK. J., D.Sc. Rothamsted Experimental Station, Har-
penden, Herts.

Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

*Russell, J. W. 28 Staverton-road, Oxford.

*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Dover-street, W.

tRussell, Robert. Arduagremia, Haddon-road, Dublin.

{RusseE1, Right Hon. T. W., M.P. Olney, Terenure, Co. Dublin.

tRust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.

*Rutherford, Hon. Alexander Cameron. Strathcona, Alberta,
Canada.

§RutTHERFORD, Sir Ernest, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1909 ;
Council, 1914- ), Professor of Physics in the University of
Manchester.

Year of

=I
=~I

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914.

Election.

1914.
1914.

1909.
1908.
1905.
1909.
1906.

1903.

1883.
1871.
1903.
1873.
1904.
1911.

1901.
1907.

1896.
1896.
1903.

1886.
1905.
1896.

1907.
1913.
1903.

1887.

1906.
1883.
1903.
1903.
1879.

1914.
1914.
1888.

1914.
1880.
1905.

1908.
1873.

1883.

§Rutherford, Lady. 17 Wilmslow-road, Withington, Manchester.

§Rutherford, Miss Hileen. 17 Wilbraham-road, Withington, Man-
chester.

{Ruttan, Colonel H. N. Armstrong’s Point, Winnipeg, Canada,

{Ryan, Hugh, D.Sc. Omdurman, Orwell Park, Rathgar, Dublin.

tRyan, Pierce. Rosebank House, Rosebank, Cape Town.

{Ryan, Thomas. Assiniboine-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

*RyMER, Sir JosppH SyKEs. The Mount, York.

{Sapuer, M. E., C.B., LL.D. (Pres. L, 1906), Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Leeds. 41 Headingley-lane, Leeds.

{Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.

tSadler, Samuel Champernowne. Church House, Westminster, 8.W.

tSagar, J. The Poplars, Savile Park, Halifax.

*Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

{Saurer, A. E., D.Sc., F.G.S. 5 Clifton-place, Brighton.

§Sampson, R. A., M.A., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland.
Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.

{Samuel, John S., J.P., F.R.S.E. City Chambers, Glasgow.

*Sand, Dr. Henry J. 8. University College, Nottingham.

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

§Saner, John Arthur, M.Inst.C.E. Toolerstone, Sandiway, Cheshire.

{Saner, Mrs. Toolerstone, Sandiway, Cheshire.

{Sankey, Captain H. R., R.E., M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers,
9 Bridge-street, S.W.

{Sankey, Percy E. 44 Russell-square, W.C.

{Sargant, H. B. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

*SarGANT, Miss Eruen, F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1913.) The Old Rectory,
Girton, Cambs.

tSargent, H.C. Ambergate, near Derby.

iSaundby, Robert, M.D. Great Charles-street, Birmingham.

*SauNDERS, Miss E. R. (Council, 1914- .) Newnham College,
Cambridge.

§Sayorn, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D. (Pres. H, 1887), Professor of
Assyriology in the University of Oxford. Queen’s College,
Oxford.

{Sayer, Dr. Ettie. 35 Upper Brook-street, W.

*Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.

{ScaRisBrick, Sir CHaruEs, J.P. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport.

{Scarisbrick, Lady. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport.

*Scuirer, Sir E. A., LL.D., D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT,
1912; GENERAL SECRETARY, 1895-1900; Pres. I, 1894;
Council, 1887-93), Professor of Physiology in the University
of Edinburgh. Marly Knowe, North Berwick.

§Schifer, Lady. Marly Knowe, North Berwick.

§Scharff, J. W. Knockranny, Bray, Co. Wicklow.

*Scuarrr, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, National Museum, Dublin. Knockranny,
Bray, Co. Wicklow.

§Scharff, Mrs. Knockranny, Bray, Co. Wicklow.

*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Neueberg 12, Hamburg.

{ScnHonnanp, §., Ph.D. Albany Museum, Grahamstown, Cape
Colony.

§Schrédter, Dr. E. 27 Breite-strasse, Diisseldorf, Germany.

*Scuustrer, ARTHUR, Ph.D., Sec. B.S., F.R.A.S. (PRasipent ELEct ;
Pres. A, 1892; Council, 1887-93.) Yeldall, Twyford, Berks.

*SotatmerR, W. Luriry, M.A., F.Z.S. Odiham Priory, Winchfield,

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1905.
1913.

1881.
1878.
1889.

1857.
1902.
1895.

1883.
1909.
1895.

1890.
1906.

1907.
1911.
1913.
1904.
1909.
1888.

1870.
1910.

1895.
1892.

1913.
1914.
1899.
1891.
1905.
1904.
1902.
1913.
1901.

1906.
1878.

1904.

1914,
1910.

tSclater, Mrs. W. L. Odiham Priory, Winchfield.

§Scoble, Walter A., B.Sc., A.M.Inst.C.E. City and Guilds Technical
College, Leonard-street, H.C.

*Scort, ALEXANDER, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.C.S. 34 Upper
Hamilton-terrace, N.W.

*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter.

*Scott, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Pres.L.S. (GmNERAL SECRE-
TARY, 1900-03 ; Pres. K, 1896.) East Oakley House, Oakley,
Hants ; and Athenzum Club, Pall Mall, S.W.

*Scott, Ropert H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.Met.S. 6 Elm Park-
gardens, S.W.

tScott, William R., M.A., Litt.D. St. Regulus, St. Andrews,
Scotland.

tScott-Elliot, Professor G. F., M.A., B.Se., F.L.S. Newton, Dum-
fries.

tScrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.

tScudamore, Colonel F. W. Chelsworth Hall, Suffolk.

{Scull, Miss KE. M. L. St. Edmund’s, 10 Worsley-road, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

*Searle, G. F. C., Sc.D., F.R.S. Wyncote, Hills-road, Cambridge.

*See, T. J. J., A.M., Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Professor of Mathematics,
U.S. Navy. Naval Observatory, Mare Island, California.

§Seligman, Dr. C. G. 36 Finchley-road, N.W.

*Seligman, Mrs. C.G. 36 Finchley-road, N.W.

§Seligmann, Miss Emma A. 61 Kirklee-road, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tSell, W. J. 19 Lensfield-road, Cambridge.

tSellars, H. Lee. 225 Fifth-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

*SENIER, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1912), Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in University College, Galway.

*Sephton, Rev. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

tSeton, R. §., B.Sc. The University, Leeds.

*Seton-Karr, H. W. 8 St. Paul’s-mansions, Hammersmith, W.

*Smwargp, A. C., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. K, 1903 ; Council,
1901-07; Local Sec. 1904), Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Cambridge. Westfield, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

§Seward, Mrs. Westfield, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

SSeward, Miss Phyllis. Westfield. Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

§Seymour, Henry J., B.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
National University of Ireland. Earlsfort-terrace, Dublin.

tShackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Shackleford, W. C. Burnt Green, Worcestershire.

Shackleton, Lieutenant Sir Hrnest H., M.V.O., F.R.G.S. 9 Regent-
street, S.W.

{Saarrespury, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., K.C.V.O.
Belfast Castle, Belfast.

tShakespear, G. A., D.Sc., M.A. 21 Woodland-road, Northfield,
Worcestershire.

*Shakespear, Mrs. G. A. 21 Woodland-road, Northfield, Worcester-
shire.

tShann, Frederick. 6 St. Leonard’s, York. :

{Suarp, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.RB.S., F.L.S. Lawnside, Brocken-
hurst, Hants.

{Sharples, George. 181 Great Cheetham-sireet West, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.

§Shaw, A. G. Merton-crescent, Albert Park, Victoria.

§Shaw, J. J. Sunnyside, Birmingham-road, West Bromwich.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 79

Year of
Election.

1889.
1883.

1883.
1903.

1912.
1905.
1905.
1865.
1900.
1908.

1883.
1883.
1896.

1888.
1908.
1883.

1887.

1897.
1882.

1901.
1908.
1904.
1910.
1889.
1902.
1883.
1877.
1914.
1913.
1873,

1905.
1914.
1903.
1915.

1871.

1914.
1913.
1863.
1909.
1908.

190].

*Shaw, Mrs. M. 8., B.Sc. Brookhayes, Exmouth.

*Suaw, W. N., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1908 ; Council, 1895-
1900, 1904-07.) Meteorological Office, Exhibition-road,

_ South Kensington, S.W.

{Shaw, Mrs. W. N. 10 Moreton-gardens, South Kensington, S.W.

{Shaw-Phillips, T., J.P. The Times Library Club, 380 Oxford-
street, W.

{Shearer, C. Clare College, Cambridge.

{Shenstone, Miss A. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes

tShenstone, Mrs. A. E. G. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

{Shenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Barecombe, Lewes.

§SHEPPARD, THomas, F.G.S._ The Municipal Museum, Hull.

§Sheppard, W.- F., Sc.D., LL.M. Board of Education, White-
hall, S.W.

tSherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

tSherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

{Surerrimerton, C.8., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1904; Council,
1907-14), Professor of Physiology in the University of Oxford,
9 Chadlington-road, Oxford.

*Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A., F.S.A. St. John’s Hospital, Bath.

*Shickle, Miss Mabel G. M. 9 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.

*Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. Ardvernis, 3 Richmond-gardens,
Bournemouth.

*SHIpLey, ArTHUR E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1909;
Council, 1904-11), Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge.

tSuors, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Suorg, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 6 Kingswood-road, Upper Nor-
wood, S.E.

tShort, Peter M., B.Sc. 1 Deronda-road, Herne Hill, 8.E.

§Shorter, Lewis R., B.Sc. 29 Albion-street, W.

*Shrubsall, F. C., M.A., M.D. 34 Lime-grove, Uxbridge-road, W.

{Shuttleworth, T. E. 5 Park-avenue, Riverdale-road, Sheffield.

{Sibley, Walter K., M.A., M.D. 6 Cavendish-place, W.

tSiddons, A. W., M.A. Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex.

*Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Merlewood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Sidgwick, Mrs. E. M. 27 Grange-road, Cambridge.

*Srpewick, N. V._ Lincoln College, Oxford.

*SIEMENS, ALEXANDER, M.Inst.C.E. Caxton House, Westminster,

S.W.

tSiemens, Mrs. A. Caxton House, Westminster, S.W.

§Silberberg, H. B. S O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

*Silberrad, Dr. Oswald. Buckhurst Hill, Essex:

§Smmon, Councillor E. D. (Locan Sucrerary, 1915.) 20 Mount-
street, Manchester.

*Srmpson, Sir ALEXANDER R., M.D., Emeritus Professor of Mid
wifery in the University of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street.
Edinburgh

§Simpson, Dr. G. C. Meteorological Department, Simla, India.

*Simpson, J. A., M.A., D.Sc. 62 Academy-street, Elgin.

{Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

{Simpson, Professor J.C. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

{Simpson, J. J., M.A., B.Sc. Zoological Department, Marischal
College, Aberdeen.

*Simpson, Professor J. Y., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 25 Chester-street,
Edinburgh.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1907.
1909.
1909.

1896.
1884.

1909.
1912.
1907.
1905.

1914.
1902.
1906.
1883.
1910.
1898.

1905.
1913.

1913.
1887.
1903.
1902.
1911.

1911.

1914.
1892.

1908

1897.
1901.

1914.
1873.
1889.

1910.
1900.
1913.
1908.
1886.
1901.

1866.
1911.

1912.
1897.

{Simpson, Lieut.-Colonel R. J. S8., C.M.G. 66 Shooter’s Hill-road,
Blackheath, S.E.

*Simpson, Samuel, B.Sc., Director of Agriculture, Kampala,
Uganda.

{Simpson, Sutherland, M.D. Cornell University Medical College.
Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

*Simpson, W., F.G.S. Catteral Hall, Settle, Yorkshire.

*Simpson, Professor W. J. R., C.M.G., M.D. 31 York-terrace,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

{Sinclair, J. D. 77 Spence-street, Winnipeg.

§Sinclair, Sir John R.G., Bart.,D.S.0. Barrock House, Wick, N.B.

*Sircar, Dr. Amrita Lal, L.M.S., F.C.S. 51 Sankaritola, Calcutta.

*SsoarEN, Professor H. Natural History Museum, Stockholm,
Sweden.

§Skeats, Professor E. W., D.Sc. The University, Melbourne.

{Skeffington, J. B., M.A., LL.D. Waterford.

{Skerry, H. A. St. Paul’s- “square, York,

{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.

{Skinner, J. C. 76 Ivy Park-road, Sheffield.

{Sxovner, Srmpney, M.A. (Local Sec. 1904.) South-Western
Polytechnic, Manresa-road, Chelsea, S.W.

*Skyrme, C. G. Baltimore, 6 Grange-road, Upper Norwood, 8.E.

§Skyrme, Mrs. C. G. Baltimore, 6 Grange-road, Upper Norwood,
S.E

*Stape, R. E., D.Sc. University College, Gower-street, W.C.

{Small, Evan W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 48 Kedleston-road, Derby.

*Smallman, Raleigh 8. Eliot Lodge, Albemarle-road, Beckenham.

tSmedley, Miss Ida. 36 Russell-square, W.C.

{Smiles, Samuel. The Quarry, Sanderstead-road, Sanderstead,
Surrey.

uae ine M.A. St. Audrey’s Mill House, Thetford, Nor-

1k.

§Smith, Professor A. Micah. School of Mines, Ballarat, Victoria.

iSmith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. Department of Chemistry,
Columbia University, New York, U.S.A.

{Smith, Alfred. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.

{Smith, Andrew, Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto,
Canada.

*SmirH, Miss ANNIE Lorrain. 20 Talgarth-road, West Kensing-
ton, W.

§Smith, Arthur Elliot. 4 Willow Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Smith, C. Sidney-Sussex College, Cambridge.

*Smiru, Professor C. Micutr, C.J.E., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S.
Winsford, Kodaikanal, South India.

{Smith, Charles. 11 Winter-street, Sheffield.

§Smith, E. J. Grange House, Westgate Hill, Bradford.

*Smith, Miss E. M. 40 Owlstone-road, Newnham, Cambridge.

{Smith, E. Shrapnell. 7 Rosebery-avenue, E.C.

*Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.

§Smith, F. B. Care of A. Croxton Smith, Esq., Burlington House,
Wandle-road, Upper Tooting, S.W.

*Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.

§Smith, F. E. National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middle-
sex.

{Smith, Rev. Frederick. The Parsonage, South Queensferry.

{Saarn, G. Exmior, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1912), Professor of
Anatomy in the University of Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 81

Year of
Election.

1914.
1911.
1903.
1910.
1889.

1860.
1876.
1902.

1903.
1914.
1914.
1910.
1894.

1910.
1896.
1911.
1913.

1885.
1909.
1883.

1906.

1909.
1857.

1914.
1908.

1888.

1913.
1905.

1905.
1879.

1900.

1910.
1903.

1903.
1865.
1883.

1913.
1909.
1893.
1910.

§Smith, Mrs. G. Elliot. 4 Willow Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Smith, Geoffrey W., M.A., F.L.S. New College, Oxford.

*Smiru, Professor H. B. Lens, M.A., M.P. The University, Bristol.

§Smith, H. Bompas, M.A. Victoria University, Manchester.

*Smitu, Sir H. LuEwetiyn, K.C.B., M.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. (Pres. F,
1910.) Board of Trade, S.W.

*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 30 York-avenue, Hove.

*Smith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Smith, J. Lorrain, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the
University of Edinburgh.

*Smith, James. Pinewood, Crathes, Aberdeen.

§Smith, Miss L. Winsford, Kodaikanal, South India.

§Smith, Latimer Elliot. 4 Willow Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

§Smith, Samuel. Central Library, Sheffield.

§Smith, T. Walrond. Care of Frank Henderson, Esq., 19 Manor-
road, Sidcup, Kent.

{Smith, W. G., B.Sc., Ph.D. College of Agriculture, Edinburgh.

*Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. 104-122 City-road, H.C.

{Smith, W. Parnell. The Grammar School, Portsmouth.

{Smith, Walter Campbell. British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, 8.W.

*Smith, Watson. 34 Upper Park-road, Haverstock Hill, N.W.

{Smith, William. 218 Sherbrooke-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Smrruetts, Arruur, B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1907 ; Local Sec. 1890),
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leeds.

§Smurthwaite, Thomas E., F.R.A.I. 134 Mortimer-road, Kensal
Rise, N.W.

{Smylie, Hugh. 13 Donegall-square North, Belfast.

*SmyTuH, Joun, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M-Inst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

§Smyth, John, M.A., Ph.D. Teachers’ College, Carlton, Victoria.

§Smythe, J. A., Ph.D., D.Sc. 10 Queen’s-gardens, Benton, New-
castle-on-Tyne.

*Snapg, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D. Balholm, Lathom-road, South-
port.

*Snell, J. F. C., M.Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

tSoppy, F., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Aberdeen.

{Sollas, Miss I. B. J., B.Sc. Newnham College, Cambridge.

*Sotuas, W. J., M.A., Sc.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1900 ; Council, 1900-03), Professor of Geology in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. 173 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

*SOMERVILLE, W., D.Sc., F.L.S., Sibthorpian Professor of Rural
Economy in the University of Oxford. 121 Banbury-road,
Oxford.

*Sommerville, Duncan M. Y. The University, St. Andrews, N.B.

{Soulby, R. M. Sea Holm, Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lanca-
shire.

{Southall, Henry T. The Graig, Ross, Herefordshire.

*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.

{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.

§Sparke, Thomas Sparrow. 33 Birkby-crescent, Huddersfield.

{Sparling, Rev. J. W.,D.D. 159 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

{Spearman, C. Birnam, Guernsey.

1914, EF

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1912.
1914.
1914.

1910.
1864.

1894.
1864.
1864.

1909.
1854.

1888.
1903.

1883.
1914.

1894.
1909.

1900.
1913.

1911.
1899.

1898.

1907.
1910.
1900.

188].
1892.

1896.
1914.
1911.
1908.

1912.
1911.

1909.
1884.

1902.
1910.
1911.
1909.
1908.

§Speers, Adam, B.Sc., J.P. Holywood, Belfast.

§Spence, Mrs. C. J. The Old Hall, Cheadle, Cheshire.

§Spencrer, Professor W. Batpwin, C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
The University, Melbourne.

{Spicer, Rev. E. C. The Rectory, Waterstock, Oxford.

*Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.LS., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen-park, High-
bury, N.

{Spiers, A. H. Gresham’s School, Holt, Norfolk.

*SPILLER, JOHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s- road, Canonbury, N.

*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 6 Middle New-street, Fetter-
lane, B.C.

{Sprague, D. E. 76 Edmonton-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*SpraaueE, THomas Bonp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 29 Buckingham-
terrace, Edinburgh.

*Stacy, J. Sargeant. 164 Shoreditch, E.

{Stallworthy, Rev. George B. The Manse, Hindhead, Haslemere,
Surrey.

*Stanford, Edward, F.R.G.S. 12-14 Long-acre, W.C.

*Stanley, Hon. Sir Arthur, K.C.M.G. State Government House,
Melbourne.

*STANSFIELD, ALFRED, D.Sc. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

{Stansfield, Edgar. Mines Branch, Department of Mines, Ottawa,
Canada.

*STANSFIELD, Professor H., D.Sc. Hartley University College,
Southampton.

§Stanton, T. E., D.Sc., F.R.S. National Physical Laboratory, Ted-
dington, Middlesex.

§Srapr, Dr. Orro, F.R.S. Royal Gardens, Kew.

{Srarztine, HK. H., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I. 1909; Council, 1914- ),
Professor of Physiology in University College, London, W.C.

{Stather, J. W., F.G.S. Brookside, Newland Park, Hull.

Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.

§Staynes, Frank. 36-38 Silver-street, Leicester.

{Stead, F. B. 80 St. Mary’s-mansions, Paddington, W.

*Srnav, J. E., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1910.) Laboratory and Assay Office,
Middlesbrough.

{Stead, W. H. Beech-road, Reigate.

*STEBBING, Rev. Toomas R. R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge,
The Common, Tunbridge Wells.

*SrrpBine, W. P. D., F.G.S. 784 Lexham-gardens, W.

§SrrELE, Professor B. D. The University, Brisbane, Australia.

{Steele, L. J., M.LE.E. H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth.

{Steele, Lawrence Edward, M.A., M.R.I.A. 18 Crosthwaite-park
East, Kingstown, Co. Dublin.

§Steggall, J. E. A., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Dundee. Woodend, Perth-road, Dundee.

tStein, Sir Mare Aurel, K.C.LE., D.Sc., D.Litt. Merton College,
Oxford.

{Steinkopj, Max. 667 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

Ps ae W. Hudson. Low-Ville, Lewis County, New York,
U.S.A

Stephenson, G. Grianan, Glasnevin, Dublin.

*STEPHENSON, H. K.— Banner Cross Hall, Sheffield.

{Stern, Moritz. 241 Bristol-road, Birmingham.

tStethern, G. A. Fort Frances, Ontario, Canada.

*Steven, Alfred Ingram, M.A., B.Sc. 50 Onslow-road, Fairfield,
Liverpool.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 83

Election.

1906.
1900.

1880.
1905.
1909.
1875.
1901.

1901.
1911.

1913.
1914.
1914.

1914.
1876.

1904.
1906.

1901.

1883.
1898.

1899.
1874.

1905.
1895.

1908.
1878.

1883.
1903.

1910.
1887.
1888.
1905.
1881.

1905.
1908.
1914.

1906.
1883.
1898.

tStevens, Miss C.O. The Plain, Foxcombe Hill, Oxford.

{Srrvens, FrepEricx. (Local Sec. 1900.) Town Clerk’s Office,
Bradford.

*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, Blackpill, R.S.O.

§Stewart, A. F. 127 Isabella-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Stewart, David A., M.D. 407 Pritchard-avenue, Winnipeg,
Canada.

*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Junior Constitutional Club,
Piccadilly, W.

*Stewart, John Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. 2 Stow Park-crescent, New-
port, Monmouthshire.

*Stewart, Thomas. St. George’s-chambers, Cape Town.

{Stibbs, H. A. Portsea Island Gas Company, Commercial-road,
Portsmouth.

*Srites, WALTER. The University, Leeds.

§Stillwell, J. L.. M.Sc. University of Adelaide, South Australia.

§Stirling, Miss A. M. 48 Melbourne-street, North Adelaide,
South Australia.
§Srirtinc, KE. C., C.M.G., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physi-
ology in the University of Adelaide, South Australia.
{Srretine, Wiu1am, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Victoria University, Manchester.

{Stobbs, J. T. Dunelm, Basford Park, Stoke-on-Trent.

*Stobo, Mrs. Annie. Somerset House. Garelochhead, Dumbarton-
shire, N.B.

*Stobo, Thomas. Somerset House, Garelochhead, Dumbartonshire,

*Srocker, W. N., M.A. Brasenose College, Oxford.

*Stokes, Professor George J., M.A. 5 Fernhurst-villas, College-
road, Cork.

*Stone, Rev. F. J. Radley College, Abingdon.

{Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 3 Dr. Johnson’s- buildings,
Temple, E.C.

{Stoneman, Miss Bertha, D.Sc. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape
Province.

*Stoney, Miss Edith A. 20 Reynolds-close, Hampstead Way,

N.W.

*Stoney, Miss Florence A., M.D. 4 Nottingham-place, W.

*Stoney, G. Gerald, F.R.S. Oakley, Heaton-road, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

{Stopes, Mrs. 7 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

*Sroprs, Marie C., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.8. 14 Well-walk, Hampstead,
N.W.

§Storey, Gilbert. Department of Agriculture, Cairo.
*Storey, H. L. Bailrigg, Lancaster.
*Stothert, Perey K. Woolley Grange, Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.
*Stott, Clement H., F.G.S. P.O. Box 7, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.
{Srranan, AuBREY, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1904),
Director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. Geo-
logical Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.
tStrange, Harold F. P.O. Box 2527, Johannesburg.
*Stratton, F. J. M., M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
§Street, Mr. Justice. Judges’ Chambers, Supreme Court, Sydney,
N.S.W.
*Stromeyer, C. E. 9 Mount-street, Albert-square, Manchester.
§Strong, Henry J.,M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.
*Strong, W. M., M.D. 3 Champion-park, Denmark Hill, §.E.
FZ

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1887.
1887.

1876.
1872.
1885.
1909.
1879.
1891.

1902.
1898.
1911.
1887.

1908.
1913.
1914.
1911.
1911.
1903.
1905.
1911.

1897.
1914.
1914.
1913.
1914.
1887.

1870.
1913.
1887.

1913.
1896.
1902.

1902.
1906.
1914.
1903.
1885.

1914.
1908.

1910.
1912.
1904,
1913.

*Stroud, H., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Armstrong
College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Srroup, WiLL1aM, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the University
of Leeds. Care of Messrs. Barr & Stroud, Anniesland,
Glasgow.

*Stuart, Charles Maddock, M.A. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E. .

*Stuart, Rev. Canon Edward A.,M.A. The Precincts, Canterbury.

{Stump, Edward C. Malmesbury, Polefield, Blackley, Manchester.

{Stupart, R. F. Meteorological Service, Toronto, Canada.

*Styring, Robert. Brinkcliffe Tower, Sheffield.

*Sudborough, Professor J. J., Ph.D., D.Sc. University College of
Wales, Aberystwyth.

§Sully, H. T. Scottish Widows-buildings, Bristol.

§Sully, T. N. Avalon House, Queen’s-road, Weston-super-Mare.

tSummers, A. H., M.A. 16 St. Andrew’s-road, Southsea.

*Sumpner, W. E., D.Sc. Technical School, Suffolk-street, Bir-
mingham.

{Sutherland, Alexander. School House, Gersa, Watten, Caithness,

§Sutton, A.M. Bucklebury-place, Woolhampton, Berkshire.

§Sutton, Harvey, M.D., B.Sc. Trinity College, Parkville. Victoria.

§Sutton, Leonard, F.L.S. Hillside, Reading.

tSutton, W. L., F.LC. Hillcroft, Eaton, Norwich.

{Swallow, Rev. R. D., M.A. Chigwell School, Essex.

tSwan, Miss Mary E. Overhill, Warlingham, Surrey.

*Swann, Dr. W. F. G. Department of Terrestrial Magnetism,
Camegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

tSwanston, William, F.G.S. Mount Collyer Factory, Belfast.

§Sweet, George, F.G.5. The Close, Brunswick, Victoria.

§Sweet, Miss Georgina, D.Sc. The Close, Brunswick, Victoria.

{Swift, Richard H. 4839 St. Lawrence-avenue, Chicago.

§Swinburne, Hon. George. 139 Collins-street, Melbourne.

§SWINBURNE, JAMES, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street,
S.W

*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Swinnerton, H. H. 441 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

*Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, 64 Elm-
bourne-road, Tooting Common, S.W.

§Sykes, Godfrey G. Desert Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona, U.S.A.

*Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. 10 Headingley-avenue, Leeds.

*Sykes, Major P. Molesworth, C.M.G. Elcombs, Lyndhurst,
Hampshire.

*Sykes, Miss Ella C. Elcombs, Lyndhurst, Hampshire.

{Sykes, T. P., M.A. 4 Gathorne-street, Great Horton, Bradford.

§Syme, Mrs. D. York. Balwyn, Victoria.

§Symington, Howard W. Brooklands, Market Harborough.

{Symmveron, Jonnson, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H, 1903),
Professor of Anatomy in Queen’s University, Belfast.

§Symington, Miss N. Queen’s University, Belfast.

{Synnott, Nicholas J. Furness, Naas, Co. Kildare.

*Tait, John, M.D., D.Sc. 44 Viewforth-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Talbot, P. Amaury. Abbots Morton, Inkherrow, Worcestershire.
§Tallack, H. T. Clovelly, Birdhurst-road, South Croydon.
§Tangye, William. Westmere, Edgbaston Park-road, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 85

Year of
Election.

1903.
1892.

1908.
1861.

1902.
1913.
1914.
1908.

1887.
1881.
1906.
1884.
1882.
1914.

1913.
1860.
1906.
1884.
1894.
1901.
1858.

1885.

1906.
1910.
1879.

1913.

1892.
1883.
1883.
1882.

1871.

1906.
1906.
1870.

1891.
1903.

1913.
1910.
1899.
1902,
1883.
1904.
1891.

*Tanner, Miss Ellen G. Parkside, Corsham, Wilts.

*TansLEy, ArtHuR G., M.A., F.L.S. Grantchester, near
Cambridge.

{TaRueTon, Franots A., LL.D. 24 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin.

*Tarratt, Henry W. 25 Glyn-mansions, Addison Bridge, Ken-
sington, W.

tTate, Miss. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.

§Tattersall, W. M., D.Sc. The Museum, The University, Manchester.

*Taylor, C. Z. 216 Smith-street, Collingwood, Victoria.

tTaylor, Rev. Campbell, M.A. United Free Church Manse,
Wigtown, Scotland.

{Taylor, G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.

*Taylor, H. A. 12 Melbury-road, Kensington, W.

tTaylor, H. Dennis. Stancliffe, Mount-villas, York.

*Taytor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.

§Taylor, J. M., M.A. Public Service Board, 4 O’Connell-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.

{Taylor, J.S. The Corinthians, Warwick-road, Acock’s Green.

*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Street-place, E.C.

§Taylor, Miss M. R. Newstead, Blundellsands.

*Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.

*Taylor, W. W., M.A. 66 St. John’s-road, Oxford.

*Teacher, John H., M.B. 32 Kingsborough-gardens, Glasgow.

{TEaxz, a Pripain, M.A., F.R.S. 38 Cookridge-street,
Le

eds.

{Txatt, J. J. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1893 ; Council,
1894-1900, 1909- ). Athenzum Club, S.W.

*Teape, Rev. W. M., M.A. South Hylton Vicarage, Sunderland.

iTebb, W. Scott, M.A., M.D. 15 Finsbury-circus, E.C.

{Temple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. Solheim, Cumberland
Park, Acton, W.

§Tempxe, Sir R. C., Bart., C.I-E. (Pres. H, 1913.) The Nash,
Worcester.

*Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

tTetley, C.F. The Brewery, Leeds.

{Tetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

*THanzE, GEorGE Dancer, LL.D., Professor of Anatomy in Uni-
versity College, London, W.C.

{TuisELron-Dyger, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A., B.Sc.,
Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1888; Pres. K,
1895 ; Council, 1885-89, 1895-1900.) The Ferns, Witcombe,
Gloucester.

*THopay, D. The University, Manchester.

*Thoday, Mrs. M.G. 5 Lyme-park, Chinley, Stockport.

{Thom, Colonel Robert Wilson, J.P. Brooklands, Lord-street
West, Southport.

*Thomas, Miss Clara. Pencerrig, Builth.

*THomas, Miss Erumn N., B.Sc. 3 Downe-mansions, Gondar-

gardens, West Hampstead, N.W.

{Thomas, H. H., M.A., B.Se., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

*Thomas, H. Hamshaw. Botany School, Cambridge.

*Thomas, Mrs. J. W. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent.

*Thomas, Miss M. Beatrice. Girton College, Cambridge.

tThomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff.

*Thomas, William, F.R.G.S. Bryn-heulog, Merthyr Tydfil.

*Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 67 Victoria-road, Northampton.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1888. *Thompson, Claude M., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in

University College, Cardiff. 38 Park-place, Cardiff.

1885. {THompson, D’Arcy W., C.B., B.A. (Pres. D, 1911; Local Sec.,

1896.
1907.
1883.
1904.

1912.
1893.

1883.
1918.

1912), Professor of Zoology in University College, Dundee.
*Thompson, Edward P. Paulsmoss, Whitchurch, Salop.
*Thompson, Edwin. 25 Sefton-drive, Liverpool.

*Thompson, Francis. Eversley, Haling Park-road, Croydon.
*Thompson, G. R., B.Sc., Principal of and Professor of Mining
in the South African School of Mines, Johannesburg.
*Thompson, Rev. H. Percy. Kippington Vicarage, Sevenoaks.
*Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E. Tregarthen, Garland’s-road,

Leatherhead.

*Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 7 Heathfield-road, Croydon.
*Thompson, Mrs. Lilian Gilchrist. Kippington Vicarage, Sevenoaks.

1913. Thompson, Peter. 14 Rotten Park road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1876.
1913.
1876.

1883.
1896.

1911.
1912.
1912.
1894.

1913.
1912.
1909.
1906.
1914.

1890.

*Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.

*Thompson, Sidney Gilchrist. Kippington Vicarage, Sevenoaks.

tTuomeson, Sitvanus Furies, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
(Pres. G, 1907 ; Council, 1897-99, 1910- ), Principal of and
Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of London Tech-
nical College, Leonard-street, Finsbury, E.C.

*Thompson, T. H. Oldfield Lodge, Gray-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Tuompson, W. H., M.D., D.Sc. (Local Sec. 1908), King’s Professor
of Institutes of Medicine (Physiology) in Trinity College,
Dublin. 14 Hatch-street, Dublin.

tThompson, Mrs. W. H. 328 Assiniboine-avenue, Winnipeg.

{tThompson, William Bruce. Thornbank, Dundee.

§Thoms, Alexander. 7 Playfair-terrace, St. Andrews.

{Tuomson, Arruur, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in
the University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

tThomson, Arthur W., D.Sc. 23 Craven Hill-gardens, W.

§Thomson, D. C. ‘Courier’ Buildings, Dundee.

*Thomson, E. 22 Monument-avenue, Swampscott, Mass., U.S.A.

§Thomson, F. Ross, F.G.S. Hensill, Hawkhurst, Kent,

§Thomson, Hedley J., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 14 Leonard-place, High-
street, Kensington, W.

*THomsON, Professor J. ARTHUR, M.A., F.R.S.E. Castleton House,
Old Aberdeen.

1883. t{THomson, Sir J. J., O.M., M.A., Se.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT,

1901.
1889.

1902.
1891.

1871.

1874,

1909; Pres. A, 1896; Council, 1893-95), Professor of Ex-
perimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity
College, Cambridge.
{Thomson, Dr. J. T. Kilpatrick. 148 Norfolk-street, Glasgow.
*Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tinemcer, James Stuart. 29 Ladysmith-road, Edinburgh.
{Thomson, John. Westover, Mount Ephraim-road, Streatham,
S.W.

*THomson, JoHN Mittar, LL.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1895-1901),
Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London. 18 Lans-
downe-road, Holland Park, W.

§THomson, Wituiam, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.

1880. §fhomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.
1906. {Thornely, Miss A. M. M. Oaklands, Langham-road, Bowdon,

Cheshire.

Year

LIS? OF MEMBERS: 1914. 87

Election.
1905. *Thornely, Miss L. R. Nunclose, Grassendale, Liverpool.
1898. *THornton, W. M., D.So., Professor of Electrical Engineering in

1902.

1903.
1881.
1881.
1898.
1871.

1899.

the Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Thornycroft, Sir John I., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Eyot Villa, Chis-
wick Mall, W.

tThorp, Edward. 87 Southbank-road, Southport.

tThorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

*Thorp, Josiah. 24 Manville-road, New Brighton, Cheshire.

{THorrE, JocELYN Frevp, Ph.D., F.R.S. Sheffield University.

tTuorpr, Sir T. E., C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
(Pres. B, 1890; Council, 1886-92.) Whinfield, Salcombe, Devon.

§THRELFALL, Ricnuarp, M.A., F.R.S. Oakhurst, Church-road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1896. §THRirr, Wint1am Epwarp, M.A. (Local Sec. 1908), Professor of

1889.
1873.
1905.
1874.

1913.

Natural and Experimental Philosophy in the University of
Dublin. 80 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines, Dublin.
tThys, Colonel Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.
*TIDDEMAN, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 298 Woodstock-road, Oxford.
{Tietz, Heinrich, B.A.. Ph.D. South African College, Cape Town.
{Timpen, Sir Wituuam A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1888;
Council, 1898-1904.) The Oaks, Northwood, Middlesex.
iTilley, J. W. Field House, Harborne, Park-road, Birmingham.

1899. tTims, H. W. Marett, M.A., M.D., F..8., Professor of Biology

1914.

1902.
1905.

1911.
1900.

in the Royal Veterinary College. 11D Oxford and Cambridge-
mansions, Marylebone-road, N.W.

§Tims, Mrs. Marett. 11p Oxford and Cambridge-mansions, Maryle-
bone-road, N.W.

{Tipper, Charles J. R., B.Sc. 21 Greenside, Kendal.

tTippett, A. M., M.Inst.C.E. Cape Government Railways, Cape
Town.

§Tizard, Henry T. Oriel College, Oxford.

*Tocher, J. F., D.Se., F.C. Crown-mansions, 414 Union-street,
Aberdeen.

1912. §Todd, John A. The Nook, Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

1907.
1889.
1875.

1909.
1912.
1901.

1876.
1883.
1870.
1902.
1914,
1884.
1908.
1908.
1910.

1911.

{Todd, Professor J. L. MacDonald College, Quebec, Canada.

§Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool.

{tTorr, Charles Hawley. 35 Burlington-road, Sherwood, Not-
tingham.

{Tory, H.M. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

{Tosh, Elmslie. 11 Reform-street, Dundee.

tTownsend, J. S., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
University of Oxford. New College, Oxford.

*Trait, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1910),
Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Aberdeen.

{Trams A., M.D., LL.D., Provost of Trinity College, Dublin,
Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.

{Tramt, Wittiam A. Giant’s Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.

{Travers, Ernest J. Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.

*Trechmann, C. T. Hudworth Tower, Castle Eden, Durham.

{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.

§Treen, Rev. Henry M., B.Sc. Wicken, Soham, Cambridge.

{Tremain, Miss Caroline P., B.A. Alexandra College, Dublin.

§TREMBEARNE, Major A. J. N., M.A., LL.M. 105 Blackheath-park,
S.E.

§Tremearne, Mrs., LL.A., F.L.S. 105 Blackheath-park, S.E.

Year ot

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1914.
1887.

1903.
1908.
1905.

1871.
1902.
1884,

1914.
1887.

1914.
1898.

1913.
1885.
1847.
1905.
1912.
1901.

1914.
1893.
1913.
1894.
1905.

1886.

1863.

1910.
1890.
1907.

1886.
1899.
1907.
1865.

1911.
1883.

1912.
1884,

§Tremearne, Mrs. Ada J. Mandeville Hall, Clendon-road, Toorak:
Victoria.

*Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Lotherton Hall, Parlington, Aber-
ford, Leeds.

{Trenchard, Hugh. The Firs, Clay Hill, Enfield.

iTresilian, R. S. Cumnor, Eglington-road, Dublin.

tTrevor-Bartrys, A., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Stoner Hill, Peters-
field, Hants.

{TRmeN, Rouand, M.A., F.B.S., F.LS., F.Z.8. Glaslyn, Water-
den-road, Guildford.

[Tristram, Rev. J. F., M.A., B.Sc. 20 Chandos-road, Chorlton-
cum-Hardy, Manchester.

*Trotter, Alexander Pelham. 8 Richmond-terrace, Whitehall,
S.W.

§Trouton, Eric. The Rydings, Redington-road, Hampstead, N.W.

*TRouTON, FRepERtcK T., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1914;
Council, 1911-14.) The Rydings, Redington-road, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

§Trouton, Mrs. The Rydings, Redinston-road, Hampstead, N.W.

*Trow, ALBERT HowapgbD, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Uni-
versity College, Cardiff.

§Tschugaeff, Professor L. The University, Petrograd.

*Tubby, A. H., M.8., F.R.C.S. 68 Harley-street, W.

*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.

§Turmeau, Charles. Claremont, Victoria Park, Wavertree, Liverpool.

tTurnbull, John. City Chambers, Dundee.

§Turnbull, Robert, B.Sc. Department of Agriculture and Technical
Instruction, Dublin.

§Turmer, Dr. A. J. Wickham-terrace, Brisbane, Australia.

{Turner, Dawson, M.D., F.R.S.E. 37 George-square, Edinburgh.

§Turner, G. M. Kenilworth.

*TuRNER, H. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (GENERAL SECRE-
TARY, 1913- ; Pres. A, 1911), Professor of Astronomy in
the University of Oxford. University Observatory, Oxford.

Turner, Rev. Thomas. St. Saviour’s Vicarage, 50 Fitzroy-
street, W.

*TurNer, Tomas, M.Sc., A.R.S.M., F.I.C., Professor of Metallurgy
in the University of Birmingham. 75 Middleton Hall-road,
King’s Norton.

*ToRNER, Sir WituraM, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
(PrEsipENT, 1900; Pres. H, 1889, 1897), Principal of the
University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.

*Turner, W. E. S. The University, Sheffield.

*Turpin, G. 8., M.A., D.Sc. High School, Nottingham.

§Turron, A. E. H., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. (Council, 1908-12.)
Duart, Yelverton, South Devon.

*Twigg, G. H. 1 & 2 Ludgate-hill, Birmingham.

tTwisden, John R., M.A. 14 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

§Twyman, F. 75a Camden-road, N.W.

{Tytor, Sir Epwarp Burnett, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H.,
1884 ; Council, 1896-1902.) Linden, Wellington, Somerset.

*Tynpatt, A. M., M.Sc. The University, Bristol.

tTyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey-lane,
Stratford, H.

{Tyrrell, G. W. Geological Department, The University, Glasgow.

*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 89

Year of
Election.

1903.
1908.

1883.
1876.

1909.
1880.
1905.

1887.
1912.
1908.
1865.
1907.

1903.
1909.
1907.

1905.
1913.
1881.

1883.
1904,
1896.
1896.
1890.

1906.
1899.

1883.

1902.
1888.
1904.

1904.
1902.
1909,
1888.
1914.
1890.

1900.
1902.
1906.

1905

{Underwood, Captain J. C. 60 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.

§Unwin, Ernest Ewart, M.Sc. Grove House, Leighton Park School,
Reading.

§Unwin, John. Eastcliffe Lodge, Southport.

*Unwin, W.C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1892; Council,
1892-99.) 7 Palace Gate-mansions, Kensington, W

tUrquhart, C. 239 Smith-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Ussuer, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

tUttley, E. A., Electrical Inspector to the Rhodesian Government,
Bulawayo.

*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

{Valentine, C. W. 103 Magdalen-green, Dundee.

{Valera, Edward de. University College, Blackrock, Dublin.

*Varxey, 8. ALFRED. Arrow Works, Jackson-road, Holloway, N.

§Vartey, W. Mansercu, M.A., D.Sc.. Ph.D. Morningside, Katon-
crescent, Swansea.

{Varwell, H. B. Sittaford, West-avenue, Exeter.

*Vassall, H., M.A, The Priory, Repton, Burton-on-Trent,

§Vaughan, Arthur, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Lecturer in Geology at
the University of Oxford. The Museums, Oxford.

{Vaughan, E. L. Eton College, Windsor.

§Vaughton, T. A. Livery-street, Birmingham.

tVe.ey, V. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 8 Marlborough-place, St.
John’s Wood, N.W.

*Verney, Lady. Plis Rhoscolyn, Holyhead.

*Vernon, H. M., M.A., M.D. 5 Park Town, Oxford.

*Vernon, Thomas T. Shotwick Park, Chester.

*Vernon, Sir William, Bart. Shotwick Park, Chester.

*Villamil, Cae ewe R. de, R.E. Carlisle Lodge, Rickmans-
worth.

*Vincent, J. H.,M.A., D.Sc. L.C.C. Paddington Technical Institute,
Saltram-crescent, W.

*VincentT, Swatz, M.D., D.Sc. (Local Sec. 1909), Professor of
Physiology in the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
Canada.

*Vines, SypNEY Howarp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K,
1900 ; Council, 1894-97), Professor of Botany in the University
of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

{Vinycomb, T. B. Sinn Fein, Shooters Hill, S.E.

*Vogt, Mrs. 478 Uxbridge-road, W.

§Volterra, Professor Vito. Regia Universita, Rome.

§Wace, A. J. B. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

{tWaddell, Rev. C. H. The Vicarage, Grey Abbey, Co. Down.

{Wadge, Herbert W., M.D. 754 Logan-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Wadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.

§Wadsworth, Arthur. Commonwealth Parliament, Melbourne.

§Waaer, Harotp W. T., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1905.) Hendre,
Horsforth-lane, Far Headingley, Leeds.

{Wagstaff, C. J. L., B.A. Haberdashers’ School, Cricklewood, N.W.

{Wainwright, Joel. Finchwood, Marple Bridge, Stockport.

{Wakefield, Charles. Heslington House, York.

§Wakefield, Captain E. W. Stricklandgate House, Kendal.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1894.
1882.

1893.
1890.
1901.
1897.

1904,
1911.
1905.
1891.
1894.

1897.

1913.
1906.
1894.
1910.

1906.
1909.
1907.
1909.

1908.
1888.
1896.
1914.
1910.
1883.
1911.

1905.
1901.
1887.

1905.
1913.
1913.
1913.
1895.

1894.

1891.
1903.

1895.

1902.
1904.
1887.
1911.
1881.

tWatrorp, Epwin A., F.G.8. 21 West Bar, Banbury.

*Walkden, Samuel, F.R.Met.S. Care of George Lloyd, Esq.,
7 Coper’s Cope-road, Beckenham, Kent.

tWalker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Ulcombe-place, Maidstone, Kent.

tWalker, A. Tannett. The Elms, Weetwood, Leeds.

*Walker, Archibald, M.A., F.C. Newark Castle, Ayr, N.B.

*WaLKER, Sir Epmunp, C.V.O., D.C.L., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1897.
Canadian Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

§Walker, E. R. Nightingales, Adlington, Lancashire.

*WaLker, E. W. Atnuuy, M.A. University College, Oxford.

{Walker, Mrs. Ainley. 31 Holywell, Oxford.

{Walker, Frederick W. Tannett. Carr Manor, Meanwood, Leeds.

*WaLKER, G. T., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Red Roof,
Simla, India.

tWalker, George Blake, M.Inst.C.H. . Tankersley Grange, near
Barnsley.

§Walker, George W., F.R.S. 63 Lensfield-road, Cambridge.

tWalker, J. F. E. Gelson, B.A. 45 Bootham, York.

*WaLKER, JAMES, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*WALKER, JAMES, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1911), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Wester Coates-
road, Edinburgh.

§Walker, Dr. Jamieson. 37 Charnwood-street, Derby.

{Walker, Lewie D. Lieberose, Monteith-road, Cathcart, Glasgow.

{Walker, Philip F., F.R.G.S. 36 Prince’s-gardens, 8.W.

§ Walker, Mrs. R. 3 Riviera-terrace, Rushbrooke, Queenstown, Co.
Cork.

*Walker, Robert. Ormidale, Combe Down, Bath.

{Walker, Sydney F. 1 Bloomfield-crescent, Bath.

§ Walker, Colonel William Hall, M.P. Gateacre, Liverpool.

§Walkom, A. B. The University, Brisbane, Australia.

{Wall, G. P., F.G.S. 32 Collegiate-crescent, Sheffield.

tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.

§WatL, THomas F., D.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. The University,
Birmingham.

tWallace, R. W. 2 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.

{tWallace, William, M.A., M.D. 25 Newton-plaze, Glasgow.

*WauteR, Avaustus D., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1907.) 32 Grove
End-road, N.W.

§Waller, Mrs. 32 Grove End-road, N.W.

*Waller, J. C., B.A. 32 Grove End-road, N.W.

*Waller, Miss M. D., B.Sc., 32 Grove End-road, N.W.

*Waller, W. W., B.A., 32 Grove End-road, N.W.

tWatuts, HE. Waurre, F.S.S. Royal Sanitary Institute and Parkes
Museum, 90 Buckingham Palace-road, S.W.

*Watmistey, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.

§Walmsley, R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C.

tWalsh, W. T. H. Kent Education Committee, Caxton House,
Westminster, S.W.

{Watsineuam, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Merton Hall,
Thetford.

*Walter, Miss L. Edna. 38 Woodberry-grove, Finsbury Park, N.

*Walters, William, jun. Albert House, Newmarket.

{Wapp, Sir A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge.

{Ward, A. W. Town Hall, Portsmouth.

§ Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 9]

Year of
Election.

1914. §Ward, L. Keith, BE. Burnside-road, Kensington Park, South
Australia.

1914. §Ward, Thomas W. Endclifie Vale House, Sheffield.

1905. {Warlow, Dr. G. P. 15 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.

1884. *Warner, James D. 199 Baltio-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

1887. {WarRReEN, General Sir Cuartus, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G., F.B.S.,
F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1887.) Atheneum Club, S.W.

1913. §Warren, William Henry, LL.D., M.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Challis Pro-
fessor of Engineering in the University of Sydney, N.S.W.

1913. §Warton, Lieut.-Colonel R. G. St. Helier’s, Jersey.

1914. §$Waterhouse, G. A., B.Sc. Royal Mint. Sydney, N.S.W.

1875. *WareRHousE, Major-General J. Hurstmead, Eltham, Kent.

1905. {Watermeyer, F. S., Government Land Surveyor. P.O. Box 973,
Pretoria, South Africa.

1900. {Waterston, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. King’s College, Strand, W.C.

1909. §Watkinson, Professor W. H. The University, Liverpool.

1884, {Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.

1901. *Warson, ARNOLD Tuomas, F.L.S. Southwold, Tapton Crescent-
road, Sheffield.

1886. *Watson, C. J. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road, Acock’s Green,
Birmingham.

1909. §Wartson, Colonel Sir C. M., K.C.M.G., C.B., R.E., M.A. (Pres.
E, 1912.) 16 Wilton-crescent, S.W.

1906. {Watson, D. M.S. University College, London, W.C.

1909. {Watson, Ermest Ansley, B.Sc. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road,
Acock’s Green, Birmingham.

1892. {Watson, G., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Ruskin-close, Hampstead-way, N.W.

1885. {Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.

1906. *Watson, Henry Angus. 3 Museum-street, York.

1913. §Watson, John D., M.Inst.C.E. Tyburn, Birmingham.

1894. wrogae Professor W., D.Sc., F.R.S. 7 Upper Cheyne-row,

.W.

1879. *Watson, Witiiam Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Braystones House,
Beckermet, Cumberland.

1901. {Watt, Harry Anderson, M.P. Ardenslate House, Hunter’s Quay.
Argylshire.

1913. *Watt, James. 28 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.

1875. *Warts, Joan, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.

1873. *Warrs, W. MarsHatu, D.Sc. Shirley, Venner-road, Sydenham,
S.E

1883. *Watts, W. W., M.A., M.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1903;
Council, 1902-09), Professor of Geology in the Imperial
College of Science and Technology, London, S.W.

1870. § Watts, William, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Kenmore, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

1911. {Waxweiler, Professor E. Solvay Institute, Brussels.

1905. {Way, W. A., M.A. The College, Graaf Reinet, South Africa.

1907. {Webb, Wilfred Mark, F.L.S. The Hermitage, Hanwell, W.

1910. {Webster, Professor Arthur G. Worcester, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1910, {Webster, William, M.D. 1252 Portage-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada

1904. §Wedderburn, Ernest Maclagan, F.R.S.E. 7 Dean Park-crescent,
Edinburgh.

1903 tWeekes, R. W., A.M.Inst.C.E. 65 Hayes-road, Bromley, Kent.

1914. §Weir, G. North Mine, Broken Hill, New South Wales.

1890. *Wetss, Freperick Ernest, D.Sc., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1911; Council,
1914— ), Professor of Botany in the Victoria University,
Manchester.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of
Election.

1905.
1902.
1894.
1880.
1908.
1881.
1911.

1908.
1881.
1911.

1864,
1886.
1910.
1903.

1882.
1900.

1909.

1878.
1893.
1888.
1912.
1913.
1912.
1898.

1859.
1884,
1897.
1886.

1908.

1911.

1913.

1904.
1885.
1914.

1910.
1912.
1877.
1904.
1913.
1905.

1893.
1907.

tWelby, Miss F, A. Hamilton House, Hall-road, N.W.

Welch, R. J. 49 Lonsdale-street, Belfast.

Weld, Miss. 119 Iffley-road, Oxford.

*Weldon, Mrs. Merton Lea, Oxford.

Welland, Rev. C. N. Wood Park, Kingstown, Co. Dublin.

§Wellcome, Henry 8. Snow Hill-buildings, E.C.

{WELLDon, Right Rev. J. E. C., D.D. (Pres. L, 1911.) The Deanery,
Manchester.

tWellisch, ZH. M. 17 Park-street, Cambridge.

tWells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.

*WELSFORD, Miss E. J. Imperial College of Science, S.W.

Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.

*Were, Anthony Berwick. The Limes, Walland’s Park, Lewes.

*Wertheimer, Julius, D.Sc., B.A., F.1.C., Dean of the Faculty of
Engineering in the University of Bristol.

§ West, G.8., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of
Birmingham.

{Westaway, F. W. 1 Pemberley-crescent, Bedford.

*Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Fordingbridge, Salisbury.

tWethey, E. R., M.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Cunliffe-villas, Manningham,
Bradford.

{Wheeler, A. O., F.R.G.S. The Alpine Club of Canada, Sidney,
B.C., Canada.

*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.K. 4 Hope-park, Bromley, Kent.

*WuertuaM, W. C. D., M.A., F.R.S. Upwater Lodge, Cambridge.

{Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

§Whiddington, R., M.A., D.Sc. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tWhipp, E. M. 14 St. George’s-road, St. Anne’s-on-Sea.

*Whipple, F. J., M.A. Meteorological Office, South Kensington, 8. W.

See Rosert §. Scientific Instrument Company, Cam-
bridge.

*WHITAKER, WILLIAM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1895 ; Council,
1890-96.) 3 Campden-road, Croydon.

{Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,Canada.

tWhitcombe, George. ‘The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester.

tWarrn. A. Sinva. Clarendon Lodge, St. John’s-gardens, Holland
Park, W.

{White, Mrs. A. Silva. Clarendon Lodge, St. John’s-gardens,
Holland Park, W.

{White, Miss EK. L., M.A. Day Training College, Portsmouth.

§White, Mrs. E. W. Anelgate, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

tWhite, H. Lawrence, B.A. 33 Rossington-road, Sheffield.

*White, J. Martin. Balruddery, Dundee.

§White, Dr. Jean. Prickly Pear Experimental Station, Dulacca,
Queensland, Australia.

*White, Mrs. Jessie, D.Sc., B.A. 49 Gordon-mansions, W.C.

§White, R. G., M.Se. University College, Bangor, North Wales.

*White, William. 20 Hillersdon-avenue, Church-road, Barnes, 8.W.

tWauirenead, J. E. L., M.A. (LocalSec. 1904.) Guildhall, Cambridge.

{ Whitehouse, Richard H., M.Sc. Queen’s University, Belfast.

t{Whiteley, Miss M. A., D.Sc. Imperial College of Science and
Technology, S.W.

§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.I.C. Municipal Science and Tech-
nical School, West Bromwich.

*Whitley, E. 13 Linton-road, Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 93

Year of

Election.

1905. *Whitmee, H. B. P.O. Box 470, Durban, Natal.

1891. {Whitmell, Charles T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Hyde Park,
Leeds.

1897. tWurrraxer, E. T., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in
the University of Edinburgh.

1901. {Whitton, James. City Chambers, Glasgow.

1905. pales C., M.V.O. Solheim, Branstone-road, Kew Gardens,
urrey.

1913. §WroxsrrEeD, Rev. Pamir H., M.A. (Pres. F, 1913.) Childrey,
Wantage, Berkshire.

1912. §Wight, Dr. J. Sherman. 30 Schermerhorn-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

1889. *Winperrorce, L. R., M.A., Professor of Physics in the University
of Liverpool.

1914. §Wilcock, J. L. 9 East-road, Lancaster.

1887. *Witpz, Henry, D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge,
Cheshire.

1910. §Wilkins, C. F. Lower Division, Eastern Jumna Canal, Delhi.

1905. {Wilkins, R. F. Thatched House Club, St. James’s-street, S.W.

1904. {Wilkinson, Hon. Mrs. Dringhouses Manor, York.

1900. § Wilkinson, J. B. Holme-lane, Dudley Hill. Bradford.

1913. {Willcox, J. Edward, M.Inst.C.E. 27 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1903. ¢Willett, John E. 3 Park-road, Southport.

1904. *Williams, Miss Antonia. 6 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

1905. §Williams, Gardner F. 2201 R-street, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

1883. {Williams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Sheering Rectory, Harlow, Essex.

1861. *Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea.

1875. *Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.

1891. §Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. Bloomfield, Branksome Park,
Bournemouth.

1883. *Williams, Mrs. J. Davies. 5 Chepstow-mansions, Bayswater, W.

1888. *Williams, Miss Katharine T. Llandaff House, Pembroke-vale,
Clifton, Bristol.

1901. *Williams, Miss Mary. 6 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

1891. {Williams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.

1883. {Williams, T. H. 27 Water-street, Liverpool.

1877. *Wriurams, W. Carterton, F.C.S. Broomgrove, Goring-on-Thames.

1906. t{Williams, W. F. Lobb. 32 Lowndes-street, 8.W.

1857. {Witt1amson, Brengamin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. ‘Trinity College,
Dublin.

1894, *Williamson, Mrs. Janora. 18 Rosebery-gardens, Crouch End, N.

1910. {Williamson, K. B., Central Provinces, India. Care of Messrs,
Grindlay & Co., 54 Parliament-street, S.W.

1913. {Willink, H. G. Hillfields, Burghfield, Mortimer, Berkshire.

1895. t{WiumwK, W. (Local Sec. 1896.) _ 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.

1895. {Wr1uus, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S. Jardin Botanico, Rio de Janeiro.

1896. tWiturson, J. S. (Local Sec. 1897.) Toronto, Canada.

1913. *Wills, L. J., M.A., F.G.S. The University, Birmingham.

1899. §Willson, George. Lendarac, Sedlescombe-road, St. Leonards-on-
Sea.

1899. §Willson, Mrs.George. Lendarac, Sedlescombe-road, St. Leonards-
on-Sea.

1913. {Wilmore, Albert, D.Sc., F.G.S. Fernbank, Colne.

1911. *Wilmott, A. J., B.A. Natural History Museum, S.W.

1911. $Wilsmore, Professor N. T. M., D.Sc. The University, Perth,

Western Australia.

Year of
Election

1911.
1908.
1901.
1878.

1905.
1907.
1903.
1894.
1904.
1912.
1904.
1912.
1900.
1895.
1914.

1901.

1902.
1879.
1910.
1913.

1908.

1879.
1901.

1908.

1909.
1847.
1883.
1892.

1861.
1887.
1909.
1910.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

§Wilsmore, Mrs. The University, Perth, Western Australia.

§Wilson, Miss. Glenfield, Deighton, Huddersfield.

{Wilson, A. Belvoir Park, Newtownbreda, Co. Down.

{Wilson, Professor Alexander S., M.A., B.Sc. United Free Church
Manse, North Queensferry.

ftWilson, A. W. P.O. Box 24, Langlaagte, South Africa.

§Wilson, A. W. Low Slack, Queen’s-road, Kendal.

{Wilson, C. T. R., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge.

*Wilson, Charles J., F.1.C., F.C.S. 14Suffolk-street, Pall Mall,S.W.

§Wilson, Charles John, F.R.G.S. Deanfield, Hawick, Scotland.

{Wilson, David, M.A., D.Sc. Carbeth, Killearn, N.B.

§Wilson, David, M.D. Glenfield, Deighton, Huddersfield.

*Wilson, David Alec. 1 Broomfield-road, Ayr.

*Wilson, Duncan R. 44 Whitehall-court, S.W.

{tWilson, Dr. Gregg. Queen’s University, Belfast.

§Wilson, H. C. Department of Agriculture, Research Station,
Werribee, Victoria.

tWilson, Harold A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
the Rice Institute, Houston, Texas.

*Wilson, Harry, F.I.C. 32 Westwood-road, Southampton.

tWilson, Henry J., M.P. Osgathorpe Hills, Sheffield.

*Wilson, J. 8. 29 Denbigh-street, S.W.

§Wilson, Professor J. T., M.B., F.R.S. University of Sydney,
Sydney, N.S.W.

§Wilson, Professor James, M.A., B.Sc. 40 St. Kevin’s-park, Dartry-
road, Dublin.

ftWilson, John Wycliffe. Easthill, East Bank-road, Sheffield.

*Wilson, Joseph, F.R.M.S8. The Hawthorns, 3 West Park-road,
Kew Gardens, Surrey.

*Wilson, Malcolm, D.Sc., F.L.S., Lecturer in Mycology and Bac-
teriology in the University of Edinburgh. Royal Botanic
Gardens, Edinburgh.

§Wilson, R. A. Hinton, Londonderry.

*Wilson, Rev. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.

tWilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

{Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

tWilson, Thomas Bright. Ghyllside, Wells-road, Ilkley, Yorkshire.

§Wilson, W. Battlehillock, Kildrummy, Mossat, Aberdeenshire.

{Wilson, W. Murray. 29 South Drive, Harrogate.

{Wilton, T. R., M.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 18 Westminster-chambers,
Crosshall-street, Liverpool.

. §Wimperis, H. E., M.A. 16 Reynolds-close, Hampstead-way,
N.W.

. {Winder, B. W. Ceylon House, Sheffield.
. [Winpxe, Sir Bertram C. A., M.A., M.D., D.Se., F.R.S., President

of University College, Cork.

. *Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1864.) 11 Caven-

dish-crescent, Bath. |

. §Wiseman, J. G., F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. Stranraer, St. Peter’s-road,

St. Margaret’s-on-Thames.

. §Witkiewicz, S. Care of Dr. Malinowski, London School of

Economics, Clare Market, W.C.

. t{Wohlgemuth, Dr. A. 44 Church-crescent, Muswell Hill, N.
. [Worre-Barry, Sir Joun, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,

1898; Council, 1899-1903, 1909-10.) Delahay House,
15 Chelsea Embankment, S.W.

Year of
Election
1905.
1863.
1875.
1878.

1908.
1883.
1912.
1904,

1899.
1901.
1899.

1896.

1911.
1912.
1906.

1904,
1904,

1887.

1869.
1912.

1886.
1866.

1894.

1909.
1908.
1890.

1883.
1914.

1912.
1908.
1863.
1901.
1904.
1908.

1906.
1910.
1906.
1914.
1883.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1914. 95

tWood, A., jun. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.

*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, Manchester.

tWoop, Sir H. Truman, M.A. Royal Society of Arts, John-
street, Adelphi, W.C.; and Prince Edward’s-mansions,
Bayswater, W.

{Wood, Sir Henry J. 4 Elsworthy-road, N.W.

*Wood, J. H. 21 Westhourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire.

§Wood, John K. 304 Blackness-road, Dundee.

*Woop, T. B., M.A. (Pres. M, 1913), Professor of Agriculture in
the University of Cambridge. Caius College, Cambridge.

*Wood, W. Hoffman. Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire.

*Wood, William James, F.S.A.(Scot.). 266 George-street, Glasgow.

*Woodcock, Mrs. A. Care of Messrs. Stilwell & Harley, 4 St.
James’-street, Dover.

*WoopHEaD, Professor G. Sims, M.D. Pathological Laboratory,
Cambridge.

§Woodhead, T. W., Ph.D., F.L.S. Technical College, Huddersfield.

*Wood-Jones, F., D.Sc. New Selma, Epsom, Surrey.

*Woodland, Dr. W. N. F. Zoological Department, The Muir
Central College, Allahabad, United Provinces, India.

§Woodrow, John. Berryknowe, Meikleriggs, Paisley.

{Woods, Henry, M.A. Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge.

Woops, SaMuEL. 1 Drapers’-gardens, Throgmorton-street, E.C.

*WoODWARD, ARTHUR SmitH. LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1909; Council, 1903-10), Keeper of the Department of
Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, S.W.

*Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. The Lindens, St. Mary’s-road,
Harborne, Birmingham.

{Woodward, Mrs. C. J. The Lindens, St. Mary’s-road, Harborne,
Birmingham.

tWoodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, S.W.

tWoopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1887;
Council, 1887-94.) 13 Arundel-gardens, Notting Hill, W

*Woodward, John Harold. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster,

S.W.

*Woodward, Robert 8. Carnegie Institution, Washington, U.S.A.

§Wootacort, Davip, D.Sc., F.G.S. 8 The Oaks West, Sunderland.

*Woollecombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.I.Inst., F.R.C.Inst.,
F.R.G.S., F.R.E.S., F.S.S., M.R.I.A. 14 Waterloo-road,
Dublin.

*Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.

§Woolnough, Professor W. $., D.Sc. University of Western
Australia, Perth. Western Australia.

*Wordie, James M., B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tWorsdell, W. C. 2 Woodside, Bathford, Bath.

*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.

tWorth, J. T. Oakenrod Mount, Rochdale.

t{Worrntneton, A. M., C.B., F.R.S. 5 Louisa-terrace, Exmouth.

*Worthington, James H., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. The Observa-
tory, Four-Marks, Alton.

tWraaasz, R. H. Vernon. York.

tWrench, E.G. Park Lodge, Baslow, Derbyshire.

tWright, Sir A. E., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 6 Park-crescent, W.

§Wright, A. M. Islington, Christchurch, New Zealand.

*Wright, Rev. Arthur, D.D. Queens’ College, Cambridge.

Year of
Election

1909.
1914.

1874.
1884.

1904.
1911.
1903.
1871.

1902.
1901.
1902.
1911.
1899.

1901.

1894.
1913.

1905.
1909.
1904.
1891.
1905.

1909.
1913.
1894.

1909.
1901.
1885.
1909.
1901.
1883.

1887.
1911.
1907.

1903.

. BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

tWright, C.S., B.A. Caius College, Cambridge.

§Wright, Gilbert. Agricultural Department, The University,
Sydney, N.S.W.

tWright, Joseph, F.G.S. 4 Alfred-street, Belfast.

tWricut, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. Red Gables, Head-
ington Hill, Oxford.

{Wright, R. T. Goldieslie, Trumpington, Cambridge

tWright, W. B., B.A., F.G.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

tWright, William. The University, Birmingham.

tWricutson, Sir THomas, Bart., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Neasham
Hall, Darlington.

tWyatt, G.H. 1 Maurice-road, St. Andrew’s Park, Bristol.

tWylie, Alexander. Kirkfield, Johnstone, N.B.

fWylie, John. 2 Mafeking-villas, Whitehead, Belfast.

tWyllie, W. L., R.A. Tower House, Tower-street, Portsmouth.

tWynne, W. P., D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1913), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Sheffield. 17 Taptonville-
road, Sheffield.

*Yapp, R. H., M.A., Professor of Botany in Queen’s College,
Belfast.

*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.

*Yarrow, A. F. Campsie Dene, Blanefield, Stirlingshire.

*Vates, H. James, F.C.S., M.I.Mech.E. Redcroft, Four Oaks,
Warwickshire.

tYerbury, Colonel. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, S.W.

§Young, Professor A. H. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

{Young, Alfred. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

§Younc, AtrreD C., F.C.S. 17 Vicar’s-hill, Lewisham, S.E.

fYoung, Professor Andrew, M.A., B.Sc. South African College,
Cape Town.

tYoung, F. A. 615 Notre Dame-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Young, Francis Chisholm. La Nonette de la Forét, Geneva.

*Younc, GrorGE, Ph.D. 46 Church-crescent, Church End,
Finchley, N.

§Young, Herbert, M.A., B.C.L., F.R.G.S. Arnprior, Ealing, W.

*Young, John. 2 Montague-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Youne, R. Bruce, M.A., M.B. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.

{Young, R. G. University of North Dakota, North Chautauqua,
North Dakota, U.S.A.

tYoung, Robert M., B.A. Rathvarna, Belfast.

*Youna, Sypnny, D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1904), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Dublin. 12 Raglan-road,
Dublin.

Young, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, E.C.

{Young, T. J. College of Agriculture, Holmes Chapel, Cheshire.

*YounG, Wittiam Henry, M.A., Sc.D., Hon. Dr. és Se. Math.,
F.R.S., Professor of the Philosophy and History of Mathe-
matics in the University of Liverpool. La Nonette de la
Forét, Geneva, Switzerland.

fYoxall, Sir J. H., M.P. 67 Russell-square, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS: ADELAIDE, 1914. 97

LIST OF MEMBERS WHO JOINED IN AUSTRALIA,
1914.

* indicates Life Members.
§ indicates Old Annual Members, and New Annual Members
who joined for more than one centre.

ADELAIDE.

Adams, J. R. G. Public Library, Adelaide.
*Alexander, W. B., M.A. Western Australian Museum, Perth, West Australia.
Angel, F. M. 34 Fullarton-road, Parkside, South Australia.

Angel, Sidney. Commercial Bank, Norwood, South Australia.

Angus, W., M.P. Parliament House, South Australia.

Ashby, Edwin. Wittunga, Blackwood, South Australia.

Baker, W. H. Glen Osmond-road, Parkside, South Australia.
Bakewell, Leonard W. Fitzroy-terrace, Prospect, South Australia.
Barker, John. 61 Currie-street, Adelaide.
Barlow, Wm., C.M.G., LL.D. Lefevre-terrace, North Adelaide.
Basedow, B. Horndale Vineyard, O'Halloran Hill, South Australia.
Basedow, Herbert, M.A., M.D., B.Sc., F.G.S. Pirie-street, Kent Town,
South Australia.
Benham, Miss E. I., B.Se. Victoria-avenue, Unley Park, South Australia.
Benham, E. W., LL.B. Unity-chambers, Currie-street, Adelaide.
Bevan, Rev. Llewellyn D., LL.B., B.D. Parkin College, Kent Town, South
Australia.
Bevan, Mrs. Ll. D. Parkin College, Kent Town, South Australia.
Birks, Mrs. Napier. Park-terrace, Parkside, South Australia.
Bollen, Percival, M.D. Semaphore, South Australia.
Bonython, The Hon. Sir J. Langdon. Carclew, North Adelaide.
Booth, Dr. James. 47 Strangways-terrace, North Adelaide.
Booth, S. Russell, B.A. East-terrace, Adelaide.
Bowman, J. Yateena, First Avenue, Joslin, South Australia.
Bowman, Mrs. T. R. Waverley, South-terrace, Adelaide.
Brand, Major C.H. Military Headquarters, West Wayville, South Australia.
Bright, Rev. Chas. William-street, Norwood, South Australia.
Brookman, George. Brookman’s-building, Grenfell-street, Adelaide.
Brown, H. Y. L. 286. Ward-street, North Adelaide. ]
Brown, Mrs. H. Y. L. 286 Ward-street, North Adelaide.
Brown, Professor William Jethro, LL.D., D.Litt. University, Adelaide.
Browne, J. W., M.B., B.Ch. Hutt-street, Adelaide.
Browne, Bro. P. Paringa Hall, Brighton-road, Glenelg.
Brummitt, Dr. R. Northcote-terrace, Medindie, South Australia.
Buchanan, Mr. Justice. Supreme Court, Adelaide.
Bull, Lionel B. Adelaide Hospital, South Australia.
§Bundey, Miss E. M. Molesworth-street, North Adelaide.
Burford, W. Sea Wall, Glenelg, South Australia.
Burgess, Rev. Dr. Charles-street, Norwood, South Australia.
Burgess, Miss M. 112 South-terrace, Adelaide.
Burston, Dr. 8. R. Henley Beach-road, Mile End, South Australia.

Chapman, Professor R. W., M.A., B.C.E. University of Adelaide, Burn
side, South Australia.
Chapple, Frederic, B.A., B.Sc. Kent Town, South Australia.
Chapple, Dr. Phoebe. Kent Town, South Australia.
Clark, E. V., B.Sc. Knightsbridge, South Australia.
1914, ey

98 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Cleland, E. E. Church-terrace, Walkerville, South Australia.

Connor, J. D., B.Sc. 24 Barnard-street, North Adelaide.
§Cooke, William Ternant, D.Sc. Fourth-avenue, East Adelaide.

Corbin, H. H., B.Sc. University, Adelaide.

Corbin, John, M.R.C.8., L.R.C.P. . Brougham-place, North Adelaide.

Corpe, J. R. Kingston-terrace, North Adelaide.

Corpe, Mrs. J. R. Kingston-terrace, North Adelaide.

Counter, E. J., D.D.S. 20 North-terrace, Adelaide.

Crespigny, C. T. Champion de, M.D. 132 Strangways-terrace, North Adelaide.

Denny, W. J., M.P. South-terrace, Adelaide.
Downer, Frank H. Citizens’-buildings, King William-street, Adelaide.
Downer, Mrs. F. H. Citizens’-buildings, King William-street, Adelaide.
Downer, Hon. Sir John, K.C.M.G., K.C., M.L.C. Pennington-terrace, North
Adelaide.
§Duffield, D. W. 13 Cowra-chambers, Grenfell-street, Adelaide.
Duffield, Mrs. D. W. Sea Wall, Glenelg, South Australia.
Duncan-Hughes, J. G., M.A. 20 Robe-terrace, Medindie, South Australia.

Ellery, T. Geo. Town Hall, Adelaide.

Finlayson, Miss. Sea Wall, Glenelg, South Australia.

Finlayson, Mrs. L. M. Sea Wall, Glenelg, South Australia.
Fisher, C. H. The Avenue, Medindie, South Australia.

Fry, H. Kenneth, B.Sc., M.B. Parade, Norwood, South Australia.
Fuller, Wm. University of Adelaide, South Australia.

Gartrell, H. W., M.A., B.Sc. Henry-street, Payneham, South Australia.

Gault, A. H., M.D. Lower Mitcham, South Australia.

Gibson, Jas. A. Messrs. Cowell Bros., Victoria-square, Adelaide.

Gifford, Rev. A. E. 25 Stanley-street, North Adelaide.

Giles, F. W. Royal Geographical Society, North-terrace, Adelaide.

Giles, Mrs. T. O’H. Pier-street, Glenelg.

Gill, Thos., 1.8.0. The Treasury, Adelaide.

Gill, Walter. Malvern, South Australia.

Goodman, W. G. T., M.I.C.E., M.I.E.E. Strangways-terrace, North Adelaide.
§Grant, Kerr, M.Sc., Professor of Physics in the University of Adelaide.
§Grasby, W. C. C/o G. J. W. Grasby, Grenfell-street, Adelaide.

Hackett, W. Champion. 54 Flinders-street, Kent Town, South Australia.
Halcomb, G. W., B.A. Eagle-chambers, Pirie-street, Adelaide.

Halley, Dr. Gertrude. Wellington-road, Maylands, South Australia.
§Happell, Mrs. C/o Miss E. M. Bundey, Molesworth-street, North Adelaide.
Hargrave, A. A. 144 Barton-terrace, North Adelaide.

Hargrave, C. T. Kermode-street, North Adelaide.

Hargreaves, W. A., B.Sc. Giles-street, Rose Park East, South Australia.
Haslam, J. A., B.Sc. Prince Alfred College, Adelaide.

Hawker, E. W., M.A., LL.B. East Bungaree, Clare, South Australia.
Hawker, Mrs. E. W. East Bungaree, Clare, South Australia.

Hawkes, J. H. M. Messrs. D. & J. Fowler, Adelaide.

Hawkes, R. J. E. 8S. & A. Bank, King William-street, Adelaide.

Hodge, Charles R., Registrar, University of Adelaide.

Holtze, Maurice William, I.8.0., F.L.S., Director Botanical Gardens, Adelaide.
Hone, F. §., B.A., M.B. Semaphore, South Australia.

Hosking, J. W. Parade, Norwood, South Australia.

Howard, Rev. Henry. Pirie-street, Adelaide.

Howchin, Walter. University of Adelaide.

§Hughes, Herbert W. Adelaide Club, Adelaide.

Hussey, Geo. F., J.P. 106 Currie-street, Adelaide.

lliffe, J. D., B.Sc. Prince Alfred College, Adelaide.
Ising, H. H. Upper Sturt, South Australia.

LIST OF MEMBERS: ADELAIDE, 1914. 99

Jack, R. Lockhart, B.E. Pembroke-street, Kensington Park, South Australia.
Jacob, Miss C. Tormore House, North Adelaide.

Jeffries, Rev. Wm. Lefevre-terrace, North Adelaide.

Johns, Fred. Houghton Lodge, Rose Park, South Australia.

Johnson, Dr. E. Angas. 295 Pirie-street, Adelaide.

Jones, J. W., 1.8.0. Edwin-terrace, Gilberton, South Australia.

Killicoat, Mrs. P. L. Fourth-avenue, St. Peter’s, South Australia.
Knill, E. Robsart-street, Parkside, South Australia.

Laurie, D. F. Department of Agriculture, Victoria-square, Adelaide.
Lewis, Hon. John. Bagot, Shakes, & Lewis, King William-street, Adelaide.
Lowrie, William, M.A. Battunga, via Echunga, South Australia.

McCulloch, A. Buxton-street, North Adelaide.
McRitchie, G. Carlisle-road, Westbourne Park, South Australia.
Magarey, W. A., LL.B. Avenue-road, North Adelaide.
Makin, Guy. Palmer-place, North Adelaide.
Makin, Mrs. Louisa. Palmer-place, North Adelaide.
Marten, Alexander. Mr. Barr Smith’s Office, Currie-street, Adelaide.
Marten, Dr. Humphrey. Brougham-place, North Adelaide.
Matthews, E. H., Postmaster, Norwood, South Australia.
§Maughan, M. M., B.A., Director of Education. Parkside, South Australia.
Mayo, Dr. Helen M. 47 Melbourne-street, North Adelaide.
§Messent, A. E. The Observatory, Adelaide.
Minchin, A. C. Zoological Gardens, Adelaide.
§Mitchell, Professor William, M.A., D.Sc. The University, Adelaide.
Moore, H. P. South Australian Co., North-terrace, Adelaide.
Mossop, Mr. G. C. Underdale, South Australia.
Murray, His Honour Mr. Justice. Murray Park, Magill, South Australia.
Murray, Miss M. T. Murray Park, Magill, South Australia.

Naylor, Professor Henry Darnley, M.A. University, Adelaide.
Newbold, B. W. Wauraltee, South Australia,

Newland, Dr. H. 8. North-terrace, South Australia.

Newland, Simpson. Avenue-road, North Adelaide.

Niesche, Dr. F. W. Malvern House, Wakefield-street, Adelaide.

Osborn, Professor T. G. B., M.A. The University, Adelaide.

Parkhouse, T. A. Woodville, South Australia.

Parsons, H. Angas, LL.B. East-terrace, Adelaide.

Patchell, Miss M. E., B.A., B.Se. Methodist Ladies’ College, Wayville,
South Australia.

Paterson, Eric. Glenora, South-terrace, South Australia.

Perkins, Professor A. J. Department of Agriculture, Adelaide.

Phillipps, W. Herbert. Edwin-terrace, Gilberton, South Australia.

Piper, A. W. Arden, Kent Town, South Australia.

Place, Francis E. Department of Agriculture, Adelaide.

Pooler, Mrs. E. M. Salisbury-terrace, Collinswood, South Australia.

Pope, William. Strangways-terrace, North Adelaide.

Poulton, Benjamin, M.D. North-terrace, Adelaide.

Pulleine, Dr. Robert. North-terrace, Adelaide.

Purnell, H. Rutherford. 28 Park-terrace, Parkside, South Australia.

Quinn, Geo. Department of Agriculture, Adelaide.

Ralph, A. M. Messrs. G. A. Bremer & Co., Leigh-street, Adelaide.
Ray, Dr. William. 3 North-terrace, Adelaide.
Rennie, Professor Edward Henry, M.A., D.Sc. University, Adelaide.
Richardson, J. R., M.I.C.E. Town Hall, Adelaide.
Roach, B, $8. Education Department, Flinders-street, Adelaide.
Rogers, Dr. R. 8. 83 Flinders-street, Adelaide.

100 BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

$Ross, Professor Alexander David, M.A., D.Sc. ‘University of Western Australia,
Perth, Western Australia.
Russell, Dr. E. A. H. Unley-road, Unley, South Australia.
Russell, Dr. H. H. E. Unley-road, Unley, South Australia.
Rutt, Walter. Pembroke-street, College Park, South Australia.

Scales, C. A. 10 Robe-terrace, Medindie, South Australia.

Scammell, Luther. F. H. Faulding & Co., King William-street, Adelaide.
Scott, R. P. Bank of Adelaide, Hindmarsh, South Australia.

Searle, Mrs. A. J. 19 Park-terrace, Gilberton, South Australia.

Selway, W. H. Frederick-street, Gilberton, South Australia.

Shaw, Percy Wm., M.I.C.E. 179 Barton-terrace W., North Adelaide.
Shierlaw, H. A., LL.B. Eton-street, Malvern, South Australia.

Siebert, Miss G. Marlborough-street, College Park, South Australia.
Simpson, A. A. East-terrace, Adelaide, South Australia.

Simpson, E. N. 29 Dequetteville-terrace, Kent Town, South Australia.
Smeaton, Dr. Bronte. North-terrace, Adelaide.

Smeaton, Mrs. Bronte. North-terrace, Adelaide.

Smith, A. J. Box 341, G.P.O., Adelaide.

Smith, T. E. Barr. Birksgate, Glen Osmond, South Australia.

Smith, Mrs. T. E. Barr. Birksgate, Glen Osmond, South Australia.
Smith, W. Ramsay, D.Sc., M.D. Belair, South Australia.

Smyth, C. E. Owen, 1.8.0. Public Buildings, Adelaide.

Sowden, W. J. Parkside Kast, Eastwood, South Australia.

Stanley, Malcolm 8. C/o Stone & Siddeley, Medical-chambers, Hindmarsh-

square, Adelaide.

Stewart, Miss Alison. Northcote-terrace, Medindie, South Australia.
Stewart, Graham. Northcote-terrace, Medindie, South Australia.
Stewart, Mrs. Graham. Northcote-terrace, Medindie, South Australia,
§Stillwell, J. L., M.Se. University, Adelaide.
§Stirling, Miss A. M. 48 Melbourne-street, North Adelaide.
§Stirling, Professor E. C., C.M.G., F.R.S. University, Adelaide.

Stirling, Mrs. E. C. 48 Melbourne-street, North Adelaide.

Stirling, Sir J. L., K.C.M.G., LL.B. Adelaide Club, North-terrace, Adelaide.
Stokes, H. G. 116 Hill-street, North Adelaide.

Stow, Percival. Kent-street, Glenelg, South Australia.

Stow, Mrs. Percival. Kent-street, Glenelg, South Australia.

Stuckey, J. J., M.A. Salisbury-chambers, King William-street, Adelaide.
Summers, W. L. Ministry of Agriculture, Victoria-square, Adelaide.

Taylor, H. 8. Pioneer Office, Renmark, South Australia.

Thomas, Mrs. Davies. Blackwood, South Australia.

Thornber, Miss E. Unley Park, South Australia.

Tilley, C. E. Salisbury-street, North Unley, South Australia.

Torr, William George, LL.D. Way Cottage, Brighton, South Australia.
Turner, Dudley E. 8 Stanley-street, North Adelaide.

Turner, Mrs. Dudley E. 8 Stanley-street, North Adelaide.

Verco, Joseph Cooke, M.D. North-terrace, Adelaide.

Wainwright, E. H., B.Sc. Seafield Tower, Glenelg, South Australia.

Waite, E. R. Museum, Adelaide.

Waite, Peter. Urrbrz, Glen Osmond, South Australia.

Ward, J. F., M.A. Alexander-avenue, Rose Park, South Australia.
§Ward, L. Keith, B.E. Burnside-road, Kensington Park, South Australia.

Ware, W. L. King William-street, Adelaide.

Waters, Dr. F. W. 107 South-terrace, Adelaide.

Watson, Professor Archibald, M.D., F.R.C.S. University, Adelaide.
§Weir, G. North Mine, Broken Hill, New South Wales.

Wells, A. C. Salisbury-terrace, Collinswood, South Australia.

Wells, Mrs. A. C. Salisbury-terrace, Collinswood, South Australia.

Wholohan, F. F. Alexander-avenue, Rose Park, South Australia.

Wigg, Dr, H. H. Lefevre-terrace, North Adelaide,

LIST OF MEMBERS: ADELAIDE, 1914. 101

Wigg, R. M. Lefevre-terrace, North Adelaide.
Wilson, Right Rev. Bishop Cecil. The Rectory, Walkerville, South Australia.
Winter, Rev. W. H., B.D. Glen Osmond, South Australia.
§Woolnough, Professor W. S., D.Sc. University of Western Australia, Perth,
Western Australia.
Wragge, Rey. Walter. St. Barnabas College, North Adelaide.

MELBOURNE.
Abbott, David. Australian Club, William-street, City.
§Abbott, Hon. R. H.S. Rowan-street, Bendigo.
Abbott, W. 33 Queen’s-road.
A’Beckett, Mrs. T. Lansdowne-road, East St. Kilda.
Aberdeen, J. 217 Grattan-street, Carlton.
Adam, G. Rothwell, M.D. 84 Collins-street.
Adam, Mrs. J. M. Tollington-avenue, East Malvern.
Adam, Miss M. 178 Gatehouse-street, Parkville.
Adam, Mrs. Rothwell. Hotham-street, East Melbourne.
Adam, Miss Rothwell. Hotham-street, East Melbourne.
Adamson, Chester. Derrill-avenue, Malvern.
Adamson, Mrs. Chester. Derrill-avenue, Malvern.
Adamson, L. A., M.A. Wesley College, Prahran.
Adamson, T. C. 29 Manning-road, East Caulfield.
Adamson, Mrs. T. C. 29 Manning-road, East Caulfield.
Adcock, G. H. Viticultural College, Rutherglen.
Adderley, Miss Emily. Wattletree-road, Malvern.
Addison, Stanley, B.Sc. 225 Collins-street.
Ainsworth, G. F. Central Weather Bureau.
Ainsworth, W. M. 149 Holmes-road, Moonee Ponds.
Aitchison, Alex. S., M.B., B.S. Victoria-avenue, Albert Park.
Aitchison, Roderick, M.A., M.B., B.S. Bay-street, Brighton.
Akehurst, Miss E. A. F. Ranfurlie-crescent, East Malvern.
Akeroyd, J., M.A. Bairnsdale.
Alexander, Mrs. J. L. Shakespeare-grove, Hawthorn.
Alexander, Miss Jean L. Shakespeare-grove, Hawthorn.
Alexander, Miss Lilian H., M.A, M.B.,B.Se. 17 Murphy-street, South Yarra.
§Allan, Edwin F., B.A. 37 Wattletree-road, Malvern.
Allan, Mrs. Edwin F., M.A. 37 Wattletree-road, Malvern.
Allan, William F. 452 Collins-street.
Allen, George T. Commonwealth Treasury.
Allen, Prof. Sir H. B., M.D., B.S., LL.D. University.
Allen, H. W., M.A. Ormond College, University, Carlton.
Allen, Richard. Kooyong, Elsternwick.
Alston, Mrs. J. St. Kilda-road.
Alston, Miss R. St. Kilda-road.
Ampt, Gustav, B.Sc. Wentworth-avenue, Canterbury.
Ampt, Mrs. Gustav. Wentworth-avenue, Canterbury.
Anderson, A. G. M. 25 Armadale-street, Armadale.
Anderson, A. V. M., M.D., B.S. 108 Collins-street.
Anderson, Arthur. The Elms, East Melbourne.
Anderson, Dr. J. F. Maloa, Woodend.
§Anderson, J. R. V., B.M.E. School of Mines, Bendigo.
Anderson, Major T. 203 Mill-street, Ballarat.
Anderson, V. G. Victoria-avenue, Canterbury.
Andrew, Walter J., Shire Engineer. Sunshine.
Andrews, —. Clarke-street, East Prahran.
Andrews, H. Grosvenor, Malvern.
Anthony, E. 8. 86 Railway-parade, Northcote. e
Archer, Miss Ellinor. Trinity Hostel, Parkville.
Archer, F. H. Caulfield Grammar School, East St. Kilda.
Archer, Mrs. L. Trinity Hostel, Parkville.

102 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Argyle, 8. 8., M.B., B.S. Melbourne Mansions, Collins-street, City.
Armitage, R. W., M.Sc. Finch-street, Beechworth.

Armstrong, E. la T., M.A., LL.B. Public Library.

Armstrong, G. W., M.B., B.S. 24 Collins-street.

Armytage, Edward O. Holm Park, Beaconsfield.

Arnall, Geo. N. 478 Collins-street.

Asche, E. T. 147 Kooyong-road, Toorak.

Askro, G., B.C.E. Burke-road, Balwyn.

Astley, A., B.A. Oak-grove, Brighton.

Atkinson, Rev. C. W., M.A. Methodist Parsonage, Sandringham.
Austin, Miss C. Albany-road, Toorak.

Austin, Ernest G. Booriyalloak, Skipton.

Avdall, Ernest J. L. Patent Office.

Avdall, Mrs. E. J. L. Dudley Parade, Canterbury.

Avery, D., M.Sc. Collins House, Collins-street.

Avery, Mrs. D., M.A. 387 Barker’s-road, Kew.

Bage, Miss Alice N. 177 Toorak-road, South Yarra.
§Bage, Chas., M.A., M.D., B.S. 139 Collins-street.

Bage, Mrs. Charles. Toorak-road, South Yarra.

Bage, E. F. R., B.C.E. Fulton-street, St. Kilda.

Bage, Miss Ethel M., M.A. Fulton-street, St. Kilda.

Bage, Miss J. Toorak-road, South Yarra.

Bage, Mrs. Mary C. Fulton-street, St. Kilda.

Baggs, Haydn. 20 Hawksburn-road, South Yarra.

Bailey, A. R., President, Pharmaceutical Society of Australasia. Glenferrie-

road, Malvern.

Bailey, Mrs. A. R. Sorrett-avenue, Malvern.

Bailey, Dr. Harold C. Harvard House, 11 Collins-street, East Melbourne.
Baillieu, Clive. St. George’s-road, Toorak.

Baillieu, Mrs. Clive. St. George’s-road, ‘Toorak.

Baillieu, Hon. W. L. Kooyong-road, Toorak.

Baillieu, Mrs. W. L. Kooyong-road, Toorak.

Bainbridge, J. P., F.LA.V., F.C.1.8. University, Carlton.
Baird, Rev. Geo. M. Lennox-street, Richmond.

Baker, F. H. 167 Hoddle-street, Richmond.

Baker, Frank L. 78 Swanston-street.

Baker, Rev. G. J. Xavier College, Kew.

Baker, H. H. 78 Swanston-street.

Baker, John. 20 Fermanagh-road, Camberwell.

Baker, Miss M. E. 1 Hastings-road, Hawthorn.

Baker, R. W. A. Botanic Gardens, South Yarra.

Baker, T. Oriental Hotel.

Baker, Mrs. T. Oriental Hotel.

Baldwin, J. M., M.A., D.Sc. Observatory House, South Yarra.
Baldwin, Mrs. J. M. Observatory House, South Yarra.

Bale, W. W. W. 83 Walpole-street, Kew.

Balfour, Mrs. Ella N. Burwood-road, Hawthorn.

Balfour, Lewis J., B.A., M.B., B.S. Burwood-road, Hawthorn.
Ball, Miss Hilda N., B.Sc. Methodist Ladies’ College, Hawthorn.
§Balsillie, J. Greene. P.M.G.’s Department.

Bamford, Mrs. Tom. 45 Acland-street, St. Kilda.

Bannerman, G. R. 400 Punt-road, South Yarra.

Baracchi, P., F.R.A.S. Government Astronomer.
Baragwanath, W. Geological Survey, Ballarat.

Barbour, R. T. 95 Power-street, Hawthorn.

Barden, B. Linden, Acland-street, St. Kilda.

Barden, Mrs. B. Linden, Acland-street, St. Kilda.

Barker, H. J., B.A. 32 Broadway, Camberwell.

Barker, J. Newman. Lorne Grove, Camberwell.

Barker, Mrs. J. N. Lorne Grove, Camberwell.

Barker, Miss. Lorne Grove, Camberwell.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 103

Barkman, Miss Frances, High School,

Barnard, Miss Dora, M.A, Church of England Girls’ Grammar School, Morris
Hall, South Yarra.

Barnard, F. G. A. 167 High-street, Kew.

Barnard, R. J. A., M.A. Royal Military College, Duntroon, N.S.W.
Barnes, James. Minyip.
Barnes, R. 19 Brunswick-street, Fitzroy.
Barnett, Miss A. M., Postmistress. Newport.

Barrett, Miss Edith H., M.B., B.S. South Melbourne.
Barrett, J. W., C.M.G., M.D., M.S. 105 Collins-street.
Barrett, Mrs. J. W. Lansell-road, Toorak.

Barrett, Miss K. Lansell-road, Toorak.

Barton, Robert. Irving-road, Toorak.

Bartrop, Major Geo. P. Hird, Armadale.

Bateman, A. High School.

§Bates, Mrs. Daisy M. 210 Punt-road, Prahran.
Bath, Rey. Henry. 14 Cambridge-street, Hawthorn.
Batson, A. 176 McKean-street, North Fitzroy.
Bawden, E. H. Bunghli, Macedon Upper.

Bawden, Mrs. E. H. Bunghli, Macedon Upper.
Bayly, P. P. W. C/o Mines Department.
Bayly, W. R., B.A. Geelong College, Geelong.
Beal, Mrs. Amy. Varna, Lorne.
Beckett, Dr. T. J. 132 Nicholson-street, Fitzroy.
Begg, J. W. Bates-street, Hast Malvern.
Begg, Mrs. J. W. Bates-street, East Malvern.
Beggs, Mrs. H. N. Nareeb Nareeb, Glen Thompson.
Behrend, A. 73 Robe-street, St. Kilda.
Behrend, Mrs. A. 73 Robe-street, St. Kilda.
Behrend, Oscar. 73 Robe-street, St. Kilda.
Bell, A. F., M.B., B.S., D.P.H. 88 Collins-street.
Bell, Miss J., Lady Superintendent, Melbourne Hospital.
Bell, J. R. Kooyong-road, Caulfield.
Bell, Marcus. Department of Defence, St. Kilda-road.
Benjamin, Louis. Wyalla, Queen’s-road, St. Kilda.
Bennie, R. J. Bank of Victoria, Fitzroy.
Benporath, Norman. Faversham-road, Canterbury.
Bernadou, Miss M. L., M.A. 110 Park-street West, Brunswick.
Berridge, Miss Constance E. Post Office, Albert Park.
Berridge, Miss E. M. Post Office, Albert Park.

Berry, Howard W. 568 Collins-street, City.

Berry, Mrs. H. W. 568 Collins-street, City.

§Berry, Professor R. J. A., M.D. University, Carlton.
Berry, Mrs. R. J. A. University.

Biddlecombe, Mrs. Janet. Golf Hill, Shelford.
Biddlecombe, Commander John. Golf Hill, Shelford.
Bienvenu, Reg., M.A. Agricultural High School, Sale.
Bird, F. D., M.B., M.S. 43 Spring-street.
Bishop, Mrs. T. Armadale-street, Armadale.
Black, Dr. A. G. 432 St. Kilda-road.
Black, Mrs. A. G. 432 St. Kilda-road.
Black, Mrs. A. J. Mount Noorat, Noorat.
Black, Miss Kathleen, 432 St. Kilda-road.

*Black, S. G. Glenormiston, Glenormiston South.
Black, Mrs. S. G. Glenormiston, Glenormiston South.
Blackett, W. A. M. Ingleby, South-road, Brighton Beach.
Blackwood, Mrs. Constance. Melbourne Mansions, Collins-street, City.
Blanch, G. E., M.A. Church of England Grammar School.
Blanch, Mrs. M. C. W. Church of England Grammar School.
Blundell, Miss E. N. 164 Church-street, Brighton.
Blyth, Mrs. Ellen. Whitehall, Bank-place.
Boake, Dr. Wm. 294 Glenferrie-road, Hawthorn.

104 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Boan, Mrs. I. Farquharson. 29 Erin-street, Richmond.
Boan, Robert. 29 Erin-street, Richmond.

Boan, Robt. Farquharson. 29 Erin-street, Richmond.
Bodycomb, J. T. Bedlington. Callignee, Gippsland.

Booth, Miss Emma 8. Wallace-avenue, Toorak.

Booth, Miss Florence M. Wallace-avenue, Toorak.

Booth, Miss H. E. Wallace-avenue, Toorak.
$Booth, J., M.C.E., B.Sc. The Gables, Berkeley-street, Hawthorn.
Booth, Wm. E. Wallace-avenue, Toorak.

Bordeaux, E. F. J. Mt. Alexander-road, Moonee Ponds.
Borland, Mrs. 8. F. Arnold-street, South Yarra.

Borland, Rev. Wm., M.A., B.D. Arnold-street, South Yarra.
Borsdorff, Mrs. L. 31 Queen’s-road.

Borwick, W. H. Menzies Hotel.

Bothroyd, J. J., B.A. Carnarvon-road, Malvemm.
Bothroyd, T. W., M.A. Education Department.
Bowditch, W. L., M.A. Lonsdale-street, City.

Bowie, W. Leith House, Royal Park, Parkville.

Bowman, John H. 10 Kintore-street, Camberwell.

Boyd, T. H., M.B., B.S. 2 Erin-street, Richmond.

Boyd, W. R., M.D., B.S. Hoddle-street, Richmond.

Boys, R. D., B.A. Public Library.

Bradley, Robert 8. Queen’s College, St. Kilda.

Bradshaw, FE. H., F.I.A.V. Flinders-street.

Brake, James, B.Sc. Queen’s College, Carlton.

Brearley, F. J. 6 Cintra-avenue, St. Kilda.

Brearley, J. H. D. Finch-street, East Malvern.

Brearley, Mrs. J. H. D. Finch-street, East Malvern.
Breen, Jessica B. Monomeath, Waverley-road, East Malvern.
Brennan, Miss Clare. High School.

Brentnall, Thos. 430 Chancery-lane.

Brett, Mrs. C. M. Acland-street, South Yarra.

Brett, F. P. Acland-street, South Yarra.

Brett, Dr. J. Talbot. 102 Collins-street.

Brew, Capt. Henry. 321 Lyons-street, Ballarat.

Bridges, F. T. C/o. A.M.P. Society.

Bridges, Rear-Admiral W. B. Mathoura, Toorak-road, Toorak.
Bridges, Mrs. W. B. Mathoura, Toorak-road, Toorak.
Bridges, Brigadier-General W. T. Defence Department.
Briedhal, H. G., B.Sc. 36 Rouse-street, Port Melbourne.
Bright, A. Trinity College, Parkville.

Bright, Mrs. Alfred. Anderson-street, South Yarra.
Brinkley, R. B. Barker’s-road, Kew.

Brittingham, 8. C., A.R.I.B.A. Public Works Department.
Brittlebank, Chas. C., Government Vegetable Pathologist. Department of

Agriculture.

Brodie, Miss I. A. 11 Staniland-avenue, Malvern.

Brodie, Malcolm M.' C/o John Sanderson & Co., William-street.
Brodribb, T., M.A. A’Beckett-street, Kew.

Bromby, E. H., M.A. University.

Brook, E. G. 25 Mercer-road, Malvern.

Brook, Mrs. E. G. 25 Mercer-road, Malvern.

Brookes, Herbert. Walsh-street, South Yarra.

Brookes, Mrs. Herbert. Walsh-street, South Yarra.
Brookes, Miss May. Fairlie House, South Yarra.
Brougham, Mrs. H. E. 88 Hotham-street, Balaclava.
Brown, A. 644 Bourke-street.

Brown, Mrs. A. Airdrie, Canterbury.

Brown, A. N. Gladstone-parade, Elsternwick.

Brown, A. W. D., Shire Engineer. Swan Hill.

Brown, E. B., M.Sc. Gladstone-parade, Elsternwick.
Brown, Rev. F. E. Geelong Grammar School, Corio.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 105

§Brown, F. G., B.A., B.Sc. Naval College, North Geelong.
Brown, G. J. Indi, New-street, Brighton.
Brown, Mrs. G. J. Indi, New-street, Brighton.
Brown, G. Twentyman, B.M.E. 93 Mathoura-road, Toorak.
Brown, Miss Irene. Airdrie, Canterbury.
Brown, J. C. Gladstone-parade, Elsternwick.
Brown, R. C., M.B., B.S. 120 Wellington-street, St. Kilda.
Brown, Miss Reta. Barry-street, Northcote.
Brown, Mrs. W. Clezy. Victoria-street, Sandringham.
Brown, Dr. W. H. The Elms, Colac.
Buchan, Miss C. E. Clarendon-street, East Melbourne.
Buchanan, Mrs. G. The Wattles, Healesville.
Buchanan, Dr. J. S. 37 Collins-street.
§Buck, E. J. Menzies’ Hotel.
Buley, Arthur A., M.A. The Avenue, East Malvern.
Bull, D. G. 125 Collins-street.
Bull, R. J., M.D., B.S. Boundary-road, Surrey Hills.
Bull, Mrs. R. J. Boundary-road, Surrey Hills.
Beene, We M., M.A. Caulfield Grammar School, Glen Hira-road, East St.
Kilda.
Poet: Mrs. W. M. Caulfield Grammar School, Glen Eira-road, East St.
ilda.
Burgess, Arthur S., M.A. 318 Burke-road, Upper Hawthorn.
Burke, Mis. A. G. 37 Brighton-road, St. Kilda.
Burke, J. Edmund. 285 Collins-street, City.
Burrell, Mrs. Marion A. Tarrangower, Ivanhoe.
Burston, Colonel J. Mason-street, Hawthorn.
Bury, Miss E. Verona, Argyle-street, West St. Kilda.
Butchers, C. L., Secretary, Pharmaceutical Society of Australasia, 360
Swanston-street, City.
Butchers, Mrs. C. L. 354-62 Swanston-street.
Butler, Miss. Melbourne Orphanage, Brighton.
Butler, E. V., B.A. Geelong Church of England Grammar School, Corio, Vic.
Butler, Walter R. Studley, Toorak-road, Toorak.
Buzzard, Miss. 11 Elgin-avenue, Armadale.
Byatt, John. 53 Hawthorn-grove, Hawthorn.

Cain, Robert C., LL.B. Anderson-street, South Yarra.
Cain, W. N. Anderson-street, South Yarra.

Cain, Mrs. William. Anderson-street, South Yarra.
Calder, Mrs. E. M. Kooyong-road, Armadale.

Calder, W. Country Roads Board, Titles Office.
Callaway, W. A. Chief Secretary’s Office.

Callister, C. P., B.Sc. Queen’s College, Carlton.
Callister, W. H. Agricultural High School, Shepparton.
Cameron, Alex. Yorick Club.

Cameron, Mrs. Alex. Yorick Club.

Cameron, Donald, M.A. 167 Collins-street.

Cameron, J. B. Lydiard-street, Ballarat.

Cameron, 8. §., D.V.Sc. Coppin-grove, Hawthorn.
Cameron, Mrs. 8. 8. Coppin-grove, Hawthorn.

Camm, T. C. The Avenue, Royal Park.

Campbell, A. J. 10 Elm-grove, Armadale.

Campbell, Mrs. A. J. 10 Elm-grove, Armadale.
Campbell, F. H., M.Sc. Chemistry Department, University.
Campbell, J. M., LL.M. 267 Collins-street.

Campbell, Miss. 267 Collins-street.

Campbell, S. J., M.B., B.S. Pathology Department, University, Carlton.
Carew-Smith, P. M. 36 Park-street, South Yarra.
Carew-Smith, Mrs. P. M. 36 Park-street, South Yarra.
Carlile, Sir Edward. Domain-road, South Yarra.
Carter, Miss Gladys. Kilbride, ‘Toorak.

105 BRITISH ASSOCLATION,

Castle, Gordon H. Auditorium, Collins-street, City.
Catani, C., C.E. Public Works Department,

Caudl, Major I. W. M. Mayland, Ivanhoe.

Caudl, Mrs. I. W. M. Mayland, Ivanhoe.

Cerutty, Leonard. 54 Downshire-road, Elsternwick.
Challen, M. Bradbury. Technical School, Daylesford.
Chambers, Alfred H. Landene, St. Kilda-road.

Chambers, Mrs. Landene, St. Kilda-road.

Chambers, Miss F. Hawdon. Walsh-street, South Yarra.
Chambers, John F. Landene, St. Kilda-road.

Champion, H. V., M.C.E. 87 Queen-street.

Chapman, C. W. 84 William-street.

Chapman, Mrs. C. W. Queen’s-road, St. Kilda.

Chapman, Mrs. F. Threadneedle-street, Balwyn.
Chapman, Frederick, A.L.S. National Museum.

Chapman, W. D. Railway Construction, Tallangatta.
Cheong, Rev. Jas., M.A. St. Peter’s Clergy House.
Cherry, Prof. T., M.D., M.S. University.

Cherry, Mrs. Thos. University.

Chilvers, Miss L. E., Dip.D.Sc. Presbyterian Ladies’ College, East Melbourne.
Clark, Alister. Melbourne Club.

Clark, Mrs. Alister. Melbourne Club.

Clark, Donald, M.M.E., B.C.E., Inspector of Technical Schools. Education

Department.

Clark, Lindesay C., M.C.E. Briseis Mine, Derby, Tasmania.
Clarke, A. R. 86 Collins-street.

Clarke, A. Rutter. Merriwa, Orrong-road, Toorak.

Clarke, Mrs. A. Rutter. Merriwa, Orrong-road, Toorak.
Clarke, Edmund, A.M.I.C.E. 27 Derby-street, Camberwell.
Clarke, Right Rev. Henry Lowther, M.A., D.D., Archbishop of Melbourne.

Bishopscourt,*East Melbourne.

Clarke, Mrs. Lowther. Bishopscourt, East Melbourne.
Clarke, Miss St. John, B.A. Youngera, St. James’ Park, Hawthorn.
Clarke, Mrs. Sybil M. 270 Toorak-road, South Yarra.
Clayton, Wm. . Moorabbin.

Clegg, Mrs. Florence M. 3 Sussex-street, Ballarat.
Clement, Mrs. A. Maffra, Frankston-road, Chelsea.
Clemes, Samuel. Clare-street, New Town, Hobart, Tasmania.
Clendinnen, L. J., M.B., B.S. Haven, Hawksburn.

Clyne, T. Sunbury.

Clyne, T. S., LL.B. Queen’s College, Carlton.

Coane, H. E. 70 Queen-street.

Coane, Mrs. H. E. Yathong, Orrong-road, Caulfield.
Coane, J. M. 70 Queen-street.

Coane, Mrs. J. M. 70 Queen-street.

Coates, M. C., A.M.I.E.E. 99 Queen-street.

Cochrane, J. R. Ormond College, Parkville.

Coghill, Geo. Royal Society’s Hall, Victoria-street.
§Coghill, Mrs. Una. Monomeath-avenue, Canterbury.
Colahan, Surg.-General. 89 Alma-road, St. Kilda.

Cole, F. Hobill, M.D., B.S. Rathdown-street, Carlton.
Cole, Mrs. F. Hobill. Rathdown-street, Carlton.

Cole, Mrs. J. F. London Bank, Bourke-street.

Coleman, Miss Loris C. 6 Seymour-avenue, Malvern.
Collins, J. T., M.A., LL.M. Punt Hill, South Yarra.
Collins, Mrs. J. T. Punt Hill, South Yarra.

Collins, Miss. Punt Hill, South Yarra.

Collins, Mrs. James. Coonac, Clendon-road, Toorak.
Collins, Rev. T. S. Queenscliff.

Collison, Chas. V. 483 Collins-street.

Collyer, C. 75 Davies-street, Brunswick,

Connibere, George. Southdean, Toorak.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 107

Connibere, Miss M. Southdean, Toorak.
Conway, Miss. 89 Rose-street.
Cook, E. A. Ibhar, Wolseley-street, Mont Albert.
Cook, G. A. 18 Elphin-grove, Hawthorn.
Cooke, Samuel Winter. Murndal, Hamilton.
Cooke, Mrs. Winter. Murndal, Hamilton.
Cookson, Miss Isabel C. 154 Power-street, Hawthorn.
Coombes, Mrs. Lydia. 112 Wellington-street, St. Kilda.
Coomer, Frank. 30 Bent-street, Northcote.
Cooper, Rev. W. H., M.A., B.D. 37 Power-street, Hawthorn.
Copland, Rev. O. 11 Fermanagh-road, Camberwell.
Corcoran, Miss A. V. C. 35 Martin-street, South Yarra.
Cotton, Miss EK. E. St. Dunstan’s, Maple-grove, Toorak.
Couran, Marcel. Melbourne Club.
Courtney, C. F. Toorak-road, South Yarra.
Courtney, Mrs. C. F. Toorak-road, South Yarra.
Coutie, Rev. J. H., B.A. The Manse, Box Hill.
Cox, F. E., M.B., B.S. 28 Walsh-street, South Yarra.
Cox, H. M. 8. Coonac, Clendon-road, Toorak.
Cox, Mrs. H. M. 8. Coonac, Clendon-road, Toorak.
Cox, Leonard B. 13 Athol-street, Moonee Ponds.
Craig, A. W., M.A. Waterloo-street, Camberwell.
Craig, Mrs. Alice T. Anderson-street, Bendigo.
Craig, J. H. Anderson-street, Bendigo.
Craig, R. J., B.Sc. 189 Eglinton-street, Moonee Ponds,
Crawcour, 8. Esmet, Mathoura-road, Toorak.
Crellin, E. D. 31 Queen-street.
Cresswell, Rev. A. W., M.A. Malvern-road, East Malvern.
Cresswell, F. G. Shirley-grove, East St. Kilda.
, Creswell, A. E. Laboratory, Public Health Department, Queen-street, City.
Creswell, Sir W. R. Navy Office.
Creswell, Lady. Navy Office.
Creswick, Mrs. A. T. Yarrien, Malvern.
Creswick, Miss Alice. Yarrien, Malvern.
Crivelli, M., M.D., B.S. 40 Ferrars-place, Albert Park.
Crocker, Mrs. Mosspennock, Clarendon-street, East Melbourne.
Crocker, Miss L. Mosspennock, Clarendon-street, East Melbourne.
Crocker, Mrs. M. E. Winfield, Riversdale-road, Hawthorn.
Crocker, R. Clive. 121 Queen-street.
Cronin, J. Botanic Gardens, South Yarra.
Crook, Wm. J. 142 Russell-street.
Croom, 8. P., M.B., B.S. 80 Collins-street.
Cross, Miss Agnes. Tintern Girls’ Grammar School, Glenferrie-road, Haw-
thorn.
Cross, Dr. W. J. The Briars, Lilydale.
Crouch, Miss Ella. 385 Manning-road, East Caulfield.
Crouch, Colonel R. A. 456 Chancery-lane.
Crouche, R. 8. 396 Flinders-lane.
Crouche, Mrs. R. S. 396 Flinders-lane.
Crow, J. W. Stewart. Vacuum Oil Co. Pty., Ltd., William-street.
Crowley, Valentine J. 99 Queen-street.
Crowther, G. H., M.A., LL.D. Brighton Grammar School, Brighton.
Cudmore, Ernest O. 17 Murphy-street, South Yarra.
Cuming, Geo. J. 130 Hyde-street, Yarraville.
*Cuming, James. 65 William-street.
*Cuming, W. Fehon. Hyde-street, Yarraville.
Cuming, W. H. Linshart, Hyde-street, Yarraville.
Cunningham, A. J. The Cheetham Salt Pty., Ltd., Little Malop-street,
Geelong.
Curdie, Miss Frances K. M. 62 Avoca-street, South Yarra.
§Curdie, Miss Jessie. Camperdown, Victoria.
Currey, Miss E. Coonac, Clendon-road, Toorak.

108 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Currey, Miss I. M. Coonac, Clendon-road, Toorak.

Currie, Mrs. E. Wallace-avenue, Toorak.

Currie, Miss Eliza. Pladda, St. Kilda.

Curtin, E. F., Acting Electrical Engineer. Postmaster-General’s Department.

Daley, Charles. Sale.

Dalglish, Miss Alma. Nelson-road, Albert Park.

Dalglish, Miss Margaret. 145 Nelson-road, Albert Park.
Dalrymple, Mrs. Irving-road, Toorak.

Daniell, Miss H., B.A. A’Beckett-street, Kew.

Danks, Miss A. Balwyn-road, Canterbury.
§Danks, A. T. 391 Bourke-street.

Danks, Mrs. A. T. 391 Bourke-street.

Darton, J. 8. 63 Lisson-grove, Hawthorn.

Davenport, Dr. A. F. High-street, St. Kilda.

Davenport, Mrs. A. F. High-street, St. Kilda.
Davenport, Miss. High-street, St. Kilda.

Davey, Edgar R., M.A., LL.B. Castlemaine.

Davey, Roystone. Retford, Toorak-road, South Yarra.
Davey, Mrs. Roystone. Retford, Toorak-road, South Yarra.
David, T. A. 217 Grattan-street, Carlton.

Davidson, Miss E. 47 Gipps-street, East Melbourne.
Davidson, Wm., M.I.C.E. Lisson-grove, Hawthorn.
Davies, C. S. 20 Glower-street, South Melbourne.

Davies, Miss E. E. 169 Nicholson-street, Footscray.
Davies, G. Forrest, LL.B. 360 Collins-street.

Davies, J. Bartlett. 24 Claremont-avenue, Malvern.
Davies, Jas. Seymour-road, Elsternwick.

Davies, Mrs. J. Seymour-road, Elsternwick.

Davies, L. B., M.Sc. Patent Office, Railway-buildings, Flinders-street.
Davies, Miss Olive B., M.Sc. Trinity College Hostel, Parkville.
Davis, Mrs. 8. 454 Rathdown-street, North Carlton.
Dawkins, A. E. 273 Royal Parade, Parkville.

Dawson, H. 153 William-street.

Day, Arthur J. 199 Toorak-road, South Yarra.

Day, Miss L. M., M.A. Cromarty, Sandham-street, Elsternwick.
Deakin, Hon. A. Walsh-street, South Yarra.

Deane, H. Mercer-road, Malvern.

Deane, Miss M. E. 14 Mercer-road, Malvern.

Deane, Mrs. M. L. 14 Mercer-road, Malvern.

De Beer, Miss Dora. Lyceum Club.

De Castella, Francois. Department of Agriculture.
D’Ebro, C. A. Prado, Toorak.

D’Ebro, Mrs. Blanche. Prado, Toorak.

D’Ebro, Miss. Prado, Toorak.

Delany, Miss J. M. Quinta, Dandenong-road.

Delprat, Dr. Mary. Linden, Williams-road, Windsor.
Delprat, Mrs. N. Linden, Williams-road, Windsor.
Denchy, W. J., M.B., B.S. Tooronga-road, East Malvern.
Dennis, Miss. 36 Blessington-street, St. Kilda.

Dennis, Chas., M.D., B.S. 85 Collins-street.

Derham, Miss 8. 349 Collins-street.

Dettridge, J. S., M.LC.E. Wimmera, New-street, Brighton Beach.
Devine, Hugh, M.B., B.S. 61 Collins-street.

Dew, J., M.A. 113 Wills-street, Bendigo.

Dewez, Miss Adele. Williams-road, South Yarra.

Dewing, Mrs. 7 Gurner-street, St. Kilda.

Dick, Miss J. H. Ranfurlie-crescent, East Malvern.

Dick, Norman. High School, St. Arnaud.

Dickens, Miss K. 9 Kensington-road, South Yarra.
Dickenson, F. M. Atheneum Club.
$Dickinson, Miss Desiree. Menzies’ Hotel.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914.

Dickson, G. L. The Moorings, Toorak.

Dickson, Mrs. G. L. The Moorings, Toorak.

Dickson, Miss Viola. The Moorings, Toorak.

Dickson, W. 6 Grandview-grove, Armadale.

Dix, H. Courtney. 160 Gipps-street, East Melbourne.
Dodds, Miss. Yetholm, Dandenong-road, Malvern.

Dodds, James H. Lansell-road, Toorak.

Donaldson, John. 456 Collins-street.

Dooley, W. H., B.A. Gladstone House, North Melbourne.
Douglas, A. Bank of Australasia, Collins-street, City.
Douglas, Miss Margaret. 168 Nelson-road, South Melbourne.
Douglas, R. O., M.B., M.S. Bendigo Hospital, Bendigo.
Dowling, Hilary. 1 Stawell-street, Kew.

Downes, R. M., M.D., M.S. 127 Collins-street.

Downing, Mrs. Savings Bank, Clifton Hill.

Doyle, D. B. University, Carlton.

Drevermann, A. C. Longerenong Agric. College, Dooen, Victoria.
Drummond, Peter. 32 Gatehouse-street, Parkville.
§Duff, Frank Gee. 31 Queen-street.

Duncan, A. J., A.M.I.C.E. Oxford-chambers, Bourke-street.
Duncan, Miss Constance. Balwyn-road, Canterbury.
Duncan, Geo. 8. Alverna, Beach-road, Black Rock.
Dunhill, T. P., M.D., B.S. Wallace-avenue, Toorak.
Dunhill, Mrs. T. P. Wallace-avenue, Toorak.

Dunlop, A. J. Technical School, Sunshine.

Dunn, Miss Dorothy. Victoria-crescent, Surrey Hills.
Dunn, E. J., F.G.S. Roseneath, Kew.

Dunn, Mrs. E. J. Roseneath, Kew.

Dunn, Frederick. 193 Collins-street.

Dunn, J. H., B.Sc. 193 Collins-street.

Dyason, Miss Emily. Warrain, Sandown-street, Middle Brighton.

Dyring, Carl, M.A., M.B., B.S. Kilcorran, Walsh-street, Coburg.

Kady, M. 582 Collins-street.

Earl, J. C. University.

Farle, Mrs. W. J. Rathgael, Clifton Hill.

Eccles, Dr. J. V. 96 Collins-street.

Eccles, Mrs. J. V. 96 Collins-street.

Eddie, Miss E. 450 Lonsdale-street.

Edgar, H. 8. 25 Beach-avenue, Elwood.

Edmondson, C. H. 317 Flinders-lane.

Edmonson, C. H. 13 Elphin-grove, Hawthorn.

Edwards, Samuel. 6 Bowen-street, Moonee Ponds.
Eggleston, Mrs. A. E. R. 35 Manning-road, East Caulfield.
Eggleston, F. W. Bank Place.

Elder, David. Remeura, Essendon.

Elder, Mrs. David. Remeura, Essendon.

Eles, Cavaliere Emilio, LL.D. 59 William-street.

Ellis, Miss Constance, M.D., B.S. 84 Collins-street.
Eltham, Ernest. Working Men’s College.

Elvins, A. L. Cnr. Grove-road and Power-street, Hawthorn.

Elvins, Mrs. A. L. Cnr. Grove-road and Power-street, Hawthorn.

Embley, E. H., M.D., B.S. 245 Latrobe-street.
Emmerton, Harry. Raveloe, Domain-road, South Yarra.
Emmerton, Mrs. Harry. Raveloe, Domain-road, South Yarra.
Emmerton, Miss Mary. Raveloe, Domain-road, South Yarra.
England, Francis G. 65 William-street.

§Erson, Dr. KE. G. Leger. 123 Collins-street.
Esling, F. K. 7 Rose-street, Armadale.
Espenhahn, E. VY. Kaihn, Grey-street, St. Kilda.
Evans, Geo. A. 135 William-street.

109

Evans, Heber D., A.M.I.E.E. Hinda, Beaconsfield-parade, Albert Park.

110 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Ewart, Professor A. J., D.Sc., Ph.D. University.
Ewart, Mrs. A. J. University.

Ewing, Dr. S. A. 33 Collins-street.

Exley, H. J. 497 Collins-street.

Fairbairn, Mrs. Chas. Fairlie House, South Yarra.
Falconer, G. V. Netherby, Mathoura-road, Toorak.

Falk, Mrs. D. 74 Alma-road, St. Kilda.

Falkiner, Mrs. Ralph. Cliveden-mansions, East Melbourne.
Fanning, Edward. Cooramin, Westbury-street, St. Kilda.
Fanning, Mrs. E. Cooramin, Westbury-street, St. Kilda.
Fanstone, H. Herbert. Department of Defence, Navy Office.
Farrell, Miss M. J. P. Westport, 7 Robe-street, St. Kilda.
Farrer, Arthur. City Hall, Ballarat.

Fennelly, R., M.I.C.E. Kilmore.

Fenner, Charles, B.Sc. School of Mines, Ballarat.

Fenton, Horace. State School, Seville.

Fenton, J. J. 56 Fitzgibbon-street, Parkville.

Fenton, Mrs. J. J. 56 Fitzgibbon-street, Parkville.

Fergus, Robert M., M.A. St. Andrew’s Manse, Geelong.
§Ferguson, E. R. Gordon-street, Footscray.

Ferguson, Robt. 72 Holmes-road, Moonee Ponds.
Ferguson, W. H. Brinsley-road, East Camberwell.
Fetherston, R. H., M.D. 4a Collins-street.

Fick, P. P. W. 454 Collins-street.

Finch, Loyal H. Town Hall, Ballarat.

Fink, Theodore. 352 Collins-street.

Finlay, Geo., B.D.Sce. 110 Collins-street.

Finlay, Mrs. Jas. Killamot, Kyabram,

Finlay, Miss M. Church of England Grammar School, South Yarra.
Finlay, Mrs. Thomas J. St. George’s-road, Toorak.

Fisher, W. C. A.M.P. Society.

Fitchett, Rev. W. H., B.A., LL.D. Methodist Ladies’ College, Hawthorn.
Fitzgerald, Dr. Eileen. Crom, Glenferrie-road, Kew.
Fitzpatrick, W. Commissioner’s Office.

Fleming, Miss A. M. State School 111, Bell-street, Fitzroy.
Fletcher, Richard J. Chemical Works, North Geelong.
Flett, Miss M. 8S. 168 Nelson-road, South Melbourne.
Flockhart, A. P., M.Sc. 80 Broadway, Camberwell.

Flynn, Miss ‘Julia T., B.A. 95 Burke-road, East Kew.
Flynn, Miss Kate. 95 Burke-road, East Kew.

Flynn, Prof. T. Thos., B.Sc. University, Hobart, Tasmania.
Ford, Anthony. 372 Drummond-street, Carlton.

Fordyce, W. C., B.A. High School.

Forster, Mrs. k. E. Sadleir. 52 Tennyson-street, St. Kilda.
Forte, A. L. Pembuley, Toorak.

Foster, Mrs. 905 Rathdown-street, North Carlton.

Foster, Alfred W. 36 Selborne-chambers, Chancery-lane.
Fowler, Thos. W., M.C.E. 421 Collins-street.

Fowles, Edgar L. Department of Home Affairs.

Fox, M. Philip. Orrong-road, Elsternwick.

Fox, Mrs. M. Philip. Orrong-road, Elsternwick.

Fraenkel, P. H. Working Men’s College.

Francis, R. P. Caroline-street, South Yarra.

Fraser, Mrs. Pladda, St. Kilda.

Fraser, Clark. 53 Manningtree-road, Hawthorn.

Fraser, Miss E. Ferndene, Lansell-road, Toorak.

Fraser, Miss Frances. 31 Collins-street, City.

Fraser, Frank. Ferndene, Lansell-road, Toorak.

Fraser, Mrs. Frank. Ferndene, Lansell-road, Toorak.
Fraser, Miss 8. J., M.A. 50 Murphy-street, South Yarra.
Frederick, Miss E. V. C/o Mrs. R. Reid, Belmont, Balwyn.

LIST OF MEMBERS : MELBOURNE, 1914.

French, C., F.E.S. Malvern-road, North Malvern.
Friend, Mrs. B. H. Stawell-street, Kew.

Fry, Miss. Occidental Hotel, Collins-street.

Fullar, A. J. 46 Elizabeth-street.

Fuller, Mrs. A. Lineda, Stanley-grove, Canterbury.
Fullerton, Mrs. 25 Greville-street, Prahran.
Fulton, Robt. 13 Motherwell-street, Hawksburn.
Fussell, Alfred, M.A. Education Office.

Fynn, Wm. Collins House, Collins-street.

Gabriel, Charles J. 297 Victoria-street, Abbotsford.

Gabriel, Joseph. Cwmdar, Walmer-street, Kew.

Galbraith, A., B.C.E. Victorian Railways Institute.

Gale, Walter A. Commonwealth Parliament.

Gardiner, A. P. Cnr. Orrong-road and King-street, Elsternwick.

Gardiner, Mrs. A. P. Cnr. Orrong-road and King-street, Elsternwick.

Gardner, Miss K. Como-avenue, South Yarra.

Garis, E. C. De. Tavistock-place, off 377 Flinders-lane.
Garland, Wm. 237 Collins-street.

Garran, R. R. St. George’s-road, Toorak.

Garran, Mrs. R. R. St. George’s-road, Toorak.
Garton, Miss A. E. Oberwyl, Burnett-street, St. Kilda.
Gates, Wm. F., M.A. Selwyn-street, Canterbury.
Gault, Edward, M.A., M.B., M.S. 4 Collins-street.
George, Chas. 51 Park-street, St. Kilda.

Gerny, H. A. 84 William-street.

Gerny, Mrs. H. A. Estcourt, Malvern-road, Malvern.

Gibson, Prof. Boyce, M.A., D.Sc. Lichfield, Wallace-avenue, Toorak.

Gibson, Mrs. Boyce. Lichfield, Wallace-avenue, Toorak.
Gibson, John. Orama, Studley-avenue, Kew.

Gibson, Mrs. John. Orama, Studley-avenue, Kew.

Gibson, W. A. C/o Goldsbrough, Mort, & Co., Ltd.
Gilchrist, A. D., M.A. Royal Military College, Duntroon, N.S.W.
Gill, H., B.A. Education Department.

Gillespie, Mrs. Toolang, St. Kilda-road.

Gillespie, Miss A. Vera. Chesterfield-avenue, Malvern.
Gillespie, J. M. 80 Swanston-street.

Gillespie, John A. Chesterfield-avenue, Malvern.

Gillies, Robt. 21 Belmont-avenue, Kew. Z

Glencross, A. W. 809 Rathdowne-street, North Carlton.
Glendinning, Alfred J. Training College, University.

_ Goding, J. E. 41 The Grove, Moreland.

Goold, Andrew §. Branksome, Sandringham.

Gordon, Miss. 81 Liddiard-street, Hawthorn.

Gordon, George. 81 Liddiard-street, Hawthorn.

Gowenlock, Mrs. D. Glen Tana, Elsternwick.

Graham, Miss Kathleen. Cliveden-mansions, East Melbourne.
Graham, T. O., B.Sc. Melbourne High School, Spring-street.
Grant, C. J., B.C.E. Mildura.

Grant, David, M.D. 79 Collins-street.

Grant, Mrs. David. 79 Collins-street.

Grant, Miss L. M. 413 Park-street, North Carlton.

‘Gray, Miss F. 1022 Drummond-street, North Carlton.

Gray, J. W., M.A. 58 Hawthorn-road, Caulfield.

Gray, Oliver. Ilion, Wedderburn.

Gray, Wm., M.A. Presbyterian Ladies’ College, East Melbourne.
Gray, Mrs. Wm. Presbyterian Ladies’ College, East Melbourne.
Grayson, H. J. Nat. Phil. School, University, Carlton.
Green, F., Inspector of Schools. Benalla.

Green, F. W. Swinburne Technical College, Hawthorn.

nib

- Green, Heber, D.Sc. Agric. Chemistry Laboratory, University, Carlton.

Green, Miss L., M.Sc. Chemistry School, University.

112 BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Green, T. E., M.B., B.S. Forest-street, Bendigo.

Greene, Molesworth. Greystones, Rowsley.

Greene, Miss Molesworth. Greystones, Rowsley.

Greene, Rupert. Pembuley, Toorak.

Greene, Mrs. Rupert. Pembuley, Toorak.

Greenwood, A. H. High School, Spring-street.

Greenwood, Dr. E. F. 120 Collins-street, City.

Greenwood, Mrs. E. F. 120 Collins-street.

aregory, Mrs. A. 184 Inkerman-street, St. Kilda,

Gregory, R. H., LL.B. Selborne-chambers, Chancery-lane, City.
Greig, Miss Janet L., M.B., B.S. 120 Collins-street.

Greig, Jean S., M.B., B.S. Education Department.
xresham, Miss Kate. Framley, Sims-street, Sandringham.
Grice, Miss Elsa M. Coolullah, Williams-road, Hawksburn.
Grice, J. H. Wilgah, Millswyn-street, South Yarra.

rice, John, B.A, LL.B. Coolullah, Williams-road, Hawksburn.
Grice, Mrs. John. Coolullah, Williams-road, Hawksburn.
Grieve, D. 31 Bryson-street, Canterbury.

Griffin, W. B. Home Affairs Department.

Griffiths, D, F. Ardgowan, Geelong.

Griffiths, J. Alfred, B.Sc. The Quadrant, Gardiner.
Griffiths, Dr. J. De Burgh. Somerville.

Griffiths, R. F. Central Weather Bureau.

Grimwade, Harold. Hampden-road, Armadale.

Grimwade, Mrs. H. Hampden-road, Armadale.

aimwade, W. Russell, B.Sc. Miegunyah, Orrong-road, Toorak.
Grimwade, Mrs. Russell. Miegunyah, Orrong-road, Toorak.
Grut, J. B. 57 Swanston-street.

Grut, Leslie de Jersey. 84 Mathoura-road, Toorak.

irut, P. de Jersey, F.R.Met.S. 84 Mathoura-road, Toorak,
Guest, H. G. Department of Agriculture.

Gutteridge, Miss. 167 Collins-street.

Gutteridge, Dr. M. W. 167 Collins-street.

Hack, Clem A. Collins House, Collins-street.

Hack, Mrs. C. A. Chatsworth-avenue, Brighton.

Haddon, Robert J. Anselm, Malvern.

Haig, H. G. 20 Nicholson-street, Fitzroy.

Haines, R. Thorn. The Grove, Foote-street, Elsternwick.

Hales, M. K. 4 Stewart-street, Launceston, Tasmania.

Halford, G. Billing, M.D., B.S. 78 Wattletree-road, Malvern.

Hall, Miss. 16 Bruce-street, Toorak.

Hall, Alan P. 6 McGregor-street, Middle Park.

Hall, Alfred S., M.A. Camberwell Grammar School, Camberwell.
Hall, James. 17 Queen-street.

Hall, T. M. 11 Kasouka-road, Camberwell.

Hall, T. 8., D.Sc., M.A. University.

Hall, Mrs. T. S. University.

Hall, Mrs. Wm. 16 Bruce-street, Toorak.

Hallenstein, Edward. C/o Michaelis, Hallenstein, & Co., Lonsdale-street.
Hallenstein, Mrs. Edward. C/o Michaelis, Hallenstein, & Co., Lonsdale-strect.
Hallenstein, R. Woonsocket, Barkly-street, St. Kilda.

Hallenstein, Mrs. R. Woonsocket, Barkly-street, St. Kilda.
Hamer, Mrs. D. J. Kinkora-road, Hawthorn.

Hamer, H. R. 352 Collins-street.

Hamilton, Miss. Toorak College, Douglas-street, Toorak.
Hamilton, Miss F. State School 1508, Glenferrie.

Hamilton, Jas. T., F.L.S. Brooklyn, Heidelberg-road, Ivanhoe.
Hamilton, Miss R., B.A. Toorak College, Douglas-street, Toorak.
Hamley, H. R., M.A. University High School, Carlton.

Hammil, Miss. Carinyam, Brookville-avenue, Toorak.

Handley, Edgar, B.Agr.Sc. Agricultural High School, Wangaratta.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 113

Hansen, M. P., M.A., LL.B. Avalon, Tintern-avenue, Toorak.
Harcourt, Rev. J. R., B.A. Highbury-grove, Kew.

Hard, H. Stawell.

Hardbottle, Mrs. EB. H. Wimborne-avenue, Chelsea.

Hardy, A. D., F.L.S. Yarralangli, Studley-avenue, Kew.
Hardy, Lieut.-Commdr. H. W. M. H.M.A.S. ‘ Cerberus,’ Williamstown.
Hargrave, A. L. Electric Power House, Green-street, Richmond.
Hargreaves, Ernest P., M.Am.Inst.M.E., A.LM.M. (Lon.). 31 Queen-street.
Harper, H. R. Town Hall.

Harper, John. 33 Kooyongkoot-road, Hawthorn.

Harper, Mrs. John. 33 Kooyongkoot-road, Hawthorn.

Harper, Therold. 326 Flinders-lane.

Harper, W. The Waldorf, Fitzroy-street, St. Kilda.

Harper, Mrs. W. The Waldorf, Fitzroy-street, St. Kilda.
Harris, C. 8. 42 Russell-place, North Williamstown.

Harris, Miss R. G. Courtroy, Sale.

Harris, Wm. J., B.A. High School, Castlemaine.

Harrison, Miss. 58 Walpole-street, Kew.

Harrison, George. 33 Lygon-street, Carlton.

Harrison, H. C. 138 Gipps-street, East Melbourne.

Harrison, Rev. Sale, B.D. 104 Dawson-streect South, Ballarat.
Hart, Alfred, M.A., M.Sc. Rockley-road, South Yarra.

Hart, J. Stephen, M.A., B.Sc. 20 Cromwell-road, Hawksburn.
Hart, Thomas S., M.A., B.C.E. Forest School, Creswick.

Hart, Wm. Queen’s College, Carlton.

Hartnell, Leonard. Pascoe Vale-road, Moonee Ponds.

Hartnell, W. A. 67 Bourke-street.

Hartnell, Mrs. W. A. Irrewarra, Burke-road, Camberwell.
Hartung, FE. J., B.Sc. 9 Glendearg-avenue, Malvern.

Hartung, Ernst. 9 Glendearg-avenue, Malvern.

Harvey, J. H., F.R.V.1.A. 128 Powlett-street, East Melbourne.
Harvey, Norman K. C/o Sulphide Corporation, Boolaroo, N.S.W.
Harvey, 8. 128 Powlett-street, East Melbourne.

Harvie, Miss L. 53 Elizabeth-street.

Harvie, Miss Maude. 53 Elizabeth-street.

Hatfield, A. W., B.Sc. High School, Kyneton.

Hawkins, John 8. 74 Hawksburn-road, South Yarra.
Hawkyard, E. F. 10 Horne-street, Brunswick.

Hayden, L. Arosfa, Bay-road, Sandringham.

Haynes, Thos. W. 39 Queen-street.

Heathcote, Rev. Wyndham 8. 2 Murphy-street, South Yarra.
Heaton, Herbert, M.A. University, Tasmania.

Heaton, Mrs. H. University, Tasmania,

Hebden, Miss E. G. 87 Alma-road, East St. Kilda,

Henderson, Anketell M., M.C.E. 352 Collins-street.

Henderson, Miss I. V. Clyde, Alma-road, East St. Kilda.
Henderson, Mrs. Leslie. 'Taiwera, Wangaratta.

Henderson, Miss Mary A., M.B., B.S. 2 Luxton-road, Hawthorn.
Henderson, Wm., B.A. 1 Erskine-strect, Malvern.

Hennell, Rev. Halford. Box Hill.

Hennessey, David. Twickenham House, Bridge-road, Richmond.
Henry, Louis, M.D. 6 Alma-road, East St. Kilda.

Herbert, A. S. 59 William-street.

Herbert, Mrs. Ethel M. 22 Tintern-avenue, Toorak.

Hercus, Eric 0. C/o Rev. Gordon, Armadale.

Herman, H., B.C.E., M.M.E. Ailsa Craig, Gleneira-road, East St. Kilda.
Herman, Mrs. H. Ailsa Craig, Gleneira-road, East St. Kilda.
Heron, H. L. Goathland, East St. Kilda.

Herring, Miss M. Scott Grove, East Malvern.

Hesketh, John. Postmaster-General’s Department.

Hewison, Rev. B. Baptist Church, Northcote.

Hewlett, H. M., M.B., B.S. Melbourne-mansions, Collins-street, City,

1914, AH

114 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Hewlett, Mrs. H. M. Melbourne-mansions, Collins-street, City.
Hickford, Miss I. M. Park-street, Brunswick.

Higgin, Alfred J., F.1.C. University.

Higgins, George, M.C.E., M.Inst.C.E. Beaumaris.

Higgins, Mrs. George. Beaumaris.
§Higgins, J. M. Riversdale-road, Camberwell.
§Higgins, Mrs. J. M. Riversdale-road, Camberwell.

Hill, Hy. W. 47 Domain-road, South Yarra.

Hiller, Konrad, M.D., B.S. 85 Collins-street.

Hirt, W. B. C/o Cuming Smith & Co., Yarra Junction.
Hoadley, Mrs. A. Bella Vista, Cotham-road, Kew.
§Hoadley, C. A., M.Sc. Weenabah, Ballarat.

Hoadley, Miss E. Bella Vista, Cotham-road, Kew.

Hoadley, Miss N. Bella Vista, Cotham-road, Kew.
§Hobson, A. Kyme. Overseas Club, 266 Flinders-street.
Hocking, J., B.A. High School.

Hoelscher, Miss Ernestine. Grace Park College, Mary-street, Hawthorn.
Holbrooke, A. C. J. Athenzum Club.

Holdsworth, Rev. W. H. The Baptist College, North Melbourne.
Hollow, J. G. Bamfield-street, Sandringham.

Holmes, C. H. 51 Canterbury-road, Middle Park.

Holmes, C. M., F.C.P.A. 19 Queen-street.

Holmes, K. W., B.C.E. Railway Construction Office, Hamilton.
Holmes, Miss M., M.A. 54 Sackville-street, Kew.

Holmes, W. M., M.A., B.Sc. 54 Sackville-street, Kew.’

Hood, Hon. Victor Nelson, A.D.C. State Government House.
Hooke, F. G. 31 Queen-street.

Hooker, Miss Francis. Claremont-crescent, Canterbury.
Hooper, J. W. Dunbar, M.D. 2 Collins-street.

Hooper, Mrs. J. W. Dunbar. 2 Collins-street.

Hornabrook, Dr. R. W. 90 Collins-street.

Hornabrook, Mrs. R. W. 90 Collins-street.

Horton, Miss A. C. 37 Davis-street, Kew.

Hosking, Prof. R., B.Sc. Royal Military College, Duntroon, N.S. W.
Howard, Mrs. Florence. Queen’s College, St. Kilda.

Howard, G. T., B.A., M.D., B.S. 4 Collins-street.

Howard, Henry. Queen’s College, St. Kilda.

Howat, Miss Mary. 458 William-street.

Howat, Wm. 458 William-street.

Howson, E. 8. Postmaster-General’s Departments

Hughes, Rev. Canon E. §., B.A. 410 Albert-street, East Melbourne.
Hughes, Mrs. E. 8. 410 Albert-street, East Melbourne.
Hughes, F. G. Collins House, Collins-street, City.

Hughes, Mrs. F. G. Collins House, Collins-street, City.
Hughes, Miss N. Kent. 22 Collins-street.

Hughes, V. J. 423 Flinders-lane.

Hughes, W. Kent, M.B. 22 Collins-street.

Hughston, Miss N. Fintona, Burke-road, Camberwell.
Hughston, W. J., B.A. Open Air School, Sandringham.
Hummerston, John W. 795 Drummond-street, North Carlton.
Hunt, Atlee. 61 Spring-street.

Hunt, B. 65 William-street.

Hunt, H. A., Government Meteorologist, Weather Bureau.
Hunt, Mrs. H. A. Weather Bureau.

Hunt, H. W. 317 Collins-street,

Hunt, Miss M. Methodist Ladies’ College, Hawthorn.

Hunt, P. C. H. Avon, St. Kilda-road.

Hunter, G. Cobram E.S. School, Cobram.

Hunter, Stanley. Department of Mines.

Hurford, Mrs. M. G. Benza, Clarendon-street, East Melbourne.
Hurley, T. E. Victor, M.D., B.S. 2 Collins-street.

Hurst, E. E. 285 Amess-street, North Carlton.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 115

Hutchison, Mrs. A. F. 10 Union-street, Malvern.

Hutchison, Alan J. 327-9 Collins-street.

Hutton, Miss Florence, B.Sc. Yathong, Manning-road, East Malvern.
Hutton, Miss Mary. High School.

Ills, Ed. H. Royal Yacht Club, Collins-street.

Ingamells, F. N. Meteorological Bureau.

Ingamells, Herbert. Whitehorse-road, Blackburn.

Ingamells, Miss J. M. 48 Power-street, Hawthorn.

Ingamells, Joshua. Williams-road, Box Hill.

Ingham, Rey. J. H. Holgrave, Balwyn.

Ingham, Mrs. J. H. Holgrave, Balwyn.

Ingram, W. F., M.A. 167 Royal Parade, Parkville.

Irvine, Mrs. W. H. Killeavey, Eltham.

Irving, Miss M. E. L. Lauriston, Malvern.

Irving, Miss M. I. M. Lauriston, Malvern.

Ison, Capt. Wm. 152 Bridport-street, Albert Park.

§Jack, A. K., B.Sc. Agricultural College, Dookie, Victoria.

Jack, Mrs. M. E. William-street, Brighton.

Jackson, H. A., B.C.E. 51 Spring-street.

Jackson, James, M.D. 12 Collins-street Hast.

Jackson, Miss Lilias, M.Sc. Kooyong, Wattletree-road, Malvern,
Jackson, Major W. 47 Queen-street.

Jacobs, E. R. Glenhope, Chilcote-avenue, Malvern.

James, Albert. High School.

James, C. V. Queen’s College, Carlton.

James, Mrs. Edwin M. Dandenong-road, East St. Kilda.
Jamieson, Jas., M.D. 12 Lambert-road, Toorak.

Jamieson, Miss Jean H. 12 Lambert-road, Toorak.
Jamieson, W. R. 41 Charles-street, Kew.

Jarrett, Miss Mary L. F. Ithaca, Walsh-street, South Yarra.
Jenkins, J. E. C/o W. Thorn, Department of Mines.
Jennings, J. D. Agricultural High School, Mansfield.
Jenvey, H. W. Lord-street, Glenhuntly.

Jewell, W. R. Ormond College, Parkville.

§Jobbins, G. G., A.M.I.E.E. Geelong Club, Geelong.
Johnson, Mrs. F. Miller. St. Vincent’s-place North, Albert Park.
Johnson, J. A., Principal, Philip Smith Training College, Hobart, Tasmania.
Johnson, Wilford J. 4238 Little Collins-street.

Johnstone, Jas. 80 Swanston-street.
Jona, J. Leon, M.D., B.S. 104 Wattletree-road, Malvern.
Jona, Mrs. J. Leon. 104 Wattletree-road, Malvern.
Jones, Miss A. 861 Drummond-street, North Carlton.
Jones, Arthur B. 241 Rathdown-street, Carlton.
Jones, Dr. Ernest. Halstead, Bruce-street, Toorak.
Jones, Miss Gwen. 861 Drummond-street, North Carlton.
Jones, Jno. H., M.R.C.S. Public Health Department.
Jones, Miss Lucy A. Eye and Ear Hospital, East Melbourne.
Jones, Murray I. Commercial House, Flinders-street.
Jones, Mrs. Orbell. Fairholm, Walsh-street, South Yarra.
Jones, Robert. 28 The Avenue, Royal Park.
Joscelyn, H. M. Central Weather Bureau.
Joshua, E. C. Munroe-street, Armadale.
Joske, A. S., M.D., B.S. Greville-street, Prahran.
Joske, Mrs. A. S. Groville-street, Prahran.
Joske, Miss. Greville-street, Prahran.
Joske, Miss Lorna, B.Sc. Burke-road, East Malvern.
Joy, C. W. 214 Dawson-street, Ballarat.
Jutson, J. T. Geological Survey Office, Perth, W.A.

H 2

116 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Kaufmann, J. C., LL.D. 49 Queen-street.

Kaufmann, Mrs. J. Cholmondeley. 31 Princes-street, Kew.

Kaye, Hy. R. C/o Cuming Smith & Co., Port Melbourne.

Keane, Rev. W. Xavier College, Kew.

Keble, Robert A. Mines Survey Office.

Keep, Albert E. Elmhurst, Alma-road, Caulfield.

Keep, Ernest E., M.A. 70 Elizabeth-street.

Keep, Mrs. Ernest E. Witchwood, Punt Hill, South Yarra.

Keep, Francis. Mountfield, Canterbury.

Keep, Miss Heather. Witchwood, Punt Hill, South Yarra.

Kelly, Bowes. Moorakyne, Malvern.

Kelly, Mrs. Bowes. Moorakyne, Malvern.

Kelly, Miss E. M. 146 Park-street West, Brunswick.

Kelly, J. P. Dookie.

Kelly, Monckton. Trinity College, Parkville.

Kelly, Reg. C. 59 Swanston-street.

Kelly, Miss Violet. Moorakyne, Malvern.

Kelly, Wm. French C,, B.A. 43 Collins-street.

Kendall, A. W. Australian General Electric Company.

Kendall, W. T., D.V.Se. 36 Park-street West, Brunswick.

Kennedy, Arthur E. Geological Survey Office, Ballarat.

Kennelly, Rev. Father. Administrator St. Patrick’s Cathedral, Ballarat.

Kenny, Miss A. 246 Abbotsford-street, Hotham Hill.

Kenny, A. I.., M.B., B.S. 13 Collins-street.

Kenny, J. P. L., B.C.E. Geological Survey, Tallandoon, Tallangatta, Vic-
toria.

Kenyon, A. 8. Public Offices.

Kenyon, Mrs. Agnes F. 291 Highett-street, Richmond.

Kermode, George, M.C.E. Customs House.

Kernot, Frederic A, Monaro-road, Malvern North.

Kernot, Mrs. F. B. Monaro-road, Malvern North,

Kernot, Miss M. J. Firenze, East Malvern.

Kernot, Wilfred N., B.C.E. Firenze, East Malvern.

Kerr, W. Warren. Trenant, Wrixon-street, Kew.

Kerr, Mrs. Warren. Trenant, Wrixon-street, Kew.

Kerry, Mrs. W. 18 Scott-street, St. Kilda.

Kershaw, J. A., F.E.S. National Museum.

Kiddle, Miss Elsie. Moultrassie, South Yarra.

Kiddle, Miss Irene. Moultrassie, South Yarra.

Kiddle, Miss Marion G. Moultrassie, South Yarra.

Kildahl, Miss E. M. 645 Punt-road, South Yarra.
Kilvington, Mrs. Basil. Cronton, Sefton-place, East Camberwell.
Kineaid, Miss Hilda S., D.Se. Tarana, Kinkora-road, Hawthorn.
King, Mrs. E. E. Myrnong, Redan-street, St. Kilda.

King, G. R. Gordon College, Geelong.

King, J. High School, Bendigo.

King, Rey. Joseph. Lindisfarne, Foley-street, Kew.

Kirk, Mrs. M. E. 96 Exhibition-street.

Kitchen, Wm. J. Inglis-street, Port Melbourne.

Kitson, J. 8. High School.

Klug, G. C/o Bewick Moreing & Co., Collins-street.

Klug, Mrs. G. C. C/o Bewick Moreing & Co., Collins-street.
Kneen, Edgar A., B.C.E. Ward-street, Beaumaris.

§Knibbs, G. H., C.M.G., F.R.A.S., F.S.S. Commonwealth Bureau of Statistics.
Knibbs, Norman V. 8. Kooyongkoot-road, Hawthorn.
Konig, Mr. St, Leonard’s-avenue, St. Kilda.

Kornblum, Gerald. Chilcote-avenue, Malvern.
Kozminsky, Mrs. A. Burnett-street, St. Kilda.
Krome, Otto, B.A. 92 Wellington-street, Kew.
Kussmaul, C., M.I.C.E. 93 Broadway, East Camberwell.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 117

Laby, Prof. T. K., B.A. Victoria College, Wellington, New Zealand.
Laidlaw, Mrs. Margaret A. P. Clarendon-street, East Melbourne.
Laidlaw, Wm., B.Sc.Edin., Government Biologist. Department of Agri-
culture.
Laing, Geo. State Rivers and Water Supply Commission.
Lamble, Miss. Rathkeale, Heidelberg.
Lamble, Gilbert, M.D., B.S. Queen’s College.
Landale, Mrs. Alexander. Aroona, Toorak.
§Lane, Chas. C/o John Sanderson & Co., William-street.
Lane, Miss Mary. Students’ Room, Melbourne Hospital.
Lane, W. H. 386 Punt-road, South Yarra.
Lang, A. B. Crown Lands Office.
Lang, John. Overwells, Punt-road, South Yarra.
Lang, Mrs. John. Overwells, Punt-road, South Yarra.
Langford, P. University High School, Carlton.
Langford, W. G. 23 Kingsley-street, Camberwell.
Langlands, F. H., M.B., B.S. Haldon, St. Kilda-road,
Langley, G. F. Agricultural High School, Mansfield.
Langton, Miss. Surbiton, Kew.
Langton, Rivers. Surbiton, Kew.
Larcher, Horatio. 45 Moor-street, Fitzroy.
Larcher, Wm. 45 Moor-street, Fitzroy.
Lascelles, E. H. Minapre, Geelong.
Lascelles, Mrs. Minapre, Geelong.
Latham, J. G., M.A., LL.B. Selborne-chambers, Chancery-lanc, City.
Latham, Mrs. J. G. Selborne-chambers, Chancery-lane, City.
Latham, L. 8., B.A., M.D., B.S. 54 Collins-street.
Latham, Mis. L. 8. Eastern House, George-street, East Melbourne.
Latham, Thos. 136 Swanston-street.
Laughton, A. M., F.I.A., F.F.A., Victorian Government Statist.
Laughton, Miss Edith P. C/o A. M. Laughton, Victorian Government
Statist.
Laurie, Henry, LL.D. Elvaston, The Righi, South Yarra.
Laurie, Hy., M.D. Ardlui, Brighton-road, St. Kilda.
Laurie, Dr. W. Spalding, M.D., B.S. Hampton-road, Hampton.
Lavater, G. T. A. The Gables, Heidelberg.
Laver, Jno. Leumah, Mantell-street, Moonee Ponds.
Lavers, Hy. Canterbury-road, Surrey Hills.
Lavery, Hugh, I’. V.L8. Airlie, Lara-street, South Yarra.
Law, Major Robert. The Royal Mint.
Lawrence, Dr. Herman. 82 Collins-street.
Lawry, W. I. New Zealand Loan and Mercantile Agency Co., Collins-
street.
Lawry, Mrs. M. E. C/o W. F. Lawry, N.Z. Loan and Mercantile Agency
Co., Collins-street.
Lawton, Miss E. E. Presbyterian Ladies’ College, East Melbourne.
Lawton, F. B. Brighton Grammar School, Brighton.
Leach, Mrs. Emily L. University.
Leach, J. A., D.Se. Eyrecourt, Canterbury.
Lear, Darcy C. 126 Gatehouse-street, Parkville.
Learmonth, Mrs. Holmes-road, Moonee Ponds.
Le Couteur, G. IT. 285 Glenferrie-road, Hawthorn.
Ledingham, T. J. 62 Grey-street, St. Kilda.
Ledingham, Mrs. T. J. 62 Grey-street, St. Kilda.
Leeper, Alexander, M.A., LL.D. ‘Trinity College, Parkville.
Leeper, Mrs. A. ‘Trinity College, Parkville.
Legge, Rev. G. A. Independent Hall, Collins-street.
Leighton, A. E., F.C. Cordite Factory, Maribyrnong.
Leitch, Mrs. Walter. Oriental Hotel.
Lemann, Miss F. Munro-street, Armadale.
Lemmon, John. Working Men’s College.
Lemon, Ferguson, M.B., B.S. 90 Collins-street.

118 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Leon, 8., LL.M. Law Courts.

§Le Souef, W. H. D., C.M.Z.S8. Zoological Gardens, Parkville,
Lewis, J. Monahan, D.D.Sc. Auburn-grove, Auburn.
Lewis, Mrs. 11 Auburn-grove, Auburn,

Lewis, K. B. 41 Kooyong-road, Armadale.

Lewis, Miss R. M. 8 Mercer-road, Malvern.

Lewis, Reg. J. Swinton, Maud-street, Kew.

Lewis, Mrs. Reg. J. Swinton, Maud-street, Kew.

Liet, Madame. Seymour-road, Elsternwick.

Lightfoot, Gerald. 85 Park-street, St. Kilda.

Lightfoot, Mrs. Gerald. 85 Park-street, St. Kilda.
Lincolne, Gerald B. 430 Little Collins-street.

Link, M. E. 44 High-street, Kew.

Lister, Mrs. A. 35 Mill-street, Hawthorn.

Liston, R. B. Training College, Carlton.

Little, John, F.R.V.I.A. 360 Collins-street.

little, Miss M. Beatrice, M.A. Dante, New-street, Brighton.
Littlejohn, Mrs. Jean. Scotch College.

Littlejohn, W. 8., M.A. Scotch College.

Littlewood, Miss Edith. St. Ives, Toorak-road, South Yarra.
Living, Miss Mary. Alexandra Club, Flinders-street.
Livingstone, Miss A. M., B.A. 49 Barkly-street, St. Kilda.
Livingstone, Rev. Hugh. 89 Caroline-street, South Yarra.
Lloyd, H. Cairns, M.D. Madowla, St. Kilda-road.

Lloyd, Mrs. H. Cairns. Madowla, St. Kilda-road.
Lockhart, Miss M., M.A. Gowrie, Barry-street, Kew.
Lockhead, R. 369 Collins-street.

S$Lockyer, Ormonde H. 8. 126 Webster-street, Ballarat.
Lockyer, Mrs. Ormonde. 126 Webster-street, Ballarat.
Login, John. 1 Hawksburn-road, Hawksburn.

London, Mrs. F. G. 158 Nicholson-street, Footscray.
Long, Chas. R., M.A. 541 Lygon-street, North Carlton.
Long, Mrs. C. R. 541 Lygon-street, North Carlton.
Longman, 8. A. 34 Hobbs-street, Seddon.

Lorimer, Miss C. C. Auditorium, Collins-street.

Lormer, Arthur, M.A. 26 Mason-street, Hawthorn.
Lormer, Mrs. Mary J. 26 Mason-street, Hawthorn.
Lormer, R. J. 26 Mason-street, Hawthorn,

Lothian, Miss E. I., M.A. Merton Hall, South Yarra.
Lothian, Thos. C. 100 Flinders-street.

Loughrey, Bernard, M.A., M.B., B.S., M.C.E. Cnr. Elgin and Denham-streets,

Hawthorn.

Loughrey, Geo. E., B.A., LL.B. 103 Hotham-street, East Melbourne.
Loughrey, James C., B.A. Ballarat.

*Love, E. F. J., M.A., D.Sc. University.

Love, Miss Florence E. ‘The Grove, Moreland.

Lovett, Eldred C. 14 Bunbury-street, Footscray.

Lowry, J. C., B.A. Education Department, Maryborough.
Luby, W. H. Lands Department.

Luke, Mrs. H. A. Whitehall, Bank-place.

Lumsden, D. G. 39 Queen-street.

Lumsden, Mrs. Mary Bell. 39 Queen-street.

Lush, Geo. 45 Studley Park-road, Kew.

Lush, Mrs. M. D. Oakwood, Studley Park-road, Kew.
Luttrell, G. 8. Demster, Ascot-street, Malvern.

Lydiard, Miss Annie. Pasley-street, South Yarra.

Lyell, Geo. C/o Cherry & Sons, Gisborne.

§Lyle, Professor T. R., M.A., F.R.S. Lisbuoy, Irving-road, Toorak

Lyle, Mrs. T. R. Lisbuoy, ‘Trving- road, Toorak.
Lyle, Miss. Lisbuoy, Irving-road, Toorak.
Lyon, Geo. O. Glenogil, Harkaway.

Lyon, O. Gordon. 17 Queen-street.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 119

McAdam, Dr. R. Stormont, Alma-road, Hast St. Kilda.
§McAlpine, D. Berkeley-street, Hawthorn.
McAlpine, Mrs. Berkeley-street, Hawthorn.
McArthur, A. Norman, M.B., B.S. 74 Collins-street.
McArthur, G. A. D., M.B., B.S. 85 Spring-street.
MacBain, Rev. Smith, B.A. Charlcote, Queenscliff.
McBryde, Miss. Kamesburgh, Brighton.
McBryde, Hon. D. E. Kamesburgh, Brighton.
McCallum, Rev. A. Wesley Church, Lonsdale-street.
McCallum, Mrs. A. 65 Stanhope-street, Malvern.
McCallum, Dr. Gavin. Ryrie-street, Geelong.
McCarthy, Chas., M.B., B.S. Paisley-street, Footscray.
McCarthy, F. C. 31 Queen-street.
Macartney, Wm. 8. Room 158, Ways and Works Branch, Railway Offices.
McCaw, Wm. J. 7 Liddiard-street, Hawthorn.
§McColl, Miss Ada. Post Office, Parkville.
McColl, Dr. D. Stewart. Glenshiel, Camberwell.
McColl, Mrs. D. Stewart. Glenshiel, Camberwell.
McConnan, E. J. School of Mines, Ballarat.
McCormick, P. 1 Brinsley-road, Camberwell.
McCowan, A., M.I.N.A. 483 Collins-street.
McCowan, Mrs. Weinberg-road, Hawthorn.
McCowan, Miss Dora. Weinberg-road, Hawthorn.
McCoy, Wm. T. Education Department, Hobart, Tasmania.
McCracken, H. R. Burke-road, Hawthorn.
McCracken, Mrs. H. R. Burke-road, Hawthorn.
McCreery, Dr. J. V. 28 Collins-street.
McCullough, R. Caulfield Grammar School, East St. Kilda.
McCutcheon, R. G. Bank-place, Collins-street.
McCutcheon, Mrs. R. P. 349 Collins-street.
Macdonald, Miss. 70 Park-street, Parkville.
Macdonald, A. C. 210 Punt-road, Prahran.
Macdonald, A. J. Fortrose, Brighton-road, Elsternwick.
McDonald, Rev. Alex., M.A. 16 Canterbury-road, Camberwell.
McDonald, B. E. Mathoura-road, Toorak.
Macdonald, Dr. D. Mozart-street, St. Kilda.
Macdonald, Miss D. 57 Swanston-street.
McDonald, Mrs. E. A. Inkerman-road, Caulfield.
MacDonald, Hector. 360 Collins-street.
Macdonald, Miss Isabel J., M.A. 7 Barrington-avenue, Kew.
McDonald, J., M.A. 6 Raglan-street North, Ballarat.
McDonald, Miss A., M.A. 6 Raglan-street North, Ballarat.
Macdonald, McDonald. MRadio-Telegraph Branch, Postmaster-General’s
Department.
MacDonald, Norman, B.V.Sc. Tasma, Parliament-place.
MacDougall, J. K., AM.IE.E. 430 Little Collins-street.
McFarland, Dr. J. H., M.A., LL.D. Ormond College, Parkville.
McGrath, Maxwell. Merton-avenue, Gardenvale.
McGrath, Mrs. 8. R. Merton-avenue, Gardenvale.
McInerney, Mrs. J. Garryowen, Nicholson-street, North Fitzroy.
McInermey, T. P., M.A., LL.D. Kensington-road, South Yarra.
McKain, Mrs. Ogilvie. 2 Princes-avenue, Hast Caulfield.
Mackay, Miss Ada M., M.A. Garton-street, Princes Hill.
McKay, D. Swinburne College, Hawthorn.
Mackay, E. Alan, M.B. Thurso, Toorak-road, Toorak.
Mackay, Mrs. E. Alan. ‘Thurso, Toorak-road, Toorak.
McKay, G., Federal Commissioner of Land Tax.
Mackay, G. W. Buckley-street, Essendon.
McKay, R. T. Waterworks Trust, Geelong.
McKean, H. T. 11 St. Leonard’s-avenue, St. Kilda.
McKean, Miss F. E. 11] St. Leonard’s-avenue, St. Kilda.
McKellar, Mrs. E. E. Mt. Violet, Camperdown.

120 BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

McKellar, Miss Jean. Lawrenny, Caramut.

McKenna, Maurice. Ormond College, Parkville.
MacKenzie, A. C. Harbour Trust.

Mackenzie, J. Forbes, M.B., Ch.B. 266 Queen’s Parade, Clifton Hill.
Mackenzie, M. G. Department of Lands and Survey.
Mackey, P. F. 115 Elizabeth-street.

Mackey, Mrs. P. F. 115 Elizabeth-street.

Mackinlay, Wm. Merrigang, Ringwood.

Mackinnon, Donald. Acland-street, South Yarra.
Mackinnon, Mrs. Donald. Acland-street, South Yarra.
Mackinnon, Miss H. K. Acland-street, South Yarra.
Mackinnon, Miss Margot F. Kilbride, Toorak.
Mackintosh, W. G. Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works.
McLaren, Mrs. 8. G. 22 Barrington-avenue, Kew.
McLaren, Rev. W. D. College-crescent, Parkville.
McLaughlin, J. Sebroff, Orrong-road, Armadale.
McLaughlin, Mrs. J. Sebroff, Orrong-road, Armadale.
McLean, C. Malvern Grammar School, Malvern.

Maclean, C. W. Latrobe, Carrum.

McLean, Donald, M.B., B.S. 167 Bay-street, Brighton.
McLean, Mrs. Donald. 167 Bay-street, Brighton.

McLean, Miss Ethel M., M.A. Seymour-avenue, Malvern.
McLean, R. R. 140 Clarendon-street, East Melbourne.
Maclean, Mrs. W. Lynwood, Broadway, East Camberwell.
McLellan, Mrs. M. A. Hallams-road Railway Station, Victoria,
McLennan, Miss EK. 14 Manningtree-road, Hawthorn.
McLennan, J. P. Agricultural High School, Warragul.
McLennon, D. Kent-street, Kew.

McLorman, Dr. Margaret H. Clayton-road, Clayton.
McMicking, Miss E. J. Maitland. Alexandra Club.
McMillan, T. O. 80 Osborne-street, Williamstown.
Macnab, Angus D. Oakbank, Tullamarine, Victoria.
McNab, Louis K. Waiora-road, Caulfield.

McNamara, W. I’. 14 Royal Parade, Caulfield.

MacNeece, Mrs. 47 Tivoli-road, South Yarra.
§Macnicol, A. N. 31 Queen-strect.

McOwan, John, B.A, Marine Parade, St. Kilda,
McPherson, W. M., M.L.A. Jnvergowrie, St. James Park, Hawthorn.
McRae, J., M.A. 97 Dandenong-road, Malvern.

Macrae, Miss Nita. Huntingtower-road, Malvern.
Madden, Miss. Travancore, Flemington.

Madden, Mrs. David. ‘Thomas-street, Hampton,

Mahony, D. J., M.Sc. Coonac, Irvine-road, Toorak.
Mailer, Melrose, M.B., B.S. Glencairn, Craigrossie-avenue, Moreland.
Main, A. R., M.A. College of the Bible, Glen Iris.

Mair, Mrs. E. C, A. Banksia-strect, Heidelberg.

Mair, J. R. Banksia-street, Heidelberg.

Maling, D. H. Heidelberg.

Maling, Mrs. D. H. Heidelberg.

Maloney, Dr. W., M.H.R. Federal Parliament House.
Manifold, Mrs. Walter. Coonac, Clendon-road, Toorak.
Mann, Mrs. C. Lawrenny, Caramut.

Mann, F. W., M.A., LL.M. Selborne-chambers.

Mann, 8. F. Melbourne Club, Collins-street.

Markham, Mrs. EB. A. Park-mansions, Park-street, South Yarra.
Marks, E. N. 326-8 Flinders-lane.

Marks, Isidore J. 14 Collins-street,

Marks, Mrs. I. J. 14 Collins-street.

Marquand, Miss. Leslie-grove, Brighton Beach.
Marquand, Miss L. Leslie-grove, Brighton Beach.

Marsh, Mrs. Malcolm. Balaclava-road, East St. Kilda.
Marshall, Rev. Alex., M.A., D.D. Scotts Church.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 121

Marshall, Miss I. D., M.A. University High School, Carlton.
Martin, Miss E. K. 33 Murphy-street, South Yarra.

Martin, Edward. 369 Collins-street.

Martin, Miss Ella R. Mandeville Hall, Toorak.

Martin, Frances Crawford. 21 Morrah-street, Parkville,
Martin, J. B. St. Leonard’s-avenue, St. Kilda.

Martin, M. Mining Survey Office, Ballarat.

Mason, V. F. 320 Collins-street.

Masson, Miss Elsie. University.

§Masson, Professor Orme, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.S. University.
Masters, Rev. F. G., M.A. Holy Trinity Vicarage, Balaclava.
Masters, Mrs. F. G. Holy Trinity Vicarage, Balaclava.
Mathese, Fraulein Louise. Oxford-chambers.

Mathew, Rey. John, M.A. The Manse, The Grove, Coburg,
Mathieson, Robt. 40 Mary-street, St. Kilda.

Mathieson, Mrs. Robt. 40 Mary-street, St. Kilda.
Mathison, Mrs. Mary. 43 Ebden-street, Elsternwick,
Mathison, 8. C. C., M.D., B.S. Melbourne Hospital.
Mattingley, Arthur. 17 Selborne-road, Kew.

Mattingley, Dr. H. V. 23 Prospect Hill-road, Camberwell.
Maudsley, H., M.D. 8 Collins-street.

Maxwell, C., M.B., B.S. Thalassa, Frankston.

Maxwell, L. A. Ivan, B.Sc. 162 Brunswick-road, West Brunswick.
May, H. M. 27 Melby-avenue, Hast St. Kilda.

May, Mrs. H. M. 27 Melby-avenue, East St. Kilda.
Meadows, John. 160 Lonsdale-street.

Mein, D. W. Melbourne Club.

Meldrum, IF’. 253 Beaconsfield Parade, Middle Park.

Mellor, Lesley A. Chaucer-crescent, Canterbury.

Mellor, Mrs. L. A. Chaucer-crescent, Canterbury.

Melville, A. G. 31 The Avenue, Balaclava.

Mendelsohn, M. 191 High-street, St. Kilda.

Merfield, C. J., F.R.A.S. Melbourne Observatory, South Yarra,
Merfield, Miss Myra, B.A. 46 Elizabeth-street.

Merfield, P. W. High-street, Kew.

Merrin, A. H., M.C.E. Orrong-road, Caulfield,

Merritt, J. K., M.L.C. Fairholme, Kew.

Mesley, A. Agricultural High School, Leongatha.

Meyer, Dr. Felix. 59 Collins-street.

Meyer, Mrs. Felix. 59 Collins-street.

Meyer, Hugo R. Avenay, Glenferrie-road, Malvern.
Meyer, Mrs. Hugo R. Avenay, Glenferrie-road, Malvern.
Michaelis, Miss Alice. Linden, Acland-street, St. Kilda.
Michaelis, Ernest. Linden, Acland-street, St. Kilda.
Michaelis, F. C/o Michaelis, Hallenstein, & Co., Footscray.
Michaelis, Mrs. Fred. Orwell, Robe-street, St. Kilda.

Millar, Miss A. L. Lynwood, Broadway, East Camberwell.
Miller, Mrs. Albert. Whernside, Toorak.

Miller, E. Studley. Glynn, Kooyong-road, Toorak.
Miller, Mrs. Edward. Glynn, Kooyong-road, Toorak.
Miller, Miss Elizabeth. 7 St. Vincent-place, Albert Park.
Miller, Mrs. H. M. Cantala, Caulfield.

Miller, L. F., M.A., LL.M. Whernside, Toorak.

Milne, F., M.A. 42 Avenue, Royal Park.

Minchin, Mrs. E. W. 645 Punt-road, South Yarra.

Minifie, Jas. 1 Martin-street, Elsternwick.

Minifie, J., Junr. 1 Martin-street, Elsternwick.

Minifie, Richd. 1 Martin-street, Elsternwick.

Mitchell, E. F. Fanecourt, Irving-road, Toorak.

Mitchell, Mrs. E. F. Fanecourt, Irving-road, Toorak.
Mitchell, Leonard, M.B., B.S. 96 Simpson-street, East Melbourne.
Mitchell, Mrs. Leonard. 96 Simpson-street, East Melbourne.

122 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Mitchell, Miss M. L. Te Hongi, Cheltenham.

Mitchell, Miss S. E., B.A., Dip.Ed. 115 Sydney-road, Parkville.

Mitchell, 8. R. Working Men’s College.

Molesworth, Miss. Ardoch, Dandenong-road, East St. Kilda.

Molesworth, Jno. Mittagong, St. Kilda.

Molesworth, Mrs. Jno. Mittagong, St. Kilda.

Mollison, Miss E. Royal-crescent, Camberwell.

Molloy, C. H., M.D., B.S. Tarwin.

Monaghan, J. J. 19 Elizabeth-street.

Monash, Miss B. Jona, Toorak.

Monash, Miss M. Tivoli-place, Punt Hill, South Yarra.

Monash, Colonel J., B.A., LL.B., M.C.E. Iona, Toorak.

Monash, Mrs. J. Jona, Toorak.

Montgomery, Miss N. 109 Alfred-crescent, North Fitzroy.

Moore, M. 8., B.C.E., B.M.E. Railway Construction Office, Bairnsdale.

Moore, Miss Margaret, B.Sc. Woodstock, Balwyn-road, Canterbury.

Moore, W., M.D., M.S. Flinders-lane.

Moore, W. H. Balwyn-road, Canterbury.

Moore, Prof. W. Harrison, B.A., LL.D. Arolla, Princes-street, St. Kilda.

Moore, Mrs. W. Harrison. Arolla, Princes-street, St. Kilda.

Moors, Miss. Staplegrove, Punt Hill, South Yarra.

Moors, Miss A. H. Staplegrove, Punt Hill, South Yarra.

Moreton, J. K. Herne Hill, Geelong.

Morgan, C. H. London Bank of Australasia, Ltd,, Fitzroy.

Morgan, Mrs. M. A, 11 Robb-street, Essendon.

Morgan, W. J. 11 Robb-street, Essendon.

Morres, Miss Elsie F., M.A. The Hermitage, Geelong.

Morris, Arthur E., M.B., B.S. 83 Collins-street.

Morris, Mrs. Arthur. 83 Collins-street.

Morris, Rev. Morris, M.Sc. Kew.

Morrison, Mrs. E. J. 52 Collins-street.

Morrison, R. H., M.D. 52 Collins-street.

Morton, D. Murray, M.D., B.S. 13 Collins-street.

Morton, Dr. F. W. W. Dandenong-road, Windsor.

Morton, Mrs. F. W. W. Dandenong-road, Windsor.

Morton, Dr. Fred. Ryrie-street, Geelong.

Morton, Mrs. Fred. Ryrie-street, Geelong.

Morton, H. E., F.R.V.1.A. Town Hall.

Morton, Mrs. Robt. Mitford-street, St. Kilda.

Mountain, A. C. Town Hall.

Mountain, Mrs. A. C. Town Hall.

Mountain, Miss B. Maling-street, Canterbury.
Mowling, Geo. Whitehall-street, Footscray.

Muir, George M. C/o Colonial Sugar Refining Company, Yarraville.
Mullett, Albert J. Government Printing Office.

*Murchison, Roderick. Melbourne-mansions, Collins-street.
Murphy, Miss Clare. Melbourne-mansions, Collins-street, City.
Murphy, Mrs. Frank. Cliveden-mansions.

Murphy, Read. Thorley, Holmes-road, Moonee Ponds.
Murray, Hugh L. Waverley-road, East Malvern.

Murray, Mrs. Hugh. Waverley-road, East Malvern.

Murray, Noel. Myola, Waiora-road, Caulfield.

Mylius, 8. E. von. Oakover-road, South Preston.

Nall, Eric L. 5 Princes-street, St. Kilda,

Nance, Rev. F. J. 2 Erskine-street, Malvern.

Nance, F. L., M.B., B.S. 2 Erskine-street, Malvern.
Nanson, Professor E. J. University.

Nanson, Mrs. University.

Nash, Mrs. Albert. Balearto, Cranbourne.

Needham, W. H. 51 Queen-street.

Neill, Mrs. B. H. Ardoch, Dandenong-road, Hast St. Kilda.
Nelly, Dr. J. F. 48 Brunswick-street, Fitzroy.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 123

Nelly, Mrs. J. F. 48 Brunswick-street, Fitzroy.

§Nelson, Miss Edith A., M.A., M.Sc. 131 Williams-road, East Prahran,
Nesbitt, A. M. Huntingtower-road, Malvern.

Newbigin, Mrs. R. 15 Hawthorn-road, Caulfield.

Newbigin, W. J. 612 Collins-street.

Newman, Dr. F. A. 83 Collins-street.

Newman, Mrs. F. A. 83 Collins-street.

Newman, Gerald P. Fairmount, Barkly-street, St. Kilda.

Newman, Mrs. Fairmount, Barkly-street, St. Kilda.

Newton, Alan, M.B., M.S. 41 Spring-street.

Newton, Frank. 4 Hughenden-road, St. Kilda.

Newton, H. Clement, M.I.E.E. British Insulated and Helsby Cables Co.,
Rialto.

Nicholas, G. A. 43 Park-street, Parkville.

§Nicholls, E. Brooke, D.D.Sc. 174 Victoria-street, North Melbourne.
Nicholls, Miss Jessie, B.D.Sc. 174 Victoria-street, North Melbourne.
Nicholson, Geo. C., D.D.Sc. 89 Collins-street.

Nicholson, Miss M. G. 28 Normanby-street, Brighton.
Nightingall, Victor. 260 Russell-street.

Nooten, Miss C. van. 194 Williams-road, Toorak.
Norman, Arthur. 60 Elizabeth-street.

Norman, Mrs. Arthur. Aloha, Adeney-avenue, East Kew.
Norman, C. E. Railway Offices.

Norman, Mrs. H. 43 Domain-road, South Yarra.

North, Alex. 40 Park-street, South Yarra.

- North, Mrs. Alex. 40 Park-street, South Yarra.
Northeote, Edward. Wallace-avenue, Toorak.
Northcote, Mrs. M. G. H. Wallace-avenue, Toorak.
Nott, Mrs. W. Park-mansions, Park-street, South Yarra.
Noyes, Dr. A. W. Finch, F.R.C.S. 102 Collins-street.
Noyes, Henry. Holmby, Malvern-road, Malvern.

Noyes, Mrs. Winifred. Holmby, Malvern-road, Malvern.
Nye, P. B. Wingcove-street, Alphington.
Nyulasy, I’. A., M.D., B.S. Graeme, Toorak.

O’Brien, Edmund A., M.A. Agricultural High School, Ballarat.
O'Connell, J. H., M.A., B.Sc. 49 Hawke-street, West Melbourne.
©’Donnell, Denis A. 56 Butler-street, North Richmond.
O'Dwyer, Very Rev. J. Xavier College, Kew.
Officer, Mrs. Graham. Coonac, Clendon-road, Toorak.
Officer, Miss Marian. 87 Alma-road, East St. Kilda.
Officer, Mrs. Suetonius H. The Oaks, Park-street, South Yarra.
O’ Keeffe, J. R. 5 Leveson-street, North Melbourne.
O'Leary, C. L. 24 Murphy-street, South Yarra.
Olive, W. M. Surbiton, Studley Park-road, Kew.

§Oliver, Calder E., M.C.E. Manor-street, Brighton.
Oliver, Miss Enid K. Tarrawarra, Manor-street, Brighton.
Oliver, H. P., C.E. Lara, Victoria.
O’Neill, Wm. J. Lands Department.
O’Reilly, Thos. 26 Leveson-street, North Melbourne.
Orgill, Mrs. E. M. Aspendale.
Orr, W. F., M.B., B.S. Kyeamba, Toorak-road, Toorak.
Orr, Mrs. W. F. Kyeamba, Toorak-road, Toorak.
Osborn, Dr. Harwood. 4 Finch-street, East Malvern.
Osborne, Miss Alice. Balwyn-road, Canterbury.
Osborne, Geo., M.A. Melbourne High School, Spring-street, City.
Osborne, Mrs. H. H. 31 Queen’s-road.

§Osborne, Professor W. A., D.Sc. University.
O'Sullivan, E. F., M.D. Krargee, Church-street, Richmond.
O'Sullivan, M. B., M.B., B.S. Eildon, Grey-street, St. Kilda.
O’Sullivan, Dr. M. U. 70 Collins-street.
O'Sullivan, Mrs. M. U. Eildon, Grey-street, St. Kilda.

124 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Outhwaite, A. G. 89-91 Queen-street.
Outhwaite, Mrs. A. G. 89-91 Queen-street.
Ower, Miss Jeannie. 56 The Esplanade, Brighton Beach.

Page, Miss. Barkly-street, St. Kilda.

Park, Wm. Shakespeare-grove, Hawthorn.

Parker, Mrs. J. G. 20 Princes-street, North Carlton.
Parker, Miss Olga. 2 Yarra-street, Hawthorn.

Parkin, A. F, Campbell-road, Balwyn.

Parkinson, Mrs. E. Horsburgh-grove, Malvern.
Parnell, Miss Ethel C., M.B., Ch.B. 103 Collins-street.
Paterson, Miss J. Presbyterian Ladies’ College, East Melbourne.
Paton, Bruce T. Commonwealth Laboratory.
Patterson, Mrs. W. G. 50 Park-street, South Yarra.
Payne, Mrs. Bushey, Rockley-road, South Yarra.
Payne, A. E. T. Scotsburn, Toorak.

Payne, Mrs. A. E. T. Scotsburn, Toorak.

*Payne, Professor Henry, M.Inst.C.H., M.I.Mech.E. University.
Peacock, E. R. 517 Collins-street. ;
Peacock, Mrs. 517 Collins-street.

Pearce, Philip H. Oxford, St. James’ Park, Hawthorn.
Pearce, Mrs. P. H. Oxford, St. James’ Park, Hawthorn.
Pearse, Rev. Wm. 8. Congregational Church, Chelsea.
Pearson, Miss E. 1022 Drummond-street, North Carlton.
Peck, H. F. R. Carrol-crescent, Hast Malvern.

Peck, Mrs. H. F. R. Carrol-crescent, East Malvern.
Pern, Sydney. 16 Collins-street.

Pestell, J. H. 15 Blyth-street, Brunswick.

Petherick, Edward A. 254 Albert-street, East Melbourne.
Pettigrew, A. Redruth, Balwyn.

Phillips, Andrew, J.P. Minyip.

Phillips, Leslie W. 17 Raleigh-street, Malvern.

Phillips, M. M., M.A. 18 Munro-streect, Armadale.
Phillips, Mrs. M. M. 18 Munro-street, Armadale,

Picken, Prof. David K., M.A. Victoria College, Wellington, N. Zealand.
Ping-tien, Lu., Vice-Consul for China.

Pinkerton, M. K. 112 Dawson-strect, South Ballarat.
Pinschof, Carl. Studley Hall, Studley Park.

Pinschof, Mrs. C. Studley Hall, Kew.

Pinschof, Miss. Studley Hall, Kew.

Piper, W. C. Fink’s-buildings, Elizabeth-street.

Pitcher, Frederick, Assistant Curator, Botanic Gardens.

Pitt, E. R., B.A. Public Library.

Pitts, John M. 31 Victoria-road, Camberwell.

Plowman, Dr. Sidney. The Tofts, Frankston.

Polson, A. 8. M., B.A. Ballarat College, Ballarat.

Poole, Robert. Bryson-street, Canterbury.

Poolman, Mrs. B. M. Carmyle, Kooyong-road, Toorak.
Poolman, Miss H. M. Carmyle, Kooyong-road, Toorak.
Poolman, Mrs. Mary E. Arthur-street and St. Kilda-road.
Porteus, Miss 8. D. Special School, Bell-street, Fitzroy.

Potter, Miss E. G. Presbyterian Ladies’ College, Hast Melbourne.
Power, Francis R. Balmerino-avenue, Toorak.

Power, Mrs. F. R. Balmerino-avenue, Toorak.

Prescott, Edward E. School of Horticulture, Burnley.

Preston, Mrs. Annie. 153 Barry-street, Carlton.
§Preston, C. Payne. Australian Distillery Co., Byrne Street, South Melbourue-
§Preston, Miss E. W. 153 Barry-street, Carlton.

Price, KE. Show. Whitehorse-road, Blackburn.

Price, M. G. 25 Miram’s-street, Ascot Vale.

Pritchard, G. B., D.Sc, F.G.8. 6 Kooyongkoot-road, Hawthorn.
Pritchard, Mrs. G. B. 6 Kooyongkoot-road, Hawthorn.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 195

Pullam, Mrs. Lily R. The Oakes, Park-street, South Yarra.
Pullar, Jas. 419 Collins-street.

Purton, Gerald. Arthur-street, East Malvern.

Pye, Miss E. 200 Toorak-road, South Yarra.

Pye, H. Agricultural College, Dookie.

Quick, Balcombe, M.B. 120 Collins-street.
Quillian, Miss. 5 Porter-street, Prahran.
Quinnell, Mrs. Lauderdale, St. Kilda-road.
Quirk, Thos. A. George Hotel, St. Kilda.

Rabling, H. 69 Primrose-street, Moonee Ponds.

Rae, F. J. 217 Grattan-street, Carlton.

Raff, Miss J. W., M.Sc. 169 Royal-parade, Parkville.
Ragg, Miss E. M. 73 Victoria-parade, Fitzroy.

Raleigh, Harold. 21 Avoca-street, South Yarra.
Ramsbotham, J. F. Iona, Studley Park-road, Kew.
Ramsden, F. V. Royal Mint.

Read, S. Docker, M.B., B.S. Horsham.

Reed, J. M., 1.8.0. Department of Lands.

Rees, Miss Bertha. Wanda-road, Malvern.

Reeson, D. O. Metropolitan Gas Co.

Reeson, J. Newell, M.I.C.E. Metropolitan Gas Co.

Reeson, Mrs. L. M. Metropolitan Gas Co.

Refshange, J. H. Agricultural High School, Ballarat.
Reid, A. Cicero. Cliffholme, Beach-road, Sandringham.
Reid, Miss Belle B. Whitehorse-road, Canterbury.

Reid, G. D. Box 17, Avoca.

Reid, George P. State School, Dellicknora, via Bonang.
Reid, Miss M. L. Belmont, Balwyn.

Remington, Miss C. Chrystobel-crescent, Hawthorn.
Rennick, Mrs. A. St. Heliers, Abotsford.’

Rennie, Mrs. G. C. Canterbury-road, Blackburn.

Rentoul, Rev. Prof. J. Laurence, M.A., D.D. Ormond College, Parkville.
Retallack, Mrs. Edwards. 126 Webster-street, Ballarat.
Reynolds, Major EK. H. The Hermitage, Mona-place, South Yarra.
Reynolds, Mrs. E. H. The Hermitage, Mona-place, South Yarra.
Richards, E. 8., M.Se. Working Men’s College.
§Richardson, A. BE. V., M.A., B.Sc. Department of Agriculture.
Richardson, Mrs. A. E. V, Linda-crescent, Hawthorn.
Richardson, Miss B. L. 128 Gatehouse-street, Parkville.
Richardson, Harold. Sunning Hill, Cotham-road, Kew.
Richardson, Sidney C._ 21 Whitehall-street, Footscray.
Richardson, W. 640 Drummond-street, Carlton.
Ricketson, Mrs. Oriental Hotel.

Ricketson, Miss Esther. Oriental Hotel.

Riddell, Andrew H. C/o Lewis & Whitty, Richmond.
Riddell, C. Carre. Cavers Carre, Elsternwick.

Riddell, Miss Carre. Cavers Carre, Elsternwick.

Rigall, Miss. Grosvenor Chambers.

Rigby, Edward C. 60 Market-street.

Rigby, Mrs. Edward C. Riverscourt, Burke-road, East Hawthorn.
Rigg, Chas. H. 30 Williams-road, Windsor.

Rigg, Miss Louise. 30 Williams-road, Windsor.

Rigg, Miss Mary. 30 Williams-road, Windsor.

Riley, Miss E. Charnwood-crescent, St. Kilda.

Ritchie, Edgar E., M.I.C.E. Metropolitan Board of Works.
§Rivett, A. C. D., M.A., D.Sc. University.

Rivett, Mrs. A. C. D., B.Sc. 27#Adams-street, South Yarra,
Robb, Mortimer G. Myola, Malvern-road, Armadale.
Roberts, Mrs. I’. E. Epsom-street, Caulfield BE.

Roberts, 8. I’., B.Se. 116 Wattletree-road, Malvern.
Robertson, Miss. Inverary, Toorak-road, South Yarra.

126 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Robertson, A. M. The Manse, Curzon-street, South Melbourne.

Robertson, Allen, M.D., B.S. 90 Collins street.

Robertson, Mrs, Allen. 90 Collins-street.

Robertson, E., M.B., B.S. Health Department.

Robertson, Rey. J. T., M.A. The Manse, Curzon-street, South Melbourne.

Robertson, Mrs. J. T. The Manse, Curzon-street, South Melbourne.

Robertson, James L., M.A. 35 Hutcheson-street, Moonee Ponds.

Robin, Dr. P. Ansell. Ballarat Church of England Grammar School, Wen-
douree, Victoria.

Robinson, Mrs. A. R. Mulderg, Alma-road, Caulfield.

Robinson, Miss, Mulderg, Alma-road, Caulfield.

Robinson, Arthur. Chilcote, Sorrett-avenue, Malvern.

Robinson, Mrs. Arthur. Chilcote, Sorrett-avenue, Malvern.

Robinson, Rev. G. A., B.A. Camberwell.

Robinson, J. B. 204 Wendouree-parade. Ballarat.

Rodda, 8. Working Men’s College.

Roe, Mrs. M. E. Te Hongi, Cheltenham.

Roebuck, A. K. Col. Sugar Refining Co., Yarraville.

Roebuck, Henry G. Geelong.

Rogers, J. Stanley. High School, Shepparton.

Rollo, Miss J. 65 Tivoli-road, South Yarra,

Rose, Dr. J. Marmaduke. 375 Queen-street.

Rose, Mrs. Marmaduke. 375 Queen-street.

Rose, John. Normanby-road, Montague.

Rosenblum, E. Ivan, M.Se. 159 Victoria-road, Hawthorn.

Ross, David. Colonial Bank, Brunswick.

Ross, Rev. David, M.A. St. Kilda.

Rossiter, A. Lyle, M.Sc. Nat. Phil. Laboratory, University.

Roth, Miss. Tivoli-place, Punt Hill, South Yarra.

Rothera, A. C. H., M.A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. 272 The Avenue, Royal Park.

Rothera, Mrs. 272 The Avenue, Royal Park.

Row, 8. Highfield-road, Canterbury.

Rowe, Wm. Chas. Corner Bourke and King-streets,

Rowed, Rev. Augustine, B.C.E. St. Silas Vicarage, Albert Park.

Rubinowich, Miss F. 23 Charnwood-road, St. Kilda.

Ruck, Edwin J. 80 Swanston-street.

Ruddle, Reginald G., M.D., B.S., Ch.B. Daylesford.

Rusden, Miss Gertrude K. 5 Alleyne-avenue, Malvern.

Russell, Mr. C/o Michaelis, Hallenstein, & Co., Footscray.

Russell, Mrs. C/o Michaelis, Hallenstein, & Co., Footscray.

Russell, Geo. 5 Tennyson-street, Brighton Beach.

Russell, P. J. Ubberholme, Camberwell.

Ruth, T. E. Balwyn-road, Canterbury.

Rutter, Alfred. 84 William-street.

Rutter, J. H., M.B., B.S. Yarrum.

Rutter, Mrs. M. Yarrum.

Ryan, Mrs. Charles. The Cottage, Macedon Upper.

Ryan, Colonel Chas. S., M.B. 37 Collins-street.

Ryan, Edward, M.B., B.S. 33 Collins-street.

Ryan, Mrs. J. B. Majella, St. Kilda-road.

Ryan, Martin J., M.B., B.S. Middle-strect, Ascot Vale.

Ryan, W. B., M.B., B.S. Bacchus Marsh.

Sachse, Hon. A. O., M.L.C. Marilla, South Yarra.

Sachse, Mrs. A. O. Marilla, South Yarra.

St. John, G. R. Botanic Gardens.

Salmon, Dr. C. Carty. Walsh-street, South Yarra.

Salter, Miss M. L. Majestic, Fitzroy-street, St. Kilda.

Sambell, A. K. T. 421 Collins-street.

Samers, Miss M. College of Domestic Economy, Lonsdale-street.
Samsing, Miss Hilda R. Lonsdale House.

Sanderson, W. A., M.A., LL.M. 29 Wattletree-road, Malvern.

bo
~I

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. A

Sanderson, Mrs. W. A. 29 Wattletree-road, Malvern.
Sandford, Miss Olive. Mosspennock, Clarendon-street, East Melbourne.
Sargood, A. H. C/o Sargood Bros.
Sargood, Mrs. A. H. C/o Sargood Bros.
Sarvans, Johan, B.A., M.C.E. 2 Wrexham-road, Windsor.
Sawrey, Ernest E. R., M.D., B.S. 90 Collins-street.
Saxton, J. T., M.A. 17 Kintore-street, Camberwell.
Schmidt, Walter, M.E. P.O. Box 221.
Schollick, Miss M. 8. Lyceum Club.
Scott, Miss. Indi, New-street, Brighton.
Scott, Prof. Ernest. University.
Scott, J. Alexander, M.D. Auburn-road, Hawthorn.
Scott, John D. King, M.B., B.S. Finch-street, East Malvern.
Scott, Leigh. 217 Grattan-street, Carlton.
Scott, Miss Martha H., M.B., Ch.B. 88 Collins-street.
Scott, P. R. Department of Agriculture.
Scott, Robt., M.D. 704 Sturt-street, Ballarat.
Scott, Wm. 54 Fletcher-street, Essendon.
Searby, Henry. Ormond College, Parkville.
Searle, J. 274 Collins-street.
Seddon, H. R. Veterinary School, Parkville.
Selby, G. W. Lindisfarne, Chilcote-avenue, Malvern.
Sergeant, Miss H. Pye. Jolimont-square, Jolimont.
Sewell, C. W. Minyip.
Sewell, S. V., M.D., B.S. 83 Collins-street.
Sewell, Mrs. 8. V. 83 Collins-street.
Sexton, Miss Helen, M.B., B.S. Melbourne-mansions, Collins-street, City.
Shackell, H. L. 360 Collins-street.
Shackell, Miss Ida. Monaro-road, Kooyong.
Sharman, M. Stanton, M.A., M.Sc. 19 Myrtle-road, Canterbury.
» Sharman, Percy J. 251 Drummond-streoct, North Carlton.
Shaw, Miss. Landene, Cotham-road, Kew.
Shaw, Miss. Oriental Hotel.
Shaw, Miss. 1 Merton-crescent, Albert Park.
§Shaw, A. G. Merton-crescent, Albert Park.
Shaw, C. Gordon, M.D., B.S. 28 Collins-street.
Shaw, Miss E. H. Landene, Cotham-road, Kew.
Shaw, Dr. Patrick. Lingerwoods, Wills-street, Kew.
Shaw, Mrs. Patrick. Lingerwoods, Wills-street, Kew.
Sheeran, H. O., Chief Engineer for Railway Construction. Spencer-street.
Shephard, Mrs. Norwood, South-road, Brighton.
Shephard, Miss. Norwood, South-road, Brighton.
Shephard, J. Clarke-street, South Melbourne.
Sherwood, Guy. Oriental Hotel.
Sherwood, Mrs. Guy. Oriental Hotel.
Shew, Mr. E. 25 Crimea-street, St. Kilda.
Short, Miss H. Tapley. Toorak College, Douglas-street, Toorak.
Short, J. G. C. Alexandra.
Short, Lionel G. 22 Chrystobel-crescent, Hawthorn.
Shuter, R. E., M.D., B.S. 16 Collins-street.
Shuttleworth, Dr. Thos. 225 Collins-street.
Silberberg, H. B. Bourke-street.
Silberberg, M. D., M.D., B.S. 54 Collins-street.
Simpson, Hugh D. 3 McCallum-street, Brighton.
Sinclair, T. W., M.D., B.S. Melbourne-mansions, Collins-street.
Sinclair, Mrs. T. Walker. Melbourne-mansions, Collins-street.
Sinnotte, Miss E. A. Wolseley-street, Mont Albert.
Sissons, A. T. S. University High School, Carlton.
§Skeats, Prof. E. W., D.Sc. University.
Skeats, Mrs. E. W. University.
Skeeles, R. H. R. 141 Cochrane-street, Elsternwick.
Skene, Rev. Prof. Alex., M.A. St. Cuthbert’s, Alma-road, St. Kilda.

128 BRITISH ASSOCIATION

Slaney, H. B. Hawthorn-road, Caulfield.
Smith, Miss. Ravenswood, Alma-road, East St. Kilda.
Smith, A. Casson. 6 Carlisle-avenue, Balaclava.
§Smith, Professor A. Mica. School of Mines, Ballarat.
Smith, B. A., M.C.E. 352 Collins-street.
Smith, F. A. 285 Collins-street.
Smith, Frederick F. 37 St. Vincent-place South, Albert Park.
Smith, Gemmell Lamb. Caulfield Grammar School, East St. Kilda.
Smith, Miss Godwin. 37 St. Vincent-place South, Albert Park.
Smith, Mrs. J. Teachers’ College, Carlton.
Smith, Mrs. J. B. Clifton, Kintore-street, Camberwell.
Smith, Mrs. N. Ravenswood, Alma-road, East St. Kilda.
Smith, Miss Nancie. Maryville-street, St. Kilda.
Smith, Miss Pearl. Langley, Wangaratta.
Smith, Rev. T. Jollie, M.A. 27 Finch-street, East Malvern.
Smith, Thos. R. Pumping Station, Spotswood.
Smith, W. 55 Ovens-street, Yarraville.
Smith, W. Beattie, F.R.C.S. 4 Collins-street.

§Smyth, John, M.A., Ph.D. Teachers’ College, Carlton.
Smyth, John Gladstone. Teachers’ College, Carlton.

Smythe, R. 8. Highgate-on-the-Hill, Balwyn.

Snow, Miss A. 5 Barry-street, Kew.

Snowden, Sir Arthur. St. Heliers, Abbotsford.

Soden, Mrs. I. M. Ross. Grong Grong, Toorak.
Somerville, Wm. 26 Havelock-street, Auburn.

Spencer, Miss Alline Baldwin. Hampden-road, Armadale.
Spencer, Rev. F. A. M. 37 Brighton-road, St. Kilda.
Spencer, Mrs. G. L. 37 Brighton-road, St. Kilda.

§Spencer, Professor W. Baldwin, C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. University.
Spencer, Mrs. W. Baldwin. 31 Hampden-road, Armadale.
Spooner, Lieut.-Commander L.8.,R.N. H.M.A.S. ‘Cerberus,’ Williamstown.
Spowers, Miss. Toorak House, St. George’s-road, Toorak:
Spowers, W. G. L. St. George’s-road, Toorak.

Spowers, Mrs. W. G. L. St. George’s-road, Toorak.
Springthorpe, Miss Enid. Neerim-road, Murrumbeena.
Springthorpe, J. W., M.A., M.D., B.S. 83 Collins-street.
Sproule, Miss. Palafia, Flinders.

Sproule, Mrs. Mary B. Palafia, Flinders.

Stanford, Thos. W. 142 Russell-street.

*Stanley, His Excellency Sir Arthur, K.C.M.G. State Government House.
Stanley, Riddell, M.B., Ch.B. Cavers Carra, Elsternwick.
Stanley, Mrs. Riddell. Cavers Carra, Elsternwick.

Stapley, Frank, F.R.V.I.A. 101 Swanston-street.

Stapley, Mrs. Frank. 101 Swanston-street.

Staughton, Mrs. 8. T. St. Neots, Domain-road, South Yarra.
Stawell, Miss. Pallya, Rickard’s Point, Cheltenham.

Stawell, R. R., M.D., B.S. Spring-street.

Stawell, Mrs. Richard. Spring-street.

Stawell, W. Pallya, Rickard’s Point, Cheltenham.

Steane, G. R. Bowen. Town Hall, Horsham.

Steane, Mrs. G. R. Bowen. Town Hall, Horsham.

Stedham, Mrs. Gerald. Coonac, Clendon-road, Toorak.

Steel, Dr. W. H., M.B, Ch.B., B.A. 1 Blyth-street, Brunswick.
Steele, C. H. D. 90 Collins-street.

Steele, Clive S. 139 Collins-street.

Stephen, The Rt. Rev. Reginald, M.A., Bishop of Tasmania.
Stephens, Arthur. High School, Horsham.

Stephens, H. Douglas, M.D., M.S. 2 Collins-street.

Stephens, Westmore G. Bourke-street.

Stephens, Mrs. Westmore G. Bourke-street.

Steven, Dr. Alex. 49 Chapel-street, East St. Kilda.

Steven, Mrs. Alex. 49 Chapel-street, East St. Kilda.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 129

Stevens, Edward. 6568 Collins-street.

Stewart, A. Collins House, Collins-street.

Stewart, A. 479 Collins-street.

Stewart, Mrs. Andrew. 479 Collins-street.

Stewart, Mrs. A. St. Leonard’s-avenue, St. Kilda.
Stewart, Miss A. E. 25 Acland-street, South Yarra.
Stewart, Rev. Alex., M.A. Flower-street, Essendon.
Stewart, Rev. D. Macrae, M.A. The Manse, Malvern.
Stewart, Mrs. D. Macrae. The Manse, Malvern.

Stewart, J. McKellar, M.A., D.Phil. 14 Stanhope-grove, Camberwell.
Stewart, John. State School 483, Essendon.

Stewart, M. A. 14 Ilawarra-road, Hawthorn.

Stewart, Thos. M. 25 Acland-street, South Yarra.
Stirling, Mrs. B. Clifton, Kintore-street, Camberwell.
Stirling, D. L. 57 Swanston-street.

Stirling, Mrs. D. L. 57 Swanston-street.

Stirling, R. A., M.D., B.S. 233 Lonsdale-street.

Stock, E. I. 395 Collins-street.

Stone, F. E. A. Rathmines-road, Hawthorn.

Story, C. B. 1032 Drummond-street, North Carlton.
Stott, Miss A. 426 Collins-street.

Stott, Miss M. M. Viewbank, Burke-road, East Malvern.
Stott, Sydney. 426 Collins-street.

Strachan, J. F. Ruhla, Fulton-street, East St. Kilda.
Strachan, Mrs. J. F. Ruhla, Fulton-street, Hast St. Kilda.
Strachan, W. L. 448 Collins-street.

Strahan, Dr. Ed. 252 Lygon-street, Carlton.

Straw, K. B. 423 Flinders-lane.

Strong, Archibald T., M.A. Murphy-street, South Yarra.
Strong, R. H., M.B., B.S. 110 Collins-street.

Stuart, T. H. High School, Kyneton.

Stubbs, Chas. W. O. 145 Park-street, Parkville.

Sturdee, Dr. A. H. Stoneycroft, Northcote.

Sturdee, Mrs. L. T. Stoneycroft, Northcote.

Sugden, Rev. E. H., M.A., B.Sc. Queen’s College, Carlton.
Sugden, Mrs. E. H. Queen’s College, Carlton.

Sugden, Miss Ruth, M.Sc. Queen’s College, Carlton.
Summers, H. S., D.Sc. Geology School, University, Carlton,
Summers, Mrs. H. S. Chatham-road, Surrey Hills.
Summers, R. E. Defence Laboratory.

Sutherland, J. M. School of Mines, Ballarat.

Sutherland, Miss Jessie. 4 Highfield Grove, Kew.
Sutherland, Miss Lucy. 31 Alma-road, St. Kilda.
Sutherland, Mrs. Mary. 4 Peppin-street, Camberwell.
Sutherland, R. Tate, M.D. Blenheim, St. Kilda-road.
Sutherland, Mrs. R. Tate. Blenheim, St. Kilda-road.
Sutton, C. 8., M.B., B.S. 685 Rathdown-street, North Carlton.

§Sutton, Harvey, M.D., B.Sc. Trinity College, Parkville.
Sutton, T. Carlton, B.Sc. Physical Department, University, Carlton.
Swaby, Arthur J. 116 Primrose-street, Essendon.

§Sweet, George, F.G.S. The Close, Brunswick.

Sweet, Mrs. G. The Close, Brunswick.

§Sweet, Miss Georgina, D.Sc. The Close, Brunswick.
Swinburne, Mrs, Ethel. Kinkora-road, Hawthorn.
Swinburne, Miss G. Kinkora-road, Hawthorn.

§Swinburne, Hon. George. 139 Collins-street.

§Syme, Mrs. D. York. Balwyn, Victoria.

Syme, G. A., M.B., M.S., F.R.C.S. 17 Collins-strect.
Syme, Mrs. G. A. 17 Collins-street.

Syme, Geoffrey. Banool, Studley Park-road, Kew.
Syme, Mrs. Geoffrey. Banool, Studley Park-road, Kew.
Syme, Oswald J. Bolobek, Macedon.

1914 I

130 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Syme, Mrs. Oswald J. Bolobek, Macedon.
Symonds, E. Howard. 80 Swanston-street.

Tait, C. 276-8 Collins-street.

Tait, Peter G. 90 William-street.

Tanner, Miss M. L. 2 Pine-grove, Malvern.

Tate, Frank, M.A. Education Department.

Taubert, Mel. 37 Ryeburne-avenue, Upper Hawthorn.

Taylor, Alex. P., B.C.E. Railway Construction Branch, Elmore.
*Taylor, C. Z. 216 Smith-street, Collingwood.

Taylor, Chas. A. Argyle-street, Maryborough.

Taylor, Evan, B.E. Rivers and Water Supply Commission, Government

Buildings.

Taylor, Griffith, B.A., B.E., B.Sc. Meteorological Bureau, Central Office.

Taylor, Mrs. Griffith. Meteorological Bureau, Central Office.

Taylor, Miss L. C. Kilmaur, George-street, East Melbourne.

Teare, Miss. St. Neots, Domain-road, South Yarra.

Telford, P. W. 547 Collins-street.

Telford, W. W. Australian Explosives Works, Deer Park.

Templeton, Colin. 31 Queen-street.

Templeton, Mrs. J. M. Kilmaur, George-street, East Melbourne.

Thiele, A. O. Chatham-road, Canterbury.

Thom, L. N., B.Sc. 20 Gordon-avenue, Kew.

Thompson, Bertram. Church of England Grammar School.

Thompson, J. H., M.A. 27 Lisson-grove, Hawthorn.

Thompson, Percival. 12 Rose-street, Armadale.

Thomson, Miss A. F. The Avenue, Oakleigh.

Thomson, Barclay. Ardyne, Murrumbeena.

Thomson, Mrs. Barclay. Ardyne, Murrumbeena.

Thomson, H. Barry, M.D. 110 Collins-street.

Thomson, Miss Helen. Kinnard, Hawksburn-road, South Yarra.

Thomson, Miss J. M. Merton Hall, South Yarra.

Thomson, Miss P. Kinnard, Hawksburn-road, South Yarra.

Thomson, Mrs. Rogers. Calliope, Mernda-road, Malvern.

Thonemann, Fred. 101 Queen-street.

Thorn, Mrs. W., B.A. Chrystobel-crescent, Hawthorn.

Thorn, William. Department of Mines.

Thorne, A. E., B.A. Tiverton, Alma-road, Caulfield.

Thring, Capt. W. H. Myamyn Garth, Eltham.

Thring, Mrs. W. H. Myamyn Garth, Eltham.

Thwaites, A. H., M.Sc., B.V.Sc. Darebin-street, Heidelberg.

Tickell, Mrs. M. E. 5 Denmark-street, Kew.

Tilburn, Chas. Australian Explosives Works, Deer Park.

Tilburn, Mrs. Chas. Australian Explosives Works, Deer Park.

Timmins, Thos. Glassford-street, Armadale.

Tindale, Thos. Lowlands, Apollo Bay.

Tipping, Miss Martha, M.A. Melbourne High School.

Tisdale, Miss, M.A. Rosberum G.G. School, North-road, Brighton.

Tivey, Colonel Edwin. Huntingtower-road, Malvern.

Tivey, Mrs. Edwin. Huntingtower-road, Malvern.

Tobin, A. E. W., District Surveyor, Ararat.

Tobin, Richard. Merri-street, Northcote.

Tompkins, H. W. 115 Elizabeth-street.

Topp, A. A. Cordite Factory, Maribyrnong.

Topp, Chas. A., M.A., LL.B. 20 Royal-crescent, Armadale.

Topp, Mrs. Chas. 20 Royal-crescent, Armadale.

Torpy, H. L. 195 High-street, St. Kilda.

Tovell, Jno. F. F. Indi, New-street, Brighton.

Towl, C. E. 76 Collins-street, East Melbourne.

Towl, P. J., B.Sc. Leith House, Royal Park, Parkville.

Traill, Miss E. Margaret. Stronsa, Sandringham.

Traill, J. C., B.A., B.C.E. 176 Walsh-street, South Yarra.

i ee

LIS! OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 138i

Trebilio, A. F. 51 Mary-street, St. Kilda.
§Tremearne, Mrs. Ada J. Mandeville Hall, Clendon-road, Toorak.
Trickett, Miss Agnes. 2 Lansdowne-street, East Melbourne.
Trinca, Alfred, M.D., B.S. 34 Lisson-grove, Hawthorn.
Troutbeck, Wm. Technical School, Beechworth.
Tucker, Mrs. W. A. 96 Exhibition-street.
Tunnicliffe, Miss A. C. Church of England Grammar School, Anderson
street, South Yarra.
Turnbull, H. Hume, M.D., B.S. 85 Spring-strect.
Turnbull, Mrs, J. Irving-road, Toorak.
Turnbull, James, Union Bank, Geelong.
Turnbull, Miss Margaret. Dennistoun, Punt Hill, South Yarra.
Turner, Miss E. I. Domain-road, South Yarra.
Turner, Hy. Gyles. ‘Tennyson-street, St. Kilda.
Turner, W. 33 White-street, Coburg.
Twyford, J. Noel-street, Ivanhoe.
Tymms, A. Mortimer, M.D., B.S. Wills-street, Gardiner, East Malvern,

Ulrich, E. D., M.A. Ormond College, Parkville.

Upjohn, W. G. D., M.D., M.S. 88 Rathdown-street, Carlton.
Upton, Hy. 48 Queen-street.

Urquhart, H. C., B.Sc. Coppin-street, East Melbourne.

Uttley, George H. Presbyterian Ladies’ College, East Melbourne.

Vale, Miss Phyllis. 54 Sutherland-road, Armadale.

Vale, Mrs. W. F. 54 Sutherland-road, Armadale.

Varey, J. W. L., B.Sc. 7 Clarke-street, Northcote.

Vaughan, Miss M. B. 204 Mill-street, Ballarat.

Veitch, Miss Nellie. Delgetti, Park-street, South Yarra.
Vogler, W. J., M.A. Public Library.

Vroland, Miss E., Secretary, Civil Service Stores, Flinders-street.

§Wadsworth, Arthur, Parliamentary Librarian, Commonwealth Parliament.
Wainwright, F. C., General Secretary, A.N.A., Victoria.

Waitt, W. A. F. 14 Elmie-street, Hawthorn.

Walcott, R. Henry, F.G.S. The Technological Museum.
Walden, Miss E. H. C/o Mrs. BE. E. King, Redan-street, St. Kilda.
Walker, D., B.Sc., F.C.S. School of Mines, Ballarat.

Walker, Fred. 92 Liddiard-street, Auburn.

Walker, Mrs. Fred. 92 Liddiard-street, Auburn.

Walker, Miss Gladys. Daheim, Kensington-road, South Yarra.
Walker, H. K. McG., M.A. Mayfield-avenue, Malvern.

Walker, Miss I. E. 71 Grey-street, St. Kilda.

Walker, Mrs. J. Kern, Sydney-road, Royal Park.

Walker, John 8. Kern, Sydney-road, Royal Park.

Walker, Richard G. School of Mines, Bendigo.

Walker, Wm. Tavistock, Union-road, Surrey Hills.

Wall, Mrs. The Laurels, Princes-avenue, East Caulfield.
Wallace, Prof. R. 8., M.A. Queen’s College, Carlton.

Wallach, B. Commonwealth Light House Service.

Wallis, Miss Amy. ‘Teachers’ College, Carlton,

Walters, —. The Waldorf, Fitzroy-street, St. Kilda.

Walters, J. 421 Collins-street.

Wardell, E. 8. Royal Mint.

Wasley, Miss L. The Close, Brunswick.

Watkin, Rev. D. 28 Robe-street, St. Kilda.

Watkins, A. A. 430 Little Collins-street.

Watson, Miss A. O. High School.

Watson, Colonel G. W. Public Works Office.

Watson, John C. 15 Page-street, Albert Park.

Watson, Miss Rita. The Oaks, Park-street, South Yarra.
Watson, Mrs. Theodore. The Oaks, Park-street, South Yarra.

132 BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Watt, G. A. 430 Little Collins-street.

Watterston, D. 89 Rose-street, Armadale.

Watts, A. Flinders-buildings.

Watts, Miss Annie. 227 Victoria-parade, Hast Melbourne.
Weatherburn, C. E., M.A. Ormond College, Parkville.
Weatherburn, Mrs. C. EB. 193 Royal-parade, Parkville.
Weatherly, Miss G. D. Billilla, Halifax-street, Brighton.

Webb, Mrs. Austral Salon.

Webb, A, G. Australian Explosives Works, Deer Park.

Webb, J. Ramsay, M.B., B.S. Napier-street, Footscray.

Webb, Mrs. J. Ramsay. Napier-street, Footscray.

Webb, Miss Jessie, M.A. Staniland-avenue, Malvern.

Webb, Miss Rose. Andover, Church-street, Brighton.

Webb, Thos. Prout, B.A. Bolac, Queen’s-road.

Webster, Percy S., M.D. 85 Spring-street.

Webster, Mrs. Percy 8. 85 Spring-street.

Weedon, Sir Henry. 430 Little Collins-street.

Weekes, Miss Alice. North-road, Brighton.

Weekes, Miss Clara. Tollington-avenue, East Malvern.

Weigall, Theyre, LL.M. St. Margaret’s, Alma-road, East St. Kilda.
Weigall, Mrs. A. S. H. St. Margaret’s, Alma-road, East St. Kilda.
Weigall, Miss Marian H. St. Margaret’s, Alma-road, East St. Kilda.
Weir, Miss M. B. 503 Royal-parade, Royal Park.

Were, O. H. W. State Savings Bank, South Melbourne.
Westwood, E. H. W. Roycroft, Alma-road, Caulfield.

Westwood, Mrs. Laura E. Roycroft, Alma-road, Caulfield.
Wettenhall, A. L. 31 Queen-street.

Wheatley, Mrs. F. W. 39 Virginia-street, Newtown, Geelong.
Wheatley, Frederick, B.Sc., B.A. Royal Aust. Naval College, North Geelong.
Wheeler, Rev. Alf. All Saints’ Vicarage, Geelong.

White, A. KE. Rowden, M.D, B.S. 85 Spring-street.

White, Edward R., M.D., B. 8. Highfield, Wallace-avenue, Toorak.
White, Mrs. J. P. Serjeant. Jolimont-square, Jolimont.

White, R. A. 555 Latrobe-street.

Whitelaw, A. W. 65 Cromwell-road, Hawksburn.

Whitmore, H. 8 Trafalgar-road, Camberwell.

Whitteron, Fred. 42 Glenferrie-road, Kew.

Whyte, Mrs. Ernest. Monaltrie, Toorak-road, Toorak.

Whyte, Mrs. T. N. Mint Block, Latrobe-street.

Wickens, Charles H. Rialto.

Wight, Miss. The Ridge, Queenscliff.

Wilding, Robert. 421 Collins-street.

Wilhelm, Reinhold. Vacuum Oil Co. Pty., Ltd.

Wilkin, Rev. F. J., M.A., B.D. 3 Myrtle-road, Canterbury.
Wilkinson, Major G. F. 34 Denbigh-road, Armadale.

Wilkinson, John F., M.D., B.S. 12 Collins-street East.
Wilkinson, Mrs. J. F. 12 Collins-street East.

Wilkinson, Louis C. The Crest, Grandview-grove, Armadale.
Wilkinson, R. W. Wahroonga, Alma-road, Hast St. Kilda.
Wilkinson, Mrs. R. W. Wahroonga, Alma-road, East St. Kilda.
Williams, C. G. V., M.C.E. Mayfield, Toorak.

Williams, Mrs. C. G. V. Mayfield, Toorak.

Williams, Miss E. R. 39 Alexandra-mansions, South Melbourne.
Williams, Miss Emilie. 219 Johnston-street, Fitzroy.

Williams, Miss 8. J., B.A. 115 Royal-parade, Parkville.

Willis, T. R. H., M.D., B.S. Coomoora, Glenferrie-road, Malvern.
Wilmot, R. H. Patent Office.

Wilsmore, Mrs. L. T. Richardson-avenue, Claremont, W.A.
§Wilsmore, Professor N. T. M., D.Sc. University, Perth, Western Australia.
Wilson, Miss Beatrice. 43 Hotham-street, East Melbourne.
§Wilson, H. C. Department of Agriculture Research Station, Werribee.
Wilson, Herbert W. 11 Chelsea-street, Brighton.

LIST OF MEMBERS: MELBOURNE, 1914. 1338

Wilson, J. P., M.A., LL.D. 87 Royal-parade, Parkville.

Wilson, Mrs. J. P. 87 Royal-parade, Parkville.

Wilson, Sydney H., F.R.V.LA. 76 Temple Court.

Wilson, W. D., B.Sc. Ashburton.

Winspear, Mrs. E. A. 14 Cambridge-street, Hawthorn.

Wischer, Mrs. Amy. 45 Gellibrand-street, Kew.

Wischer, Victor. 45 Gellibrand-street, Kew.

Wiseman, Miss H. Mont Albert-road, Canterbury.

Wisewould, Frank. 408 Collins-street.

Witt, S., Assistant Engineer, G.P.O.

Wolskel, Augustus. Bryntirion, Barker’s-road, Hawthorn.

Wood, A. J., M.D., B.S. 19 Collins-street.

Wood, Miss B., B.Sc. The Block.

Wood, Mrs. Ernest. 28 Springfield-avenue, Toorak.

Wood, W. Atkinson, M.D., M.S. Toorak-road, South Yarra.

Woodroffe, T. H. lLinda-crescent, Grace Park, Hawthorn.

Woodruff, Prof. H. A., M.R.C.V.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. 7 Fellowes-street,
Kew.

Woodruff, Mrs. H. A. 7 Fellowes-street, Kew.

Woods, Miss Mary. 12 Burnett-street, St. Kilda.

Woodward, J. H. Queen’s Buildings, Carlton.

Woolley, W. J. M. 89 Westbury-street, St. Kilda.

Wootton, Horace E. 46 Elizabeth-street.

Wreford, E. H. Menzies-avenue, Brighton Beach.

Wren, C. W. E.S. & A. Bank, Ltd., Collins-strect.

Wren, Mrs. C. W. E.S. & A. Bank, Ltd., Collins-street.

Wren, Miss. E.S. & A. Bank, Ltd., Collins-street.

Wright, C. P. Farie, M.C.E. State Rivers and Water Supply Commission,
Kerang.

Wright, Miss H. 46 Elizabeth-street.

Wright, Mrs. W. Farie. Girrakween, Kerang.

Wrigley, L. J., M.A. Queen’s College, Carlton.

Yandell, E. W. T. Commonwealth Treasury.

Yelland, Alfred C. W., M.B., B.S. 591 Brunswick-street, North Fitzroy.
Young, A. H. Innes. 38 Grandview-grove, Armadale.

Young, Mrs. Barbara. 505 Royal-parade, Parkville.

Young, Mrs. E. Dawson. Horne-street, Daylesford.

Younger, J. 84 Powlett-street, East Melbourne.

Younger, Robt. 8. Timor-street, Warrnambool. é

Yule, Dr. J. Sandison, M.A., M.D., B.S. 104 The Avenue, Royal Park.
Yule, Robt. J. B. Tearo, Malvern-road, Malvern North.

Zwar, B. T. 54 Collins-street.

SYDNEY.

Abbott, Dr. G. H. 153 Macquarie-street.

Adams, Mrs. Clara E. Guyong, New South Head-road, Edgecliff.
Adams, Miss Alice W. Guyong, New South Head-road, Edgecliff.
Adams, Miss D. Lindela, Neutral Bay.

Adams, W. E. Sydney Harbour Trust, Circular Quay.

Adams, B. 175 Clarence-street.

Adams, D. 175 Clarence-street.

Adams, William J. 175 Clarence-street.

Ainslie, Mrs. R. Maiala, Whitton-road, Chatswood.

Airey, J. W. Barooma, Vernon-street, Strathfield.

Alexander, Miss H. M. Mossgiel, Homebush.

Allan, Percy, M.Inst.C.E. Public Works Department.

134 BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Allanson, A. E. Superior Public School, Randwick.

Allen, A. W. 2 Martin-place.

Allen, B. B. 4 Bligh-street. :
Allen, Miss Elizabeth A. Camellia Villa, Albevt-street, Strathfield.
Allen, Miss I. Redmond. Camellia Villa, Albert-street, Strathfield.
Allen, William. Engelberg, King’s Langley-road, Greenwich.
Allison, Miss. Cooinoo, Kissing Point-road, Turramurra.

Allnutt, Miss Muriel. The Rectory, Cobbitty.

Ament, Robert. Gladstone-street, Bathurst.

Amos, Allen. Soma, Kirribilli Point, North Sydney.

Amos, Mrs. Jessie. Soma, Kirribilli Point, North Sydney.
Amphlett, E. A., B.E. Boonerah, Crows’ Nest-road, North Sydney.
Anderson, Arthur Wm. Commercial Bank-chambers, George-street.
Anderson, Mrs. A. W. Commercial Bank-chambers, George-street.
Anderson, Dr. C. Australian Museum.

Anderson, Mrs. E. O. 123 Clarence-strect.

Anderson, E. 8. 171 Macquarie-street.

Anderson, Professor F., M.A. 27 Arundel-street, Glebe.

Anderson, Mrs. I’. 27 Arundel-street, Glebe.

Anderson, J. 8. 6 Onslow-aven.e, Elizabeth Bay.

Anderson, R. C. St. Andrew’s College, Missenden-road, Newtown.
Andrews, E. C. Department of Mines.

Andrews, Mrs. E. C. 9 Grand Parade, Brighton-le-Sands.

Angus James. Rooty Hill.

Ansell, G. D. 81 Ferry-road, Glebe Point.

Archdall, Dr. M. 379 Darling-street, Balmain.

Armstrong, Miss. Eulo, Railway-street, Chatswood.

Armstrong, Miss Narella. 47 Prince Albert-street, Mosman.
Armstrong, Dr. W. G. Mangerton, Roslyn-gardens, Darlinghurst.
Armytage, Mrs. E. Arfoma, Albert-road, Burwood.

Arnott, H. R., J.P. Broome-Lea, Prospect-road, Summer Hill.
Artlett, Miss G. Dunstable, Oswald-street, Rusheutter’s Bay.
Ascroft, W. P. Bokhara, Cremorne.

Asher, Mrs. Constance Baynton. Corryong, Darling Point.

Asher, Guy Baynton. Corryong, Darling Point.

Ashton, Mrs. Helen. Tueila, William-street, Double Bay.
Ashworth, Miss E. M. Tallawera, Wallis-street, Woollahra.
Atkins, F. W. Department of Biology, University.

Atkins, W. L. The Park, Parramatta.

Atkins, Mrs. W. L. The Park, Parramatta.

Atkinson, A. A. Dunelm, Webb’s-avenue, Ashfield.

Atkinson, Mrs. A. A. Dunelm, Webb’s-avenue, Ashfield.
Atkinson, M., M.A. University.

Aurousseau, M. University, Perth, W.A.

Austin, Rev. A. H., M.A. Lashbrooke, Inkerman-street, Mosman.

Babbage, Eden H. Rawhiti, Clairville-road, Roseville.
Backhouse, His Honour Judge A. P., M.A. Melita, Elizabeth Bay Reserve.
Badham, Chas. University.

Badham, Mrs. Chas. University.

Badham, Miss E. A. The Nest, Mosman’s Bay.
Bahlsen, Miss E. St. Ronan’s Flats, 24 Macleay-strect.
Bailey, Miss M. A. Ascham, Darling Point.

Baines, Rev. R. B. Methodist Parsonage, Botany.
Baird, Mrs. A. E. Hotel Metropole.

Baker, R: T. Technological Museum.

Baker, Mrs. R. 1. Endesmia, Ashfield.

Ball, H. R. 19 Orwell-street, Pott’s Point.

Bardsley, J. Ralph. Blair, Wilton-crescent, Abbotsford.
Barff, H. E., M.A. University.

Bartf, Mrs. H. E. Cotham, Jersey-road, Woollahra.

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. 135

Barling, John. St. Adrian, Raglan-street, Mosman.

Barnard, A. W. A. Bracondale, 231 Ernest-street, North Sydney.
Barnes, Miss. Chip Chase, Greenwich-road, Greenwich.
Barnett, Miss L. 4 Toxteth-road, Glebe Point.

Barnett, M. S.. C.8S.R. Co., Ltd., O’Connell-street.

Barr, Charles. Arawata, Vernon-street, Strathfield.
Barraclough, Professor 8. H. University.

Bartholomew, F. E. 361 George-street.

Barton, Rt. Hon. Sir Edmund, G.C.B. Judges’ Chambers, Melbourne.
Bates, T. L. High-street, Waratah.

Battye, Mrs. Carlton House, Carlton.

Baur, I. G., M.D. Dangar’s Flats, Newcastle.

Baur, I. 8. Bolton-street, Newcastle.

Bavin, T. R., M.A. University Chambers, 157 Phillip-street.
Baxendale, J. Dooneen, Flood-street, Bondi.

Bayley, Mrs. Commonwealth Parade, West Esplanade, Manly.
Beach, Henry. Clonesslea, Herbert-street, Dulwich Hill.

Beale, J. G. M. Greenhill-street, Croydon.

Beale, Miss Ruth. Llanarth, Lucas-road, Burwood.

Bean, C. E. W. ‘Sydney Morning Herald.’

Bean, Rey. E. Orielton, Edgecliff.

Bean, Mrs. Orielton, Edgecliff.

Beardmore, F. J. 4 O’Connell-street.

Beattie, Ernest H., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Mosman.
Beattie, Mrs. E. H. The Observatory, Mosman.

Beaumont, Miss Helen. Egerton, Murdock-street, Cremorne.
Beavis, W. 29 Wharf-road, Snails Bay, Balmain.

Bee, James. Scots’ College, Bellevue Hill, Rese Bay.

Beeby, Hon. G. 8. Wentworth Court, Elizabeth-street.

Beeby, Mrs. G. 8. Wentworth Court, Elizabeth-street.

Bell, H. C. Duxford-street, Paddington.

Bell, Miss E. 21 Duxford-street, Paddington.

Bell, Dr. Rikard, J.P. 92 City-road.

Bell, Mrs. Rikard. 92 City-road.

Benjamin, Maurice 8. Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond.
Bennet, F. A., M.D. 26 College-street.

Bennett, Miss A. M. Chelsea, Roslyndale-avenue, Woollahra.
Bennett, C. L. Hampton Court, Woolcott-street, Darlinghurst.
Bennett, Mrs. C. L. Hampton Court, Woolcott-street, Darlinghurst.
Bennett, Miss D. Chelsea, Roslyndale-avenue, Woollahra.
Benney, R. H. Literary Institute, Nowra.
§$Benson, W. Killara.

Benson, W. N., B.Sc. Geology Department, University,
Bentley, Mrs. M. A. Merria, Sutherland.

Benton, J. W. Boolaroo, N.S.W.

Berman, F. T. Public School, Five Dock.

Bertles, Miss. Woodcourt College, Dulwich Hill.

Best, John. Romersberg, Greenwich.

Bevan, Dr. Sybil C. Kura, Carabella-street, Kirribilli, North Sydney.
Beveridge, R. M. Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W.
Beyer, Bruno. Carona, Hunter’s Hill.

Beyer, Mrs. Bruno. Carona, Hunter’s Hill.

Bignold, H. B. Wentworth Court, 64 Elizabeth-street.

Binns, Rev. F. Wingrove, Kogarah.

Birks, W. R. Department of Agriculture.

Birmingham, W. A. Agricultural Museum, George-strect.
Birrell, 8. Department of Agriculture, George-street.

Bisdee, Miss R. N. Glen Retreat, Ulnulla-road, Rose Bay.
Bishop, J. Stanton-road, Mosman.

Bishop, J. KE. Killarney-street, Mosman.

Black, Miss Bee. 26 Fairy Bower-road, Manly.

Black, J. C/o Y.M.C.A., Pitt-street.

136 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Black, Miss K. 179 Elizabeth-street.

Black, Robert. The Mills, Molong, N.S.W.

Black, W. E. School Inspector’s Office, Dubbo.

Blackburn, Dr. Chas. B. 34 College-street.

Blackwood, Dr. F. M. Mancera, Turramurra.

Blain, C. R. Headingley, Nicholson-street, Burwood.

Blain, Mrs. C. R. Headlingley, Nicholson-street, Burwood.
Blair, Mrs. G. 8. Wee-kan-ane, Park-road, Burwood.
§Blakemore, Mrs. Dura Maude. Wawona, Cooper-street, Burwood.
§Blakemore, George Henry. Wawona, Cooper-street, Burwood.
Blaxland, Dr. E. G. Burwood-road, Burwood.

Bloomfield, W. J., B.A., LL.B. Uritiwai, Darling Point.
Bloomfield, Mrs. W. J. Uritiwai, Darling Point.

Blow, Mark. 448 George-street.

Blume, Miss B .E. Wondi, Birkley-road, Manly.

Blumer, George A., M.A., Inspector of Schools, Grafton.

Blumer, L. Parramatta.

Blunno, Professor M. Department of Agriculture, George-street North.
Board, P., M.A., Director of Education, Department of Public Instruction.
Board, Mrs. P. Department of Public Instruction.

Board, Miss. Department of Public Instruction.

Boelke, Mrs. Grace F., M.B., Ch.M. Buckland-chambers, 183 Liverpool-

street.

Boelke, P. W. R., M.B., Ch.M. Buckland-chambers, 183 Liverpool-street.
Boland, George. Bronte, Bland-street, Ashfield.

Bond, A. E., J.P. 4 Bligh-street.

Booth, Miss B. The Women’s Club, Stanway House, King-street.
Booth, Edgar H., B.Sc. Felsted, Mowbray-road, Chatswood.
Booth, F. Albert. Station-street, Ryde.

Borberg, W. Grosvenor Hotel.

Borgia, Rev. Brother, B.A. Saint Joseph’s College, Hunter’s Hill.
Bourne, Cecil A., B.Sc. University Union.

Bower, H. M. Wingarra, Queen-street, Ashfield.

Bowie, Miss E. M. LEelie, Orpington-street, Ashfield.

Bowman, Miss Alice. Keadue, Elizabeth Bay.

Bowman, Miss Myril D., M.A. Wahgundy, Craboon, N.S.W.
Boyd, R. J. 6 Lorne-street, Summer Hill.

Boyer, Rey. Frederick C. Oaklands, Forest-road, Bexley.
Boyer, Mrs. Marianne. Oaklands, Forest-road, Bexley.

Braddon, H. Y. Rohini, Cherry-street, Turramurra.

Braddon, Mrs. H. G. Rohini, Cherry-street, Turramurra.
Bradley, Burton, M.B., D.P.H. University.

Bradley, H. H. B. 60 Margaret-street.

Brady, Dr. A. J. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street.

Bragg, J. 8. Raeburn, 12 Muston-street, Mosman.

Brain, Mrs. A. F. Ulara, Bland-street, Ashfield.

Brain, O. W., M.I.E.E. Ulara, Bland-street, Ashfield.

Brandon, Dr. A. J. Spiller, M.R.C.S. 265 Elizabeth-street.
Bray, Miss Dorothy. Kailoa, Union-street, North Sydney.
Breach, Mrs. Mark. Koorawatha, Musgrave-street, Mosman.
Breakwell, E., B.Sc. Botanic Gardens.

Brearley, Dr. Edwin A. 139 Macquarie-street.

Brennand, L. P. Box 1067, G.P.O.

Brereton, E. Le Gay. The Chemical Laboratory, University.
Brewster, Miss Agnes. Girls’ High School, Elizabeth-street.
Briggs, George H. Kaipara, Neich Parade, Burwood.

Brindley, Miss Eulalie. Women’s Common Room, University.
Broadfoot, A. C/o Mr. Henderson, Garfield-street, Five Dock.
Broinowski, 8. Tutuila, Keston-avenue, Mosman.

Bromilow, Rev. W. D., D.D. 206 Stanmore-road, Stanmore.
Bromilow, Mrs. H. 8. 206 Stanmore-road, Stanmore.

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. 137

Bromley, Miss M. St. Osyth, Prince Albert-street, Mosman.

Bronowski, Dr. Frenchman’s-road, Randwick,

Brooks, Joseph, J.P., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S. Hope Bank, Nelson-street, Wool-
lahra.

Broughton, Ernest. Delves, The Boulevarde, Strathfield.

Broughton, Mrs. Ernest. Delves, The Boulevarde, Strathfield.

Brown, Miss. 44 Bruce-street, Stanmore.

Brown, Mrs. E. E. The Highlands, Stoney Creek-road, Pymble.

Brown, Rev. George, D.D. Kinawahua, Gordon.

Brown, James B. Technical College.

Brown, Professor Macmillan, M.A. C/o Mrs. Robert Craig, Ailsa, Shellcove-
voad, Neutral Bay.

Brown, William R. C/o Mrs. Manning, North-street, Moss Vale.

Browne, Mrs. Hamilton. Arnold, South-street, Double Bay.

Browne, Dr. Harold, M.R.C.S8. Tresco, Smith-street, Summer Hill.

Browne, Mrs. Harold. Tresco, Smith-street, Summer Hill.

Browne, W. R. Geology Department, University.

Bryant, Mrs. Edward. Bon Secours, Grosvenor-road, Lindfield, North
Shore Line.

Buckley, Miss E., M.B. Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown.

Bucknell, A. W. Mookoo, Moree.

Budden, Miss. Moocooboolah, Hunter’s Hill.

Bulkeley, R. H., F.R.A.S. Wallerawang.

Bullmore, Dr. H. H. 175 Macquarie-street.

Bullmore, Mrs. 175 Macquarie-street.

Bullock, Miss G. W. Melrose, Queen-street, Woollahra.

Bullock, Dr. Howard. Melrose, Queen-street, Woollahra.

Bullock, Mrs. L. C. Melrose, Queen-street, Woolahra.

Bullock, Miss M. G. Melrose, Queen-street, Woollahra.

Bundock, A. W. 64 Bayswater-road, Darlinghurst.

Burfitt, Miss Mary D. 333 Glebe Point-road.

Burgin, E. Ooma, Badminton-road, Croydon.

Burgin, Miss L. Ooma, Badminton-road, Croydon.

Burkitt, Miss Dora. C/o Dr. Gordon Craig, The Crossways, Martin-read,
Centennial Park.

Burkitt, Neville. Market-street, Goulburn.

Burkitt, Dr. W. A. H. Goulburn.

Burne, Dr. Alfred. Kinellan, Dalley-street, Waverley.

Burne, Mrs. Alfred. Kinellan, Dalley-street, Waverley.

Burnell, 8. C. Hillside, Edgecliff-road, Woollahra.

Burns, Miss Dorothy. Vintnor, Hopetoun-street, Petersham.

Burns, Hon. Colonel James, M.L.C. Gowan Brae, Parramatta.

Burrell, H. La Mascotte, 19 Doncaster-avenue, Kensington.

Burrell, Mrs. La Mascotte, 19 Doncaster-avenue, Kensington.

Burrows, G. J. University.

Burton, C. R. Rossmoyne, Redmyre-road, Strathfield.

Burton, Miss E. Hinton Hall, Margaret-street.

Burton, H. 8. Rossmoyne, Redmyre-road, Strathfield.

Butler, F. J., M.A. 14 Craigend-street, Darlinghurst.

Butler, Miss M. A. 41 High-street, Newcastle.

Byrne, F. W. The Union, University.

Cakebread, Rev. Wm. J., B.A. St. Jude’s Vicarage, Avoca-street, Randwick.
Callaghan, C. 8. 395 George-street.

Callendar, G. G. St. Andrew’s College, The University.

Cambage, A. 8., D.D.S. Pelham, Military-road, Mosman.

Cambage, Miss F. Wyaglan, Park-road, Burwood.

Cambage, R. H., F.L.8. Mines Department.

Cambridge, E. R. Kerang, Cook-road, Centennial Park.

Cameron, R. G. Station-street, Ryde.

138 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Cameron, Dr. 8. 8. Department of Agriculture, Melbourne.
Campbell, Rev. Alex. P. Florence-street, Killara.
Campbell, Alfred W., M.D. 183 Macquarie-street.
Campbell, Miss E. Public School, Grosewold, Grose Vale, Richmond.
Campbell, E. F. Moorialda, Cheltenham-road, Burwood.
Campbell, Mrs. FE. Rose. Bokhara, Cremorne.
Camper Miss I. E. Science Department, Girls’ High School, West Mait-
land.
Campbell, Miss F. E. Tofua, North-street, Petersham.
Campbell, J. B. Department of Public Works.
Campbell, J. H. Royal Mint.
Campbell, J. L. Caradon, Albert-street, Woollahra.
Campbell, Mrs. J. L. Caradon, Albert-street, Woollahra.
Campbell, Miss M. J. Caradon, Albert-street, Woollahra.
Campbell, John F. Moorialda, Cheltenham-road, Burwood.
Campling, E. Denman-avenue, Haberfield.
Campling, Mrs. E. Glen Ugie, Denman-avenue, Haberfield.
Cantello, G. 10 Miles-street, Surry Hills.
Cantrell, 8. W. Boys’ High School, Fort-street.
Capper, Miss Lilla M. 198 Miller-street, North Sydney.
Carment, D. 4 Whaling-road, North Sydney.
Carment, Mrs. E. 4 Whaling-road, North Sydney.
Carment, Miss. 4 Whaling-road, North Sydney.
§Carne, J. E. Mines Department.
Carne, Mrs. J. E. Beecroft.
Carne, Miss L. Beecroft.
Carne, W. M. Botanic Gardens.
Jaro, Miss Hilda, B.A. Gareloch, Elizabeth Bay.
Caro, Mrs. Julius. Gareloch, Elizabeth Bay.
Carpenter, F. W. 56 Carabella-street, Milson’s Point.
Carroll, O. O. 188 Carvington-road, Waverley.
Carroll, W. H. Superior Public School, Naremburn.
Carruthers, Dr. C. U. 21 Montague-street, Balmain
Carruthers, Rev. J. E. Birralee, Mosman.
Carruthers, Hon. Sir J. H., K.C.M.G. Highbury, Waverley.
Carruthers, Miss Pearl H. Esperance, Miller-street, North Sydney.
§Carslaw, Prof. H. 8., Sc.D. University.
§Carson, Rev. James. The Manse, Cowper.
Carter, E. M. Glenrock, Darling Point, Edgecliffe.
Carter, H. G., B.E. Ascham, New South Head-road, Darling Point.
Carter, H. J., B.A. Ascham, Darling Point.
Carter, Miss M. A. Killarney, Mosman.
Caswell, Chas. H. Vernon-street, Strathfield.
Chadwick, Robert. Althorne, 281 Edgecliff-road, Woollahra.
Chadwick, Mrs. Robert. Althorne, 281 Edgecliff-road, Woollahra.
Challinor, R. W., F.LC., F.C.S. Sydney Technical College.
Chalmers, James. C/o Farmer and Company, Ltd., Pitt and George-streets.
Chandler, Miss Hastings. Edward-street, North Sydney.
Chapman, Mrs. A. Tivoli, Spit-road, Mosman.
§Chapman, H. G., M.D. Department of Physiology, The University.
Chapman, Miss Lucy. 19 Victoria-street, Ashfield.
Charters, Miss C. 76 Darley-road, Manly.
Chayet, Monsieur A. Consulat-Général de France.
Cheel, E. Botanic Gardens.
Chisholm, A. R. 27 Colin-street, North Sydney.
Christian, Mrs. J. B. Tudor, Elizabeth Bay.
Clark, R. D. 3 Silex-road, Mosman.
Clark, Mrs. Richardson. 12 Boyle-street, Mosman.
Clarke, Frank. Stephen Court, 79 Elizabeth-street.
Clarke, G. H. Eliah, Crummond-street, Belmore.
Cleland, Dr. J. B. Bannerman-street, Neutral Bay.
Clerk, Keith B. Radium Hill Works, Woolwich.

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. 139

Clif, R. C. 4 Castlereagh-street.

Clinch, E. J., B.A. Inverness, 68 Watkin-street, Newtown.
§Close, J. Campbell. 217 Clarence-street.

Clubbe, Dr. Charles. 195 Macquarie-street.

Cocks, Rev. G. O. Tahberfield.

Cocks, Rev. N. J., M.A. 264 Pitt-street.

Coen, B., M.B. University.

Coffey, Alfred. Ferndale, Trelawney-street, Woollahra.

Coghlan, Dr. Iza. Waratah Chambers, 179 Elizabeth-street.
Cohen, Burnett D. Cahors, Macleay-street.

Cohen, Mrs. Burnett D. Cahors, Macleay-street.

Cohen, Miss Ff. 24 Mona-road, Darling Point.

Cohen, Rev. Rabbi Francis L. 91 Macleay-street.

Cohen, J. J., M.L.A. 145 Phillip-street.

Cole, Percival R., Ph.D. ‘Teachers’ College.

Cole, Miss Violet. Darbalara, Gundagai.

Coles, Felix. Technical College, Bathurst, N.S.W.

Colley, D. J. K. Royal Mint, Macquarie-street.

Collier, S. Moorwatha Public School, Bungowannah, via Albury.
Collingridge, George. Hornsby.

Collins, Miss K. J. Lauderdale-avenue, Manly.

Collins, Victor. Albert-street, Wycombe, Newcastle, N.S.W.
Colquhoun, P. B., M.L.A. Ross Dhu, 65 Muston-street, Mosman.
Colville, A. B. 9 Keston-avenue, Mosman.

Colwell, Rev. F. 161 Walker-street, North Sydney.

Connor, Mrs. Vailinia, Sydney-street, Willoughby, North Sydney.
Conroy, J. M. Kingsclere, Macleay-street, Potts’ Point.

Conroy, Mrs. J. M. Kingsclere, Macleay-street, Potts’ Point.
Cook, Mrs. 8. E., B.A., B.Se. Bahloo, Military-road, Mosman.
Cook, W. E., M.Inst.C.E. 18 Burroway-street, Neutral Bay.
Cooke, Miss E. C. Sydney Observatory, Upper Fort-street.
Cooke. F. B. Sydney Observatory, Upper Fort-street.

Cooke, F. H. Nordfelt, California, U.S.A.

Cooke, Professor W. E., M.A., F.R.A.S. Sydney Observatory, Upper Fort-

street.

Cooke, Mrs. W. E. Sydney Observatory, Upper Fort-street.
Cooke, William E. Public School, Tootool, via The Rock, N.S.W.
Cooksey, T., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.I.C. Clissold, Calypso-avenue, Mosman.
Cooksey, Mrs. T. Clissold, Calypso-avenue, Mosman.

Coombs, F. A. 55 Willoughby-road, Crow’s Nest, North Sydney.
Cooper, A. C. 131 Stanmore-road, Stanmore. -

Cooper, Clive A. Gibbs Chambers, 7 Moore-street.

Coppleson, V. M. Roseville, Bondi-road, Bondi.

Cordia, M. P. C/o Royal Packet S.N. Co., 56 Pitt-street.
Cordingly, Miss Dora. Campbell-street, Milson’s Point.
Cordingly, Miss Grace. Campbell-street, Milson’s Point.

Corin, W. Public Works Department.

Corlette, Miss E. I. Kameruka, Calypso-avenue, Mosman.
Cornish, W. Box 24 Post Office, West Maitland.

Coster, Wm. W. 137 Macquarie-street.

Cotton, F. 8., B.Se. University.

Cotton, L. A., B.Se. Geology Department, University.

Coutie, Dr. W. H. Callan Park.

Cowdery, Miss. C/o Mrs. Robertson, Chepstowe, Albert-road, Strathfield.
Cowie, H. High School, Newcastle.

Cox, Miss EF. M. Mount Royal, Macleay-strect.

Cox, Mrs. J. Ramsay. C/o Dr. H. G. Chapman, Tivoli, Spit-road, Mosman
Cracknell, Miss M. Cleone Studio, Linden Court, 107 Castlereagh-street.
Cragg, Miss G. H. Como, York-crescent, Petersham.

Cragg, Miss Mabel KE. Como, York-crescent, Petersham.

Craig, Miss Ailsa. The Crossways, Martin-road, Centennial Park.
Craig, Mrs. E. B. Ailsa, Shell Cove-road, Neutral Bay.

140 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Craig, Dr. F. Brown. 1 King-street, Newtown.

Craig, Mrs. F. Brown. 1 King-street, Newtown.

Craig, Dr. Gordon. The Crossways, Martin-road, Centennial Park.
Craig, Mrs. Gordon. ‘The Crossways, Martin-road, Centennial Park.
Craig, Mrs. M. Auckland. C/o William-street Post Office.

Cramp, K. R., M.A., B.M.A. Building, 32 Elizabeth-street.
Crane, Arnold N. Robinson-street, Croydon.

Crane, G. C. Hillston, Robinson-street, Croydon.

Creagh, Albert Jasper, B.A. Tamworth, N.S.W.

Creed, Mrs. Agnes. Parliament House.

Creed, Hon. John M., M.R.C.S., M.L.C. Parliament House.
Creed, Miss M. Mayrah, Military-road, Mosman.

Crockett, R. A. 35 Boyce-street, Glebe Point.

Crouch, Miss. 20 Gordon-street, Petersham.

Crowe, Miss M. Lynton Cottage, Cowra, N.S.W.

Crummer, H. 8., W. Palser-street, Woolwich.

Cullen, Hon. Sir W. P., K.C.M.G. Tregoyd, Raglan-street, Mosman.
Cullen, Lady. Tregoyd, Raglan-street, Mosman.

Curnow, Miss. Clifton, Cambridge-street, Enmore.

Curtain, Miss A. 9 Abemarle-street, Newtown.

Curtis, Mrs. A. M. Somerset House, Moore-street.

Curtis, Louis A. Somerset House, Moore-street.

Dallen, Robt. A. University.

D’Arcy, Dr. Constance E. 207 Macquarie-street.

Dare, H. H., M.E., M.Inst.C.E. Noorebar, Victoria-street, Roseville.
Dart, George. Taree.

Dart, R. A. St. Andrew’s College, Camperdown.

David, Mrs. Cora M. C/o. Prof. David, University.

David, Miss Molly E. C/o. Prof. David, University.

§David, Professor T. W. Edgeworth, C.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S. University.
Davidson, Mrs. A. B. C. St. Anne’s, Shell Cove-road, Neutral Bay.
Davidson, A. C. Bank of New South Wales.

Davidson, Dr. Andrew, J.P. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street.
Davidson, Mrs. Sarah. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street. f
Davies, Rev. David J., M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Moore College, Newtown.
Davies, Miss E. P. Tibouri, Greenwich-road, Greenwich.

Davies, Miss J. Victoria-street, Roseville.

Davies, Miss Kendal. Nurses’ Home, 140 Phillip-street.

Davies, Dr. Reginald. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street.

Davies, Mrs. R. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street.

Davies, W. G. Superior Public School, Cowra.

Davis, Dr. Neville J. Bulladelah.

Davis, T. Superior Public School, Tempe.

Davis, V. C., King-street, Lorn, West Maitland.

Davison, 8. B. Airlie, Canterbury-grove, Dulwich Hill.

Davy, Miss Mary. Glendoyal, Wycombe-road, Neutral Bay.

Dawson, A. B. British Australian Tobacco Co., Raleigh Park, Kensington.
Dawson, J., M.A. Department of Public Instruction.

Day, M. Copper. 18 Bridge-street.

Deane, Miss Beatrice. C/o Norman Blain, Albyn-road, Strathfield.
Deighton, R. 45 Cowles-road, Mosman. :

§Delprat, G. L. Equitable Building, Collins-street.

Denison, H. R. Craignish, Macquarie-street.

Denison, Mrs. H. R. Craignish, Macquarie-street,

Dennis, J., M.A. St. Levan, Flood-street, Bondi.

Dennis, Mrs. J. H. 3 Collingwood-street, Drumn.oyne.

Desailly, Miss Ellen. 287 Liverpool-street.

Dey, Rev. Robt. 275 Clarence-street.

Dick, J. A.. M.D. Belmore-road, Randwick.

Dickson, Miss F. I. O/o Dave Dickson, Esq., Holmrwood, Darling Point.
Dixson, Miss A. S. 215 Macquarie-street.

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914 141

Dixson, Hugh. Abergeldie, Summer Hill.

Dixson, Dr. Thomas 8. 215 Macquarie-street.

Doak, Dr. Frank W. Warrender, Belmont-road, Mosman.
Dobbie, R. 8. Castlereagh House, Castlereagh-street.

Docker, Mrs. A. M. Nyrambla, Darlinghurst-road.

§Docker, His Honour Judge E. B., M.A. Mostyn, Elizabeth Bay.
Docker, Mrs. E. B. Mostyn, Elizabeth Bay.

Docker, Wilfred L. Nyrambla, Darlinghurst-road.

Dodd, Dr. 8. University.

Dodds, Leonard. B.N.Z. Chambers, George and Wynyard-streets.
Dodds, Mrs. Winifred M. Adderton, Fullerton-street, Woollahra.
Doherty, W. M. Health Department, Macquarie-street.
D’Ombrain, Dr. Ernest A. 205 Macquarie-street.

D’Ombrain, Mrs. EK. A. 205 Macquarie-street.

Dove, Miss. Thornbury, Ashfield.

Dove, Miss A. M. Thornbury, Ashfield.

Dove, Miss Augusta. District School, Tamworth.

Downing, R. 8. Botanic Gardens.

Drake, D. District School, Taree, N.S.W.

Drevermann, J. Radium Hill Co.’s Works, Woolwich.
Duckworth, A. A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-street.

Dun, W. 8. Mines Department.

Dunkley, A. M., BSc. 138 Liverpool-road, Ash fields

Dunlop, James. 123 Clarence-street.

Dunlop, John §. 123 Clarence-street.

Dunlop, Miss Mabel L. Wallaga, Wollstonecraft, North Sydney.
Dunlop, Mrs. Margaret. 123 Clarence-street.

Dunn, Mrs. W. 8S. Windemere, Ernest-street, Hunter’s Hill.
Dupain, George Z. Royal Chambers, Castlereagh-strect.
Durack, Miss. JLorraine, Mandelong-road, Mosman.

Durack, L. J. 143 Macquarie-street.

Earp, Hon. George F., M.L.C. Uig Lodge, Point Piper.

Eastaugh, F. A., A.R.S.M. Gladstone-avenue, Hunter’s Hill.

Eastwood, John A. Horbury, Gordon-square, Marrickville.

Ebsworth, A. C. Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street.

Ebsworth, Mrs. A. C. Kobo, Wellington-street, Woollahra.

Edgley, Mrs. Canargroo, Military-road, Neutral Bay.

Edmunds, W. St. James’ Chambers, King-street.

Edwards, Dr. G. A., L.R.C.P. Taunton Dene, Bondi.

Edwards, E. 8., M.A. 87 Pitt-street.

Edwards, R. C. Medical School, The University.

Edwell, Horace H. Storborough, Merlin-street, North Sydney.

Edwell, Mrs. H. H. Storborough, Merlin-street, North Sydney.

Eedy, Arthur M. Mutual Life and Citizens’ Assurance Co., Ltd., Citizens’
Buildings, Moore-street.

Eedy, Mrs. L. B. Coogee Bay Hotel, Coogee.

Elliott, E. A. Medical School, The University.

Elliott, Miss Millicent. Wanganui, Goldsbury-street, Mosman,

Elliott, Miss W. G. Wanganui, Goldsbury-street, Mosman.

Elliott, W. J. Eulinda, Livingstone-street, Burwood.

England, V. Eothen, Comer-street, Burwood.

English, Miss K. Women’s College, Newtown.

Enwright, W. J. High-street, West Maitland.

Essermann, N. A. 153 Bathurst-street.

Evans, Miss. Normanhurst, Ashfield.

Evans, Evan G. High School, Orange.

Evans, Miss Mildred. Carthage-street, Tamworth.

Ewing, Dr. Thomas. Nowra.

Eyres, W. H. Wool Exchange, Macquarie-place.

Eyres, Mrs. W. H. Pomeroy, Macleay-street, Potts’ Point.

142 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Fairfax, Mrs. 185 Macquarie-street.

Fairfax, Dr. E. W. 185 Macquarie-street.

Fairfax, Geoffrey E. Sydney Morning Herald.

Fairfax, J. O. Herald Office.

Fairfax, Sir Jas. R. Ginahgulla, Bellevue Hill, Woollahra.

Fairfax, Lady. Ginahgulla, Bellevue Hill, Woollahra.

Fairfax, Miss. Ginahgulla, Bellevue Hill, Woollahra.

Faithfull, Wm. P. The Monastery, 168 Kurraba-road, Neutral Bay.
Faithfull, Mrs. Kate M. The Monastery, 168 Kurraba-road, Neutral Bay.
Farran, Miss Emily M. Campden, Edgecliff-road, Woollahra.

Farrell, John. C/o Mutual Life & Citizens’ Assurance Co., Moore and Castle-

reagh-streets. :
Farrell, Mrs. J. C/o J. Farrell, Esq., Mutual Life & Citizens’ Assurance Co.,
Moore and Castlereagh-streets.

Faulks, J. A. 30 Tyrrell-street, Newcastle.
*Fawsitt, Professor C. E., D.Sc. University.

Feldwick, Miss Muriel. Murfels, 155 Ernest-street, North Sydney.
Feldwick, Mrs. W. H. 8S. Murfels, 155 Ernest-street, North Sydney.
Fell, Mrs. H. W. SBranxholme, 320 Alfred-street, North Sydney.
Fellmann, Rev. H. Akarana, Birrell-street, Bondi.

Ferguson, His Honour Judge David G. Judges’ Chambers.

Ferguson, Mrs. D. G. Wimbledon, Greenknowe-avenue, Potts’ Point,
Ferguson, Dr. E. W. 92 Macquarie-street.

Fidler, C. B. Ravenswood, Gordon.

Fidler, Miss Isabel M. University.

Fielding, Rev. 8. G. St. Matthias’ Rectory, Oxford-street, Paddington.
Fielding, Miss. St. Matthias’ Rectory, Oxford-street, Paddington.
Finckh, Dr. A. E. Hariey, 227 Macquarie-street.

Finckh, Mrs. A. EH. Harley, 227 Macquarie-street.

Finigan, Walter. Leura, Park-road, Hurstville.

Finn, General H., C.B. State Government House.

Finney, J. 10 Chandos-street, Ashfield.

Fisher, Henry. Virginia, Tivoli-street, Mosman.

Fitzhardinge, Mrs. G. H. Red Hill, Beecroft.

Fitzhardinge, Dr. H. C. 195 Macquarie-street.

Fitzhardinge, Miss J. G. Red Hill, Beecroft.

Fitzpatrick, Miss E. Superior Public School, Rozelle.

Flashman, Dr. 183 Macquarie-street.

Fletcher, J. J. Wybalena-road, Hunter’s Hill.

Fletcher, Mrs. J. J. Wybalena-road, Hunter’s Hill.

Fletcher, Dr. W. M. A. Leeton.

Flynn, J. A. Castlereagh House.

Flynn, J. J., B.Se., M.D., M.Ch. Baltard, Martin-road, Centennial Park.
Flynn, Mrs. J.J. Baltard, Martin-road, Centennial Park.

Flynn, Michael Richard, B.A. Baltard, Martin-road, Centennial Park.
Foord, J. T. Challis House.
§lorbes, E. J. P.O. Box 1604.
§Forbes, Mrs. E. J. P.O. Box 1604.

Ford, F. Perey. Goomerabong, Florence-street. Strathfield.

Foreman, Dr. Joseph. Wyoming, Macquarie-street.

Foreman, Mrs. J. 62 Macfeay-street.

Forster, A. 7 Richmond-terrace, Domain.

Forster, Chas. E. Goondi, Merlin-street, North Sydney.

Fosbery, L. A. Wagga Wagga.
§Foster, Colonel H. J., R.E. University.

Foster-Hall, F. Rosemount, Homebush.

Fox, Robert A., M.B. State Hospital, Rookwood.

Fox, Mrs. W. A. Hornbak, Calypso-avenue, Mosman.

Franckel, Martin. Royal Insurance Buildings, Pitt and Spring-streets.
Fraser, Miss. 40 College-street, Hyde Park.

Fraser, Dr. Donald. 40 College-street, Hyde Park.

Fraser, Mrs. Donald. 40 College-street, Hyde Park.

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. 1438

Fraser, Donald E. Department of Public Instruction, Newcastle.

Friend, Miss Alice M. Cintra, Wallace-street, Burwood.

Friend, Charles T. W. Moruben-road, Mosman.

Friend, Miss Ellen M. Cintra, Wallace-street, Burwood.

Froggatt, Miss Gladys H. Bonito, Young-street, Croydon.

Froggatt, John Lewis. Bonito, Young-street, Croydon.

Froggatt, Mrs. W. W. Bonito, Young-street, Croydon.

Froggatt, Walter W. Department of Agriculture, Dawes Point, George-
street North.

Furber, T. F., F.R.A.S. Lands Department.

Galbraith, A. R. C/o Bank of Australasia, Martin-place.

Galloway, Miss. Enderslea, Veret-street, Hunter’s Hill.

Galloway, R. F. School of Engineering, University.

Gardiner, A. The Linn, Lindsay-street, Hamilton.

Garran, Mrs. Roanoke, Roslyn-avenue, Darlinghurst.

Garran, Miss Helen 8. Roanoke, Roslyn-avenue, Darlinghurst.

Garvan, Miss. Buyuma, Victoria-road, Bellevue Hill.

Garvan, Mrs. Buyuma, Victoria-road, Bellevue Hill.

Garvin, Mrs. Lucy. Girls’ High School, Elizabeth-street.

Geer, Miss L. Garlowrie, Magic-street, Mosman.

Gentles, W. G. Wynyard-buildings, Carrington-street.

George, §., B.Sc. Biology Department, University.

Gerber, Miss L. 33 Cook-road, Centennial Park.

Gibbons, Rev. F. J. Katandra College, Ashfield.

Gibson, W. W. H. Araluen, Ben Boyd-road, Neutral Bay.

Giddy, T. Grantham. Kenilworth, Sandon-street, Hamilton.

Gilder, P. G. Department of Agriculture, Bridge-street.

Giles, Arthur, B.A. Sydney Grammar School, College-street.

Gilfillan, Miss. Reidhaven, North Sydney.

sillam, Miss D. Clovelly, Belmore-street, Burwood.

Gillet, R. 8. C/o Anthony Hordern and Sons, Ltd.

Gillies, Dr. Sinclair, 153 Macquarie-street.

Gillies, Mrs. Sinclair. 153 Macquarie-street.

Glasson, Miss. Lithney, Gordon.

Glasson, Miss Emily. C/o Rev. R. Scott West, The Manse, Gladstone-
street, Burwood.

Glasson, Mrs. Robert. C/o Rev. R. Scott West, The Manse, Gladstone-
street, Burwood.

Glasson, Rev. Wm. Lithney, Gordon.

xodfrey, R. J. Department of Mines.

Golding, Miss Annie. Orange Grove Girls’ Superior Public School, Leich-
hardt- street,

Golding, Miss Belle. Superior Public School, Orange Grove, Leichhardt-street.

Goldrick, Mrs. J. Koorawatha, Musgrave-street, Mosman.

Goode, Miss Barbara 8. F. Mount Royal, 75 Macleay-street.

Gordon, Lady. 7 Ulladulla Flats, Parkes-street, Kirribilli, North Sydney.

Gordon, Miss A. L. 7 Ulladulla Flats, Parkes-street, Kirribilli, North Sydney.

Gordon, Hon. Mr. Justice Alexander. Darlavyn, Onslow-avenue, Elizabeth
Bay.

xordon, Mrs. Alexander. Darlavyn, Onslow-avenue, Elizabeth Bay.

Gormley, Miss Ella M., B.A. Biasco, Kangaroo-street, Manly.

Gotthelf, Moritz, J.P. Elizabeth Bay House, Elizabeth Bay.

Grace, Mrs. J. N. Yasmar, Parramatta-road, Ashfield.

Graham, Miss A. Lanark, Mosman.

Graham, Miss Dulcie. Myrnong, 23 Mona-road, Darling Point.

Graham, Miss Frances. Lanark, Mosman.

Granger, J. Darnell. 57 Holmwood-street, Newtown.

Granowski, O., C.E. 387 Kent-street.

Grant, Robt. Department of Public Health.

Gray, F. P. J. 158 Bondi-road, Bondi.

Greaves, W. A. B. Braylesford, Bondi.

144 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Green, Mrs. H. M. Iredale-avenue, Cremorne.

Green, J. Superior Public School, Waratah, N.S.W.

Green, Rev. Jas. The Parsonage, 23 May-street, Newtown.

Green, Victor. C/o George Shirley, Ltd., Hardt Buildings, 18-22 Carrington-
street, Wynyard-square.

Gregson, Miss. Yengo, Bell, G.W.R.

Greig, W. A. Mining Museum, Dawes Point.

Greig-Smith, R., D.Sc. Otterburn, Edgecliffe-road, Woollahra.

Greig-Smith, Mrs. R. Otterburn, Edgecliffe-road, Woollahra.

Grieve, R. H., B.A. 6 Llandaff-street, Waverley.

Grieve, W. H. C/o Wm. Adams and Co., Ltd., 173-175 Clarence-street.

Griffin, Alderman J. G., J.P., C.D. Equitable Buildings, 350 George-street.

Griffin, Walter B. Falmouth Chambers, 117 Pitt-street.

Griffin, Mrs. Walter Burley. 20 Bannerman-street, Neutral Bay.

Griffith, Rev. A. J., M.A. Godfrey-street, Lakemba.

Griffiths, E. 23 Silver-street, St. Peter’s.

Griffiths, F. Guy, B.A., M.D. 135 Macquarie-street.

Grimwade, J. 8. 52 Macleay-street.

§Grinley, Frank. Wandella, Gale-street. Woolwich, North Sydney.
Grossmann, Miss. Girls’ High School, Lane Cove-road, North Sydney.
Grugeon, S. 9 Church-street, Ashfield.

Gullett, Hon. Henry, M.L.C. Hindfell, Wahroonga.

Gullick, William A., J.P. Government Printing Office.

Gunn, R. M. C. Montreux, Redmyre-road, Strathfield.

Gunther, Ven. Archdeacon W. J., M.A. Eurimbla, Walker-street, North
Sydney.

Gurney, Thomas. Equitable Buildings, George-street.

Gurney, W. B. Department of Agriculture.

Guthrie, F. B., F.1.C., F.C.S.. Department of Agriculture, 136 George-street
North.

Guthrie, Mrs. F. B. Lindela, Neutral Bay,

Hadley, B. 14 Martin-place.

Hadley, Miss Esme. The Valetta, Smith-street, Wollongong, N.S.W.

Halcomb, C. D., M.B. Lindfield.

Hall, Dr. KE. Cuthbert. Glenrowan, Parramatta.

Hall, Dr. F. W. 30 College-street.

Hall, George E., B.E. Torquay, Avoca-street, Randwick.

Hall, H. D., J.P. Government Savings Bank, 11 Moore-street.

Hallett, P. W. High School, Newcastle.

Hallett, Mrs. P. W. 41 High-street, Newcastle, N.S.W.

Halligan, G. H. Riversleigh, Ferry-street, Hunter’s Hill.

Halligan, Mrs. G. H. Riversleigh, Ferry-street, Hunter’s Hill.

Hallman, E. F., B.Sc. Macleay Museum, University.

Halloran, Aubrey, B.A., LL.B. Roskean, Darling Point.

Halloran, Mrs. Aubrey. Roskean, Darling Point.

Hamand, Mrs. H. C. Lana, Guthrie-avenue, Neutral Bay.

Hamblin, C. O. Department of Agriculture.

Hamilton, A. A. National Herbarium, Botanic Gardens.

Hamilton, Alexr. G. Teachers’ College, Blackfriars.

Hamilton, Miss Ellice E. P. Newmilns, Addison-road, Marrickville.

Hamilton, J., B.E. Tomabil, Strathfield.

Hamlet, W. M., F.1.C., F.C.S. Barrington, Mosman.

Hamlet, Mrs. W. M. Barrington, Mosman.

Hamlet, Miss. Barrington, Mosman.

Hammon, Mrs. C. M. 40 Muston-street. Mosman.

Hammond, W. L., B.Sc. Technical College.

Hanson, H. G. L. Belle Aire, Kissing Point-road, Turramurra.

Hardie, Jas. Barncraig, Cowles-road, Mosman.

Hardie, J. March. 12 and 14 O’Connell-street.

Harding, Henry G. A. Technical College.

Hare, Mrs. Annie E, C/o A. J. Hare, J.P., Under-Secretary, Lands Depart-
ment,

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. 145

Hare, Arthur J., J.P. Lands Department, Bridge-street.
Hargrave, Miss. Woollahra Point.
Hargrave, Mrs. Woollahra Point.
Hargrave, G. L. Woollahra Point.
Hargrave, L. Woollahra Point.
Hargrave, Miss O. Woollahra Point.
§Harker, Dr. George. University.
Harker, Miss Mabel. C/o Dr. George Harker, University.
Harmer, Mrs. C. G. 43 Grafton-street, Woollahra.
Harnett, C. J. Survey Office, Hay.
Harper, Rev. Principal, D.D. St. Andrew’s College, University.
Harper, Mrs. Barbara H. St. Andrew’s College, University.
Harper, Dr. Margaret. St. Andrew’s College, University.
Harries, D. 207 Bulwarra-road, Pyrmont.
Harriott, Miss G. Crompton, Help-street, Chatswood.
Harris, Rev. J. Oberlin. Highclere, Pymble.
Harris, Mrs. J. Oberlin. Highclere, Pymble.
Harris, Miss Jean Owen. Rowfant, Mowbray-road, Chatswood.
Harris, Mrs. John. Linwood, Edgecliff-road, Woollahra.
Harris, Miss Margaret. Littlebridge, William Henry-street, Ultimo.
Harris, Mrs. M. J. Etham, Darling Point.
Harrison, G. R., J.P. Homebush-road, Strathfield.
Harrison, J. F. Parsonage, Railway-road, St. Peter’s,
Harrison, Rev. John Ward. Parsonage, Railway-road, St. Peter's.
Hart, Miss. Tusculum, Potts’ Point.
Hart, Miss. Fairmount, North Manly.
Harvey, His Honour J. M. Judges’ Chambers, Supreme Court.
Harvey, James. Public School, Young Wallsend, N.S.W.
Harvey, W. G. Inspector of Schools’ Office, Bowraville.
Harwood, A. R. Stanway House, King-street.
Harwood, Mrs. Septimus, M.A. Foy’s-chambers, 1 Bond-street.
Haswell, Professor Wm. A., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. University.
Haswell, Mrs. W. A. University.
Hatfield, J. W. Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W.
Hatfield, W. F. Essex-street, Epping.
Haviland, Archdeacon F. E. St. Paul’s Rectory, Cobar.
Hawkins, Hector. Prov. School, Bald-hill, Ardlethan, N.S.W.
Hawkins, W. E. Somerset House, 5 Moore-street.
Hawkins, Mrs. W. E. Somerset House, 5 Moore-street.
Hay, Rev. Alexr., M.A., D.D. Kinnoull, Rosedale-road, Gordon.
Hay, Lady Jessie 8. Crow's Nest House, Lane Cove-road, North
Sydney.
Hay, R. Dalrymple. Dumagit, Goodchap-road, Chatswood.
Hay, Miss Margaret Dalrymple. Dumagit, Goodchap-road, Chatswood.
Hay, Miss W. Clarmore Private Hospital, 248 Liverpool-street, Darling-
hurst.
Hayden, Rev. Dr. St. Patrick’s College, Manly.
Hayes, G. Havilah, Adelong Post Office.
Hayley, P. E. L. Umeralla, Angelo-street, Burwood.
Hector, Alec. B. C/o Burroughs, Wellcome, & Co., 481 Kent-street.
§Hedley, C. Australian Museum.
Hedley, C., J.P. Nukulailai, Muston-street, Mosman.
Heinrich, J. Oscar. Government Experimental Farm, Bathurst.
Helms, Mrs. P. 5 Orpington-street, Ashfield.
Helms, W. Hotel Metropole.
Helms, Mrs. W. Hotel Metropole.
Henderson, Miss. Watinfield, Drummoyne.
Henderson, Mrs. Watinfield, Drummoyne.
Henderson, Jas., J.P. City Bank of Sydney, 166 Pitt-street.
Hennessy, J. F. 58 Hunter-street.
Henning, E. V. Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area, Leeton, N.S.W.
1914, K ;

146 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Henry, Max, M.R.C.V.8., B.V.Se. Coram Cottage, Essex Road, Epping.
Henry, Mrs. Max. Coram Cottage, Essex-road, Epping.
Henson, J. B., A.M.I.C.E. Newcastle.

Henson, Miss M. Avalon, Oak-street, Ashfield.

Henson, Miss Marjory. Valetta, Smith-street, Wollongong.
Herbert, D. P., B.Sc. H.M.A. Submarines, Garden Island.
Hill, E. M. C. 8S. Wingham, Manning River.

Hills, W. G. Challis House, Martin-place.

Hinder, Miss E. M. Aldersyde, Beach-street, Coogee.
Hindmarsh, Miss E. University.

Hladik, Ernest. 57 Mount Vernon-street, Glebe.

Hoare, Robert R., R.A.N. Garden Island.

Hodgson, Miss. C/o Dr. Harold Browne, Tresco, Smith-street, Summer Hill.
Hoets, Miss Van Rees. Ulladulla, Parkes-street, Kirribilli Point, North

Sydney.

Hageth, D.. F.R.A.S. Koorara, 75 Boulevard, Dulwich Hill.
Hogarth, J. W. The University.
§Hogben, G., M.A., F.G.8. Education Department, Wellington, New Zealand.
Hoggan, H. J. . Includen, Frederick-street, Bexley.

Holme, Miss Ada M. Universiti.

Holme, Professor E. R. University.

Hood, Dr. A. Jarvie, J.P. 127 Macquarie-street.

Hooper, George. Technical College.

Hooper, 8. B. C/o Union Bank of Australia, 377 George-street.
Hooper, Mrs. S. B. C/o Union Bank of Australia, 377 George-street.
Hooper, Thomas. Kuringai Chase-avenue, Turramurra.
Hooper, Mrs. Thomas. Kuringai Chase-avenue, Turramurra.
Hopkins, A. V. Flinton, Wellington-road, Auburn.

Hopkins, W. M. Beaumaris, Raymond-road, Neutral Bay.
Hopkins, Mrs. W. M. Beaumaris, Raymond-road, Neutral Bay.
Hopman, J. H. District School, Bega.

Hordern, 8. Babworth House, Darling Point.

Hoskins. G. H. Eltham, Beecroft.

Hoskins, Mrs. G. H. Eltham, Beecroft.

Hoskins, G. J. St. Cloud, Burwood-road, Burwood.

Hoskins, Mrs. G. J. St. Cloud, Burwood-road, Burwood.
Hoskins, H. V. St. Cloud, Burwood-road, Burwood.

Hoskins, Miss G. E. St. Cloud, Burwood-road, Burwood.
Hoskins, Miss J. J. St. Cloud, Burwood-road, Burwood.
Houghton, T. H., J.P., M.Inst.C.E. 63 Pitt-street.

Howard, M. Chatswood House, Orchard-road, Chatswood.
Howle, W. C. 43 Bradley’s Head-road, Mosman.

Hughes, Dr. J. F. Mestycroft, Clifford-avenue, Manly.

Hughes, Dr. M. O'Gorman. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street.
Hughes, Mrs. M. O’Gorman. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street.
Hughes, Hon. Thomas, M.L.C. Cranbrook Cottage, Rose Bay.
Hughes, Mrs. Thomas. Cranbrook Cottage. Rose Bay.

Hull, A. F. Basset. Box 704, G.P.O.

Hull, W., M.D. Wyoming, Macquarie-street.

Hull, W. G. Wellings, Bradley’s Head-road, Mosman.
Humphrey, Dr. E. M. Pymble.

Humphrey, Mrs. E. M. Cooringa, Grandview-road, Pymble.
Humphrey, G. D. C/o Lane and Peters, Burrinjuck.
Humphreys, Mrs. G. B. Frome, Shirley-road, Wollstonecraft.
Hunt, Mrs. Grace M. Woodcourt, Dulwich Hill.

Hunt, Miss Louise. Tara, Longueville.

Hunter, J. G. Biology Department, The University.
Huxtable, Mrs. L. N. The Women’s Club, Stanway House, King-street.
Hyman, Arthur W. Australasia Chambers, Martin-place.
Hyndes, J. J. Public School, William-street.

Hynes, Rev. F. W. 1 Montague-street, Balmain.

Hynes, Miss 8. Isis, Soudan-street, Randwick.

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. 147

Inglis, Miss Florence. Loloma, Dudley-street, Randwick.

Inglis, Miss Marion. Loloma, Dudley-street, Randwick.
Inglis-Hudson, G. Box 1520, General Post Office.

Inglis-Hudson, Mrs. Gudvanger, Arden-street, Coogee.
Inglis-Hudson, Miss Doris. Gudvanger, Arden-street, Coogee.

Irby, L. G. Gilgandra, N.S.W.

Irby, Mrs. L. G. Gilgandra, N.S.W.

Irvine, Professor R. F., M.A. Honda, Shell Cove-road, Neutral Bay.
Irvine, Mrs. R. F. Honda, Shell Cove-road, Neutral Bay.

Jack, R. Logan, LL.D. 17 Toxteth-road, Glebe Point.

Jackson, H. O. The Nest, Mosman’s Bay.

Jackson, Mrs. Harold. The Nest, Mosman’s Bay.

Jacobs, E. G. Christ Church School, Pitt-street.

Jacobson, H. Broudré. Renee, Gardiner’s-road, Mascot.

James, W. EK. Mudgee.

Jamieson, Dr. Sydney. 233 Macquarie-street.

Jaquet, J. B., A.R.S.M. Mines Department, Bridge-street.

Jaquet, Mrs. J. M. Rochefort, Victoria-road, Bellevue Hill.

Jeffery, R. E. 36 Challis-avenue, Marrickville.

Jenkin, Mrs. W. J. Doonbah, Mount-street, Hunter’s Hill.

Jenkins, Dr. E. J. Craignish, 185 Macquarie-street.

Jenkins, Mrs. BE. J. Craignish, 185 Macquarie-street.

Jenkins, Miss. Craignish, 185 Macquarie-street.

Johnson, Miss Millicent. Noonya, Fairy Bower-road, Manly.

Johuson, Wilfred E., F.C.P.A. Gibbs Chambers, 7 Moore-street.

Johnson, Mrs. Wilfred E. Montrose, Dalton-road, Mosman.

Jobnston, G. H. 217 Keppel-street, Bathurst.

Johnston, 8. J., B.A., D.Sc. Koorawatha, Musgrave-street, Mosman.

Johnston, Mrs. 8. J. Koorawatha, Musgrave-street, Mosman.

Johnstone, Ven. Archdeacon Arthur. The Vicarage. Tamworth.

Johnstone, Mrs. Arthur. The Vicarage, Tamworth.

Jones, Miss A. Warialda, Hay-street, Neutral Bay.

Jones, Charles Lloyd. C/o David Jones, Id., George and Barrack-streets.

Jones, Edward Lloyd. Condover, Ocean-street North, Double Bay.

Jones, Mrs. EB. Lloyd. Condover, Ocean-street North, Double Bay.

Jones, Eric Lloyd. Lydholme, Darling Point.

Jones, Mrs. Eric Lloyd. Lydholme, Darling Point.

Jones, G. Sydney. Stock Exchange Buildings, Pitt-street.

Jones, J. Chesterfield-road, Epping.

Jones, Mrs. J. C/o Mrs. S. Radcliff, Dunheved, Alexandra-street, Hunter’s
Hill.

Jones, John. Wyalong No. 2 Station, Wyalong, N.S.W.

Jones, L. R. Waverley, Rockwall-crescent, Potts’ Point.

Jones, Sir P. Sydney. Llandilo, Strathfield.

Jones, Miss Sydney. Llandilo, Strathfield.

Jones, Miss Trevor. Eothen, 4 Peel-street, Kirribilli Point.

Jones, Rev. W. Cunliffe. Dalehurst, Strathfield.

Joseph, Miss Marie f. Roydon, 186 Albany-road, Stanmore.

§Julius, G. A., B.Sc. Culwulla-chambers, 67 Castlereagh-street.

Kaglund, Arthur J. Steel-street, Hamilton.
Kater, Hon. H. E., M.L.C. Porthamel, Darling Point.
Kater, Mrs. H. E. Porthamel, Darling Point.
Kater, Dr. N. W. Nyrang, Cheeseman’s Creek.
Kater, Mrs. N. W. Nyrang, Cheeseman’s Creek.
Kearsley, W. Cessnock, via Maitland, N.S.W.
Keatinge, M. B. B. Railway Construction, Stockinbingal.
Keatley, F. J., M.A., M.Se. High School, Newcastle.
Keele, T. W., M.Inst.C.E. Sydney Harbour Trust, Pitt-street, Circular Quay.
Keirle, Arthur T. Fairmount, North Manly.
Keirle, Miss Mabel M. Fairmount, North Manly.

148 BRITISH ASSOCTATION.

Keirle, Norman. Fairmount, North Manly.
Kelly, C. H. Challis House, Martin-place.
Kelly, Dr. Daniel. Miller-street, North Sydney.
Kelly, J. T. Swansea, Mount Pleasant-avenue, Burwood.
Kelly, Mrs. Stella M. C. Lett-street, Lithgow.
Kelty, Mrs. Isabel. St. Mark’s-road, Darling Point.
Kelty, Dr. William. 219 Macquarie-street.
Kennedy, J. W. 211 Macquarie-street.
Kennedy, W. Marr. Tamworth, N.S.W.
Kenny, Mrs. E. Castlereagh House, Castlereagh-street.
Kenny, F. Hamilton. West Avenue, Glen Innes.
Kenny, 8. A. Teachers’ College, Blackfriars.
Kent, H. C. Dibbs’ Chambers, 58 Pitt-street.
Kent, Mrs. H. C. Dibbs’ Chambers, 58 Pitt-street.
Kerr, G. Lawson, M.B., Ch.M. Bellinger.
Kesteven, Miss. 159 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park.
Kesteven, Dr. H. Leighton. Oakdale, Burwood-road, Belmore.
Kesteven, Mrs. I. V. Oakdale, Burwood-road, Belmore.
Kesteven, Dr. Leighton. 159 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park.
Kesteven, Mrs. Leighton. 159 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park.
Kidd, Hector. Craig Lea, Cremorne-road, Cremorne.
Kidd, Mrs. H. Craig Lea, Cremorne-road, Cremorne.
Kidd, Miss Mary D. Craig Lea, Cremorne-road, Cremorne.
Kidd, James, J.P. 4 Bligh-street.
Kilby, H. G. Bentham, Hunter’s Hill.
Kilby, Mrs. H. G. Bentham, Hunter’s Hill.
Kilgour, J., B.A., LL.B. Public High School, Fort-street.

§Kiliani, R. Imperial German Consulate, Pitt-street.
Killick, A. C. T. The University.
King, C. W. Public Works Department.
King, Mrs. F. Brougham, Nelson-street, Woollahra.
King, G. C., B.A. Figtree House, Hunter’s Hill.
King, Mrs. G. C. Figtree House, Hunter’s Hill.
King, Miss. TFigtree House, Hunter’s Hill.

§King, Miss Georgina. Springfield, Darlinghurst.
Kirkland, Dr. H. A. Spiers. Wiston, Darling Point.
Kirkland, T. S., M.D., F.R.C.S.E. 231 Macquarie-stzeet.
Knaggs, 8S. T., M.D. Northcote, Mitchell-road, Bondi.
Knight, Miss Isabel. University.
Knight, Mrs. M. C. Kirketon Private Hospital, 75 Darlinghurst-road.
Kopsen, W. Waxholm, Everton-road, Strathfield.

Laby, Thomas H. 31 Talavera-terrace, Wellington, New Zealand.
Laing, J. C. Royal Naval College, Jervis Bay, N.S.W.

Laird, E. C. Teepookana, Church-street, Randwick.

Lamb, Mrs. J. C. Lauriston, Middle Head-road, Lindfield.

Lance, Chas. C., J.P. Harbour Trust, Pitt-street, Circular Quay.
Lance, Mrs. C. C/o Harbour Trust, Pitt-street, Circular Quay.
Lance, Miss E. A. Cossington, Wycombe-road, Neutral Bay.
Lane, Rev. B. The Parsonage, Ryde.

Langton, Dr. F. W. Lang-road, Centennial Park.

Langton, Mrs. F. W. Strathleiss, Lang-road, Centennial Park.
Langton, W. W., M.B., Ch.M. 273 Cleveland-street, Redfern.
Langtree, M. Campbell. 2 Greenoakes-avenue, Darling Point.
Larcombe, Edwin E. Public School, Trangie, N.S.W.

Larkin, G. A. Melrose, Avoca-street, Randwick.

Lasker, S. 35 Paddington-street, Paddington.

Latham, Dr. Oliver. University.

Laughlin, J. M. Yanko, Evans-street, Waverley.

Law, Miss Dorothy. 205 New Canterbury-road, Petersham.
Lawes, C. H. E., M.B. 60 New Canterbury-road, Petersham.
Lawes-Wittewronge, Sir John B., Bart. All Saints’ College, Bathurst.

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. 149

Lawford, L. E., M.A., J.P. Department of Public Instruction.
Lawrence, A. H. Urunga.
*Lawson, Prof. A. Anstruther, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. University.
Learoyd, Fred. W. Bramley, Elizabeth Bay.

Lee, Miss. Glen Roona, Penkivil-street, Bondi.

Lee, Alfred. Glen Roona, Penkivil-street, Bondi.

Lee, Mrs. Alfred. Glen Roona, Penkivil-street, Bondi.
§Lee, Charles Alfred. Tenterfield.

Lee, Miss Muriel. Glen Roona, Bondi.

Lee, Ronald A. Glen Roona, Bondi.

Legge, Colonel W. V., R.A. Cullenswood House, Cullenswood, Tasmania.
Leibius, G. H. 164 Pitt-street.

Leibius, Mrs. G. H. Marooan, Greenoakes-avenue, Double Bay.
Leitch, Miss. Montague House, 44 Ashburner-street, Manly.

Le Souéf, A. 8. Zoological Gardens, Moore Park.

Lester, Mrs. A. E. Doonbah, Mount-street, Hunter’s Hill.
Lethbridge, Dr. H. O. Narandera.

Leverrier, f., B.Sc., K.C. Denman-chambers, 182 Phillip-strect.
Levick, Miss Gladys. Teselah, McDougall-street, Milson’s Point.
Levy, Daniel, M.L.A. Parliament House.

Lewis, Miss Adelaide E., B.Sc. High School, Orange.

Lidwill, Mark C., M.D. Redmyre-road, Strathfield.

Lidwill, Mrs. M. C. Redmyre-road, Strathfield.

Lightoller, Dr. Standish. Yetholm, Edgecliff.

Lightoller, Mrs. Standish. Yetholm, Edgecliff.

Linthorn, H. B. C/o W. M. Rainbow, Australian Museum.
Lipscomb, W. A. Koorawatha, Musgrave-street, Mosman.
Litchfield, W. I’., M.B., Ch.M. 210 Glebe-road, Glebe.

Little, A. George. Burrinjuck, via Goondah.

Little, Miss EK. M. Garra Willah, Kintore-street, Wahroonga.
Little, Rev. V. A., M.A., Chaplain H.M.A.S. ‘ Sydney,’ Garden Island.
Littlejohn, Albert. The Knoll, St. Mark’s-road, Dariing Point.
Littlejohn, Mrs. A. The Knoll, St. Mark’s-road, Darling Point.
Littlemore, Rev. George. Darenth, Albyn-road, Strathfield.
Lloyd, Charles H. Cevu, High-street, Willoughby.

Lloyd, Charles W. Australian Club.

Lloyd, Mrs. Evelyn. Strathford, Lower Wycombe-road, Neutral Bay.
Lockley, J. G. Bull’s-chambers, 14 Moore-street.

Lockyer, N. C/o Mrs. Manning, Toft Monks, Elizabeth Bay-crescent.
Lockyer, Mrs. N. C/o Mrs. Manning, Toft Monks, Elizabeth Bay-crescent.
Lodge, Mrs. Barton. 38 Wilberforce-avenue, Rose Bay.

Longford, Miss Edith. University.

Lord, Alfred H. West Point, Badminton-road, Croydon.

Lord, Henry. Technical College.

Lord, Mrs. Henry. Technical College.

Love, Miss Jessie D. 17 Toxteth-road, Glebe Point.

Lovell, H. T., M.A., Ph.D. University.

Loveridge, Mrs. Bessie. Grasmere, Shaftesbury-road, Burwood.
Loveridge, Thomas, J.P. Grasmere, Shaftesbury-road, Burwood.
Loveridge, W. D. Public Service Board, 4 O’Connell-street.
Lucas, A. H. 8., M.A. Macintosh-street, Gordon.

Lucas, Mrs. A. H. 8. Macintosh-street, Gordon.

Ludlow, Dr. Victor E., J.P. 69 Old South Head-road, Waverley.
Luker, Sydney Landon. Royal Naval College, Jervis Bay, N.S.W.
Lynch, J., Inspector of Schools, Muswel!brook.

Lyons, A. Breewood, Old Canterbury-road, Lewisham.

Lyons, R. J. Department of Mathematics, The University.

Macarthur, Mrs. F. M. Kingsclere, Greenknowe-avenue, Pott’s Point.
Macarthur, W. B. Kingsclere, Greenknowe-avenue, Pott’s Point.
McBride, Charles A. Challis House, Martin-place.

MacCallum, M. L. Hakgala, Wolseley-road, Point Piper.

150 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

MacCallum, Mrs. M. L. Hakgala, Wolscley-road, Point Piper.
McCarthy, Miss M. Leinster Hall, City-road, Darlington.
McClelland, Dr. W. C. 1 Erskineville-road, Newtown.

McCook, L. Wandabyne, Goldsbury-street, Mosman.
MacCormick, Sir Alexander, M.D., F.R.C.S. 185 Macquarie-street.
McCoy, A. J. Public School, Orange.

McCredie, Miss. Commercial Bank-chambers, George-strect.
McCredie, Arthur L. Commercial Bank-chambers, George-strect.
McCredie, Miss J. Lawes-street, East Maitland, N.S.W.

McCrory, John, B.A. 78 Thornley-street, Leichhardt.
MacCulloch, Dr. 8. H. 24 College-street.

MacCulloch, Mrs. 8. H. 24 College-street.

MacCulloch, Miss. 24 College-street.

McCurtin, Very Rev. Father, $.J. Saint Aloysius’ College, Pitt-street,

Milson’s Point.

Macdonald, Miss Louisa, M.A. Principal, Women’s College, Newtown.
McDonald, Robert. Lowlands, Double Bay.

MecDonall, J. 345 Harris-street, Pyrmont.

McDonnough, Thomas. Elsmore, Evans-street, Waverley.
McDouall, H. C., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Gladesville Hospital, Gladesville.
Mace, Mrs. W. Dene-place, Burlington-road, Homebush.
McEwan, Miss Isabella. District School, Tamworth.

McGrath, D. A. 42 Johnstone-street, Annandale.

MacGregor, Donald Neil, B.A. Newington College. Stanmore.
Machin, J. 20 Quinton-road, Manly.

McUlwraith, H. M. Yass Mechanics’ School, Yass,

Macintyre, Professor R. G., M.A., B.D. Cruachan, Bellevue Hill.
McKay, Miss. Onslow-avenue, Klizabeth Bay.

McKay, Miss Frances. William-street, Granville.

Mackay, John. Malahide, Elamang-avenue, Kirribilli Point,
Mackay, Mrs. Johu. Malahide, Klamang-avenue, Kirribilli Point.
McKay, Miss M. Wycombe-road, Neutral Bay.

McKay, Dr. Stewart. Onslow-avenue, Elizabeth Bay.

McKean, R. Public School, Curlewis.
$McKee, Dr. E. 8. Sinton-street, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A,
Mackellar, Sir Chas. K., M.D., M.L.C. 183 Liverpoo!l-street,
Mackellar, Miss D. 183 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park.

Mackenzie, Geo., Ph.D. Morillah, Woolwich-road, Hunter’s Hill.
McKelvey, John L., M.B., Ch.M. 171 Macquarie-street.
McKelvey, Mrs. J. L. 171 Macquarie-street.

Mackenzie, H. V. Barregowa, Belmore-road, Avncliffe.

Mackenzie, Mrs. H. V. Barregowa, Belmore-road, Arnclitle.
Mackey, Donald. 89 Pitt-street.

Mackey, E. C. Livingstone-road, Marrickville.

Mackey, Mrs. May. 89 Pitt-street.

McKibbin, Miss Rachel. Koonawarra, Gordon-road, Roseville.
Mackie, Professor Alexr., M.A. University.

Mackie, Mrs. A. University.

McKinney, H. G. Sydney Safe Depot, Paling’s-buildings, Ash-street.
MacKinnon, Dr, 509 Alfred-street, North Sydney.

MacKinnon, Mrs. 509 Alfred-street, North Sydney.

Mackinnon, Ewen, B.Sc. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Museum,

George-street North.

MacKinnon, J. T. 37 Morris-street, Summer Hill.

MacKinnon, M. 21 Redan-street, Mosman.

McLachlan, A. Newcastle.

McLachlan, Miss K. The University.

McLaren, Miss P. Hurst-street, Arnclitie.

MacLauren, Dr. C. 155 Macquarie-street.

MacLaurin, Hon. Sir Normand, M.D., LL.D., M.L.C, 155 Macquarie-street.
McLelland, H. D. Department of Public Instruction.

McLeod, Mrs. William. Dunvegan, Musgrave-street, Mosman.

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. L61

McMahon, Miss A. 140 Redfern-street, Redfern.

McMaster, C. J., J.P. Crona, Point Piper, Edgecliff.

McMillan, Miss J. Braeside, Forth-street, Woollahra,

McMillan, Sir Wm., K.C.M.G. Braeside, Forth-street, Woollahra.

MeMillan, Lady. Braeside, Forth-street, Woollahra.

McMullen, F. Hurlstone Agricultural High School, Ashfield.

McMullen, R. V. Prov. School, Stratheden, via Casino.

McMullen, W. H. Prov. School, Busby’s Flat, via Rappville.

McMurray, Dr. Wm. Wyoming, Macquarie-street.

McMurray, Mrs. Wyoming, Macquarie-street.

MeNiven, Ronald J. High School, Newcastle.

MacPherson, Dr. John. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street.

Macpherson, Mrs. Helen Fyfe. 17 Toxteth-road, Glebe Point,

McQuiggin, H. C., B.A. 73 Stanmore-road.

Maddock, E. A., J.P. 88 Pitt-strect,

Madsen, Dr. J. V. The University.

Madsen, Mrs. Victoria-street, Roseville.

Maher, Dr. W. Odillo. 185 Macquarie-street.

Maiden, Miss. Botanic Gardens.

Maiden, J. H., F.L.8., J.P. Botanic Gardens.

Maiden, Mrs. J. H. Botanic Gardens,

Maiden, Miss Nellie. Botanic Gardens.

Maitland, Dr. H. L., J.P. 147 Macquarie-street,

Major, H. $8. Department of Agriculture.

Makinson, Miss M. 41 High-street, Newcastle, N.S.W,

Mallarky, Miss Esme. Frome, Shirley-road, Wollstonecraft.

Mallarky, Miss Ethel. Frome, Shirley-road, Wollstonecraft.

Marden, Dr. John. Presbyterian College, Croydon.

Mannell, I’, W., Inspector of Schools, Wellington, New Zealand,

Marks, Miss Hilda. Cliff Lodge, Victoria-street, North Sydney.

Marks, Miss L. Léontine, Bertha Villa, 39 Queen-street, Ashfield.

Marks, Percy J. City Mutual-chambers, 62 Hunter-street.

Marr, Mrs. H. F. Newnham, Liberty-street, Stanmore.

Marshall, Dr. F, 235 Macquarie-street.

Marshall, Dr. W. Hamilton. Ni-no-van, Wanulla-road, Woollahra Point.

Marshall, Mrs. Hamilton. Ni-no-van, Wunulla-road, Woollahra Point.

Marshall, Miss. Ni-no-van, Wunulla-road, Woollahra Point.

Marshall, 'T. ‘Tallangatta, Wyagdon-street, North Sydney.

Marshall, Mrs. T. Tallangatta, Wyagdon-street, North Sydney,

Marston, Miss. Infants’ Home, Henry-street, Ashfield.

Martin, A, H, Devonport, 28 Union-street, North Sydney.

Martin, Mrs, A. H. 28 Union-street, North Sydney,

Martin, Miss C. Thorn Farm, Ryde.

Mason, W. H. Sydney Technical College, Harris-street, Ultimo.

Mathers, L. M. Melrose, Lennox-street, Mosman.

Mathers, R. M. Melrose, Lennox-street, Mosman,

Mathers, ‘Thos. Melrose, Lennox-street, Mosman.

Mathews, R. H. THassall-street, Parramatta,

Mathison, Rev. H., B.A. Runnimede, Grosvenor-street, Croydon.

Maughan, D. Nyrangie, Iullerton-street, Woollahra.

Maughan, Mrs. Jean Alice. Nyrangie, Fullerton-street, Woollahra.

Maw, Dr. H. 8. Tumbarumba, N.S.W,

Mawson, Mrs. J. L. O. Mulwaree, Cordeaux-street, Campbelltown.

Mawson, Dr. W. Mulwaree, Cordeaux-street, Campbelltown,

Maxwell, Aymer. Myrnong, 23 Mona-road, Darling Point.

Maxwell, Mrs, E. C. Myrnong, 23 Mona-road, Darling Point.

May, J. Trades School, Wollongong, N.S.W.

Mayman, Neville, President of the Benevolent Society of New South Wales,
Thomas-street.

Meeks, Hon. A. W., M.L.C. Oranui, Darling Point.

Meggitt, Loxley. Hillside, Tintern-road, Ashfield.

Meldrum, H. J., B.A. Teachers’ College, Blackfriars,

152 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Michaelis, Mrs. Lily. Elizabeth Bay House, Elizabeth Bay.
Michell, Dr. R. T. Molong, N.S.W.

Mickers, Dr. Wilfred. Kimbolton, Lyons-road, Drummoyne.
Milne, E. Railway Station, Orange.

Milner, W. J. 53 Roslyn-gardens, Darlinghurst.

Millner, Mrs. W. J. 53 Roslyn-gardens, Darlinghurst.

Mills, Dr. H. E. The Albany, 201 Macquarie-street.

Mills, Mrs. H. E. The Albany, 201 Macquarie-street.
Mingaye, John C. H., J.P., F.LC., F.C.8. Department of Mines.
Mitchell, Ernest Meyer, B.A., LL.B. Law School, University.
Mitchell, John. High-street, Waratah.

Mitchell, Mrs. Matilda. The Grove, Cabramatta.

Mitchell, W. H. D. The Grove, Cabramatta.

Molesworth, Dr. E. H. Beanbah, 235 Macquarie-street.

Monk, Cyril. 5 Spencer-road, Mosman.

Monk, Mrs. Cyril. 5 Spencer-road, Mosman.

Monk, Mrs. D. J. 88 Wallis-street, Woollahra.

Monk, D. J. 8. Surrey Grove, Great Southern-road, Bargo.
Monk, Mrs. D. J. 8. Surrey Grove, Great Southern-road, Bargo.
Montefiore, Miss C. L. Eothen, 4 Peel-street, Kirribilli Point.
Moore, Miss N. Coomalgah, Woodward-avenue, Strathfield.
Moppett, F. W. Watson’s Bay.

Morley, Rev. W. William-street, Gordon.

Morris, Dr. E. R. Newington State Hospital, Parramatta.
Morse, P. 8. Sulphide “Corporation, Boolaroo, Newcastle,
Mort, Henry C. 1 Cambridge-street, Stanmore.

Morton, J., M.B., Ch.M. Wyoming, Macquaric-street,
Morton, Mrs. J. Wyoming, Macquarie-street.

Moss, H. St, Ledger, Mann’s-avenue, Neutral Bay.

Moss, H. 8. New England Grammar School, Glen Innes.
Moss, Lawrence E. Birtley, Elizabeth Bay-road.

Moss, Mrs. L. E. Birtley, Elizabeth Bay-road.

Moulsdale, Miss E. 183 Denison-road, Petersham.

Muir, Jas. Craiglaw, Glebe Point-road.

Muir, Miss M. K. School of Industry, Shaw-street, Petersham.
Mulholland, W. J. Dungannon, Queen-street, Ashfield.
Mullins, John Lane, J.P. Killountan, Glenrock-avenue, Darling Point.
Mulvey, R. G. High School, Parramatta.

Munce, Mrs. C/o E. R. Holme, M.A., University.

Munce, Miss. C/o E. R. Holme, M.A., University.

Munro, Miss Elizabeth. 141 Trafalgar-street, Stanmore.
Murray, Miss A. 8. 72 Rangers-road, Neutral Bay.

Murray, J. K. Department of Agriculture.

Murray, Miss M. Athole, Clarence-street, Burwood.

Murray, Miss Margaret E. Abbotsleigh, Wahroonga.

Myers, Jack W. Savings Bank Chambers, 11 Moore-street.

Nairn, A. L. Boys’ High School, East Maitland.
Nangle, J. Technical College.

Napier, 8. E. 23 Queen-street, Mosman.

Nardin, E. W., B.E. Citizens’ Chambers, Moore-street.
Nash, Hon. John B., M.D., M.L.C. 219 Macquarie-street.
Nash, Miss. 219 Macquarie-street.

Nash, Miss Josephine. 219 Macquarie-street.

Nash, N. C. Box 1711, G.P.O.

Nathan, M. A. 13 Tusculum-street, Pott’s Point.
Neale, Mrs. Angrave, B.A. 54 Raglan-street, Manly.
Neale, Mrs. P. A. 54 Raglan-street, Manly.

Neave, Bevan W. Victoria-avenue, Chatswood.
Netzer, A. 76 Pitt-street.

Newill, Miss M. Royal Prince Alfred Hospital.

LIS? OF MEMBERS; SYDNEY, 1914. 153

Newman, Ek. H. 82 Pitt-street.

Newman, Miss L. E. Tip Tree, Strathfield.

Neylan, J. Public School, Lakemba.

Nicholas, H. 8. 151 Phillip-street.

Nicholas, Mrs. H. 8. 151 Phillip-street.

Nickson, Dr. Wilfred. Rathmines, Newcomen-street, Newcastle.
Nicol, T. B. 89 Bank-street, North Sydney.

Nisbitt, Miss. Pyree, Berry-street, Neutral Bay.

Noad, Miss Alison P. Glenlee, Queen-street, Arncliffe.

Noble, R. A. St. Paul’s Rectory, Cleveland-street.

Noble, Robert J. Dungannon, Queen-street, Ashfield.

Nolan, J. H. M. Finmount, Want-street, Burwood.

Nolan, Mrs. 8. 8. Finmount, Want-street, Burwood.

Nolan, W. Holme. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street.

North, D. 8. C/o J. J. Shuttleworth, Esq., Lauriston, Ryde.
Nott, A. Ross. Bickley, Albyn-road, Strathfield.

Nott, Mrs. R. H. 59 The Avenue, Strathfield.

Nutter, Charles J. C/o A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-street,

Oakes, Miss Florence J. M. Wainui, Poole-street, Longueville, Lane Cove
River.

Oakes, N. E. 25 O’Connell-street.

O’Brien, John. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street.

O’Brien, Mrs. John. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street,

O’Brien, M. J. Public School, Central Tilba.

O'Callaghan, M. A. Department of Agriculture, Dairy Branch, 140 George-
street North. >

O'Callaghan, Miss Mollie. Intermediate High School, Cleveland.street,
Redfern.

O’Connor, E. E. Blink Bonne, Canterbury.

O'Connor, Mrs. Blink Bonne, Canterbury.

Old, Mrs. Helen M. Waverton, Bay-road, North Sydney.

Ollé, A. D. Kareema, Charlotte-street, Ashfield,

O'Neill, Dr. G. L. 247 Elizabeth-street, Hyde Park.

O'Neill, Mrs. G. L. 247 Elizabeth-street, Hyde Park.

Onslow, Miss Macarthur. Camden Park, Menangle.

O’Reilly, Myles. Darrah, 311 Edgeclitfe-road, Woollahra.

O’Reilly, Dr. Susie H. 183 Liverpool-street.

O'Reilly, Walter W. J., M.D. 183 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park South.

Ormsby, Irwin. C/o British Australasian Tobacco Prop., Ltd., Raleigh Park,
Kensington.

Orr, A. R. Scott. Leeholme, Bowral.

Orr, Gilbert W. Woodbine, Oxford-road, Strathfield.

Orr, Hubert T. 21 Boulevarde, Strathfield.

Orr, Miss Annie. Boulevarde, Strathfield.

Osborn, A. I. Station-road, Meadow Bank.

Ostler, Charles. Elmo, 491 Darling-street, Rozelle.

Ovington, R. St. James’ Chambers, King-strect.

Owen, Rev. Edward. All Saints’ Rectory, Ambrose-street, Hunter's Hill.

Owen, Langer, K.C. Dilbhur, Wellington-street, Woollahra.

Owen, Mrs. Langer. Dilbhur, Wellington-street, Woollahra.

Owen, Miss. Dilbhur, Wellington-street, Woollahra.

Page, Rev. Wm. KRoss-street, Dulwich Hill.

Pain, Albert. Geology Department, University.

Palazzi, Miss Leonie. The Boulevard, Sans Souci. or
Palmer, Arthur. Bungalow, Elizabeth Bay. G
Palmer, Miss Edith. 360 Victoria-street, Darlinghurst.

Parker, Leslie A. C/o Commercial Banking Company. of Sydney, Ltd. .
Parker, W. A., B.A., LL.B. Ingledene, Lane Cove-road, .Wahroonga.

154 BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Parkinson, H. Palace-street, Ashfield.

Parle, F. A. Acouya, Canonbury Grove, Dulwich Hill.

Parr, T. L. The Rectory, Rozelle.

Partridge, Miss A. Fairholm, Birrell-street, Bondi.

Paterson, Miss G. The Lockley Library, Bull’s Chambers, 14 Moore-strect.
Paton, Miss Doris A. Health Department, Macquarie-street.
Paton, Robt. T., M.D., F.R.C.8. Health Department, Macquarie-street.
Paton, Mrs. R. T. Health Department, Macquarie-street.
Patton, James V. Moore College, Newtown.

Paul, Dr. F. P. Wolseley-road, Point Piper,

Paul, Dr. George. Wyoming, 175 Macquarie-street.

Pauss, Miss O. M. Geology Department, University.

Payne, W. R. The Avenue, Hurstville.

Peacock, R. W. Government Experimental Farm, Bathurst.
Peden, Professor J. B., B.A., LL.B. Ilawambra, Johnson-street, Chatswood.
Peden, Mrs. J. B. MUlawambra, Johnson-street, Chatswood.
Pedley, Arthur D. Mount Lorno, Point Piper.

Penfold, A. R. Department of Chemistry, Technical College.
Penfold, W. C. Turramurra.

Penfold, Mrs. W. C. Turramurra.

Penfold, W. E. ‘Turramurra.

Percival, Rev. G. C. Collingwood-street, Drummoyne.

Perrin, Miss Alice. Kooringa, Brisbane-street, Waverley.

Perry, Miss A. Girls’ High School, Elizabeth-street.

Perry, Miss Dorothy G. Marrickville-road, Marrickville.
*Peters, Thomas. Burrinjuck, via Goondah.

Peterson, C. A. Lulworth, Leichhardt-street, Leichhardt.
Peterson, Mrs. C. A. Lulworth, Leichhardt-street, Leichhardt,
Petrie, J. Ramsay, Newnes, via Wallerawang.

Petrie, Dr. Jas. M. University.

Petrie, R. M. Department of Agriculture.

Phillips, Miss. 88 Wallis-street, Woollahra.

Phillips, A. KE. Calne, St. Mark’s-road, Darling Point.

Phillips, Mrs. A. E. Calne, St. Mark’s-road, Darling Point.
Phillips, Miss C. A. 22 Belgrave-street, Manly,

Phillips, O. Tusculum, Potts Point.

Phillips, Mrs. O. Tusculum, Potts Point,

Pickard, Miss Marion. Wiston, Darling Point.

Pickburn, J. P. Illilliwa, Eastern-road, Turramurra.

Pickburn, Mrs. J. P. Illilliwa, Eastern-road, Turramurra.
Pickup, W. H. Il4a Pitt-street.

Pickup, Mrs. W. H. 23 Kangaroo-street, Manly.

Picton, Rupert J. L.. 21 Ormond-street, Paddington.
Piddington, A. B., K.C, Darrah, 311 Edgecliffe-road, Woollahra,
Piddington, Mrs. A. B. Darrah, 311 Edgecliffe-road, Woollahra.
Piermont, H. 8S. Nara, Willoughby-road, Crow’s Nest.

Pigot, Rev. E., $.J. St. Ignatius’ College, Riverview, Sydney.
Pike, W. G. Boulevarde, Strathfield.

Pinkerton, Miss Ethel C. Women’s Common Room, University.
Pinn, A. J. Department of Agriculture.

Pittman, Miss E. K. Department of Mines.

Pittman, Edward I*., A.R.S.M. Department of Mines.

Pittman, Mrs, K. G. Department of Mines.

Plomley, Mrs. Bulubeelu, Narabeen.

Poate, F. Lands Department.

Poate, Dr. Hugh R. G. 227 Macquarie-street.

Pochley, F. Antill, M.D. 227 Macquarie-street.

Pochley, Dr. Guy Antill. 233 Macquarie-street.

Pockley, Eric. Carlton, Summer Hill,

Pollock, Miss. The Hermitage, Ryde.
§Pollock, Professor J. A., D.Sc. University.

Polson, A. Leslie. Sloane-street, Summer Hill,

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, [914. 155

Poole, Wm. B. E., A.M.LC.E. 906 Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street.
Porter, Miss Laura I. Women’s Common Room, University.
Possell, Madame H. de. Banba, Willoughby-road, North Sydney.
Potts, Cuthbert, B.A. Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond.
Potts, H. W., F.C.S., F.L.S. Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond.
Potts, Thomas F. Turramurra-avenue, Turramurra.
Potts, W. E., B.E. Montpelier, Allison-road, Randwick.
Power, Captain Edward H., LL.D. Veterans’ Home, Bear Island Fort,
La Perouse.
Power, I. Danvers, F.G.S. Headingley, Nicholson-street, Burwood.
Power, Mrs. F. Danvers. Headingley, Nicholson-street, Burwood.
Pratt, Henry. Marmion, Victoria-street, Lewisham.
Pratt, Mrs. Henry. Marmion, Victoria-street, Lewisham.
Prescott, Rev. C, J., M.A. Newington College, Stanmore.
Prescott, Mrs. C. J. Newington College, Stanmore.
Price, L. M. Superior Public School, Waverley.
Prichard, Arthur F. Victoria Insurance Chambers, 83 Pitt-street.
Pridham, J. T. Experimental Farm, Cowra.
*Prince, Prof. EK. E., L.LD., D.Se. Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries,
Ottawa, Canada.
Pring, Mrs. George. The Lido, Walker-street, North Sydney.
Pringle, J. M. Guerston-street, Waverley.
Pritchard, D. A. University.
Purdy, J., M.D. Queen Victoria Markets,
Purser, Bruce. ‘The Bank, Castle Hill.
Purser, Dr. Cecil, J.P. Rostrevor, Lane Cove-road, Wahroonga.
Purves, Wm. A., M.A. Sydney Church of England Grammar School, Blue-
street, North Sydney.
Pye, Miss E. 'Veachers’ Training College, Melbourne.

Quaife, Mrs. H. Stanhope-road, Killara.
Quaife, F. H,, M.A., M.D. Stanhope-road, Killara,

Radcliff, Sidney. Dunheved, Alexandra-street, Hunter's Hill.
Radcliff, Mrs. 8. Dunheved, Alexandra-street, Hunter's Hill.
Radford, Rey. Dr. L. B., M.A. St. Paul’s College, Darlington.
Radford, Mrs, St. Paul’s College, Darlington.

Rainbow, W. A. Australian Museum, College-street.
Rainbow, W. J., J.P. Australian Museum.

Raine, I. Munmurra, Elizabeth Bay-road.

Raine, Mrs. Jean V. Munmurra, Elizabeth Bay-road,
Ralston, Miss. Kooroogama, Strathtield.

Ralston, Miss. Gulistan, Rangers-road, Neutral Bay.
Ralston, A. G. Kooroogama, Strathfield.

Ralston, Mrs. A. G, Kooroogama, Strathfield.

Ralston, Mrs. J. 'T. Gulistan, Rangers-road, Neutral Bay.
Rannard, W. H. District School, Hay.

Raves, Miss Helen Alice, M.A. Club Hotel, Orange.
§Rawes-Whittell, H. 183 Elizabeth-street.

Ray, A. E. 42 Bridge-street.

Raymond, William E. Sydney Observatory.

Rea, Miss. Normanhurst, Ashfield.

Read, Dr. Clarence. 235 Macquarie-street.

Read, Miss E. J. Strathford, Trafalgar-street, Linfield.
Reading, C. H. 39 York-street.

Reay, W. 8. Ardesia, Audley-street, Petersham.

Reeks, Walter. 9 Pitt-street, Circular Quay.

Reid, Chas. W., M.B., Ch.M. The Crescent, Vaucluse.
Reid, Mrs. C. W. The Crescent, Vaucluse.

Reid, David. C/o Orient 8.8. Co., Ltd., Martin-place.

Reid, Miss Jane. Infants’ District School, Hay.

Reid, R. 8. Folkestone, Falcon-street, North Sydney,

156 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Reid, Miss Violet M. Folkestone, Valcon-street, North Sydney.
Rich, Miss. Kingsclere, Pott’s Point.

Rich, Mrs. Edward. Kingsclere, Pott’s Point.

Richards, E. 8. Southmoor, Wentworth-road, Vaucluse.
Richardson, D. G. Dickinson-avenue, Croydon.

Richardson, J. J. Department of Public Works.

Riddle, H. L. Station House, Richmond.

Ridge, C. F. 50 Wigram-road, Glebe Point.

Rienits, Miss Annie M. Mount Victoria.

Righi, Madame A. C. Rigo de. Kamilarci, Darling Point.
Riley, E. A. Inspectors’ Office, Albury.

Rivett, Miss M. A. Numa-street, Longnose Point, Balmain.
Roberts, William. The Maples, Killara.

Roberts, Mrs. William. The Maples, Killara.

Roberts, Miss de Lisle. Kenilworth, Penshurst.

Roberts, W. 8. de Lisle. Kenilworth, Penshurst.

Roberts, Miss M. E. The Hirie, 6 Blue-street, North Sydney.
Roberts, Miss Phyllis. Women’s Common Room, University.
Roberts, R. J. A. Kuper, Alexander-street, Hunter’s Hill.
Roberts, T. Department of Public Works.

Roberts, Mrs. T. - Glenrock, Cabramatta-road, Neutral Bay.
Roberts, Thos. T. 47 Cabramatta-road, Mosman.

Roberts, Miss V. L. The Eirie, 6 Blue-street, North Sydney.
Robertson, Mrs, Alex. Chepstowe, Albert-road, Strathfield.
Robertson, Mrs. G. Birrell. Warrawee, Charlotte-street, Ashfield.
Robertson, J. C. 225 Macquarie-street.

Robinson, Augustus F, Llandaff, Elizabeth-place, Darling Point.
Robinson, L. W. 14 Moore-street.

Robinson, Miss Lorna. Llandaff, Elizabeth-place, Darling Point.
Robinson, Professor R. University.

Robinson, W. G. 221 Macquarie-street.

Robinson, Mrs. W. G. 221 Macquarie-street.

Rodway, F. A. Nowra.

Roseby, Miss, B.A. Redlands, Neutral Bay.

Roseby, Miss Clare. Kambala, Tivoli Estate, Rose Bay.
Roseby, Miss Mary, M.A. Kambala, Tivoli Estate, Rose Bay.
Roseby, J. Walker. Benevolent Society of New South Wales, Thomas-street.
Roseby, Rey. Dr. Thomas, F.R.A.S. Tintern, Mosman.

Ross, Paul. Ostria, Appian Way, Burwood.

Ross, Mrs. Paul. Ostria, Appian Way, Burwood.

Ross, W. J. Clunies, B.Se. The Gunyah, Alt-street, Ashfield.
Rossiter, Mrs. E. B. Dene Place, Burlington-road, Homebush.
Roth, Miss Olga. 13 Bayswater-road, Darlinghurst.

Roth, Reuter E. 13 Bayswater-road, Darlinghurst.

Roth, Mrs. 13 Bayswater-road, Darlinghurst.

Rothwell, Miss F. Roydon, 31 Perry-street, Marrickville.
Rowlands, Harold Berkeley, B.E., A.M.I.C.E. King-street, Narrandera,
Russell, Miss Dorothy. 32 Chandos-street, Ashfield. -
Russell, Miss E. J. Lorne, The Grove, Queen-strect, Woollahra,
Russell, F, A. A., M.A. Denham Chambers, Phillip-street.
Russell, H. A., B.A. 369 George-street.

Russell, Mrs. H. C. Lorne, The Grove, Queen-street, Woollahra.
Russel, H. E., J.P. Creebank, Kirribilli Point.

Russell, W. 32 Chandos-street, Ashfield.

Russell, Mrs. W. 32 Chandos-street, Ashfield.

Rutherford, Mrs. 8. William-street, Granville.

Rutter, Mrs. W. H. Edgcomb, Randwick.

Ryan, M. J. Matraville, N.S.W.

Sach, A. J. Mary-street, Longueville.
Sach, Mrs. A. J. Mary-street, Longueville.
Salenger, H. M. 174 Phillip-street.

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. 157

Salwey, Miss Gladys. C/o Hon. H. E. Kater, Porthamel, Darling Point.
Sampson, B. E. Bringelly, near Liverpool.

Sanders, Miss M. St. Bernard’s Private Hospital, Burwood.
Sanders, Dr. F. P. Greta, Goomerah-crescent, Darling Point.
Sanders, Mrs. F. P. Greta, Goomerah-crescent, Darling Point.
Sandford, Miss. Chip Chase, Greenwich.

Sands, C. C. Karola, Bennett-street, Bondi.

Sands, Mrs. John. Karola, Bennett-street, Bondi.

Sandy, Alderman J. M. Blenheim, Burwood.

Sandy, Mrs. J. M. Blenheim, Burwood.

Sargent, O. H. York, Western Australia.

Saunders, C. J. Bay View, via Manly.

Saunders, Miss E. F. Shirley, Edgecliff.

Saunders, Rev. lL. 8. Shears. Lugar Brae, Leichhardt-street, Waverley.
Saunders, Miss Pearl. Shirley, Edgecliffe-road, Woollahra.
Saunders, Miss Ruby. C/o Mrs. Edith Corlette, Kameruka, Mosman.
Saunderson, W., B.Sc., F.C.S. Cooerwull Academy, Bowenfells.
Sawkins, D. T. Lands Department.

Saxby, George C. High School, Orange.

Sayce, Miss E. Wooloowin, Ebley-street, Waverley.

Scammell, W. J. 18 Middle Head-road, Mosman.

Scammell, Mrs. W. J. 18 Middle Head-road, Mosman.

Scarfe, H. J. Mayfield, North Waratah, Newcastle.

Scarr, J. H. A. Norwood, Myagah-road, Mosman.

Scheidel, A., Ph.D. Union Club.

Schleicher, B. High School, Newcastle.

Schlink, Dr. Herbert. Craignish, 185 Macquarie-street.
Schloesser, Robert. Decima, Gordon-road, Chatswood.

Schofield, J. A., F.C.S., A.R.S.M. 46 Bayswater-road, Darlinghurst.
Schofield, Mrs. J. A. 46 Bayswater-road, Darlinghurst.

Scott, Miss Irwin. Dromard, Livingstone-road, Marrickville.
Scott, Miss Rose. Lynton, 294 Jersey-road, Paddington.

See, Miss Vera. Geology Department, University.

Selle, Walter A. The University, Darlington.

Sellers, R. P., M.A. Trigonometrical Branch, Department of Lands.
Sellers, Mrs. R. P. Mayfield, Wentworthville.

Service, Mrs. S. E. Glen Ayr, Haberfield.

Shackel, Alfred, J.P. Strathbogie, 31 York-street.

Shard, Mrs. Ealing, Edgecliff-road, Woollahra.

Shard, Miss Dorothy. Ealing, Edgeclifl-road, Woollahra.
Shaw, Miss C. M. Palliser. Hotel Metropole.

Shaw, Dr. F. C. S. Duvana, Wyalong.

Shaw, J. W. Department of Agriculture.

Shaw, Mrs. Jane. Hotel Metropole.

Shearsby, A. J. Yass.

Sheldon, Stratford, M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc. 128 New South Head-road, Edgecliff.
Sheldon, Mrs. Stratford. 128 New South Head-road, Edgecliff.
Sherring, A. B. Eltham, Stanton-road, Haberfield.

Short, Dr. W. Nelson. Doralph, Everton-road, Strathfield.
Shortland, P., M.A. District School, Hay.

Shuttleworth, Mrs. J. J. Lauriston, Ryde.
§Silberberg, H. B. 8 O’Connell-street.

Simpson, Hon. Mr. Justice. St. Ives, Hunter’s Hill.

Simpson, D. C. Tilwhilly, New South Head-road, Rose Bay.
Simpson, Miss M. Teachers’ College, Blackfriars.

Simpson, Miss Norah C. 52 Macleay-street, Pott’s Point.
Simpson, R. C. Technical College, Ultimo.

Simpson, Mrs. R. C. Technical College, Ultimo.

Simpson, W. W. 802 Culwulla-chambers, Castlereagh-street.
Sinclair, Duncan. Kywanna, Wakeford-road, Strathfield.

158 BRITISH ASSOCTATION.

Sinclair, Dr. Eric. 9 Richmond-terrace, Domain.

Sinclair, Murray. Olivet, Donnelly-street, Balmain.

Sinclair. 8. Australian Museum, College-street.

Sinclair, William. Dingwall, Nelson-road, Cremorne.

Skillman, Miss Jessie, B.A. Toxana, Avenue-road, Glebe Point.

Skinner, Frederick. 20 Toothill-street, Petersham.

Slack, Miss. Girls’ High School, Lane Cove-road, North Sydney.

Slatyer, Chas. H., F.I.A. Equitable Building, 350 George-street.

Sloman, H. N. P., B.A. Sydney Grammar School, College-street.

Sly, His Honour Judge Richard Meares, LL.D. Judges’ Chambers, Supreme
Court.

Sly, Mrs. Richard Meares. Judges’ Chambers, Supreme Court.

Sly, Miss Marian Constance Meares. Judges’ Chambers, Supreme Court.

Smairl, J. H. Sydney High School, Ultimo.

Smalpage, Edward. Clifton, Boyce-street, Glebe Point.

Smith, A. Goulburn.

Smith, Miss A. Northam, Thirlmere, N.S.W.

Smith, Hon. Bruce, K.C. 149 Phillip-street.

Smith, Mrs. Bruce. 149 Phillip-street.

Smith, Miss B. Bruce. Notrella, Point Piper.

Smith, Miss C. A. Willesden, Killara.

Smith, Miss E. D. Geology Department, University.

Smith, Miss Erica 8. Women’s College, University.

Smith, E. Temple. 135 Macquarie-street.

Smith, Dr. G. H. Walton. Pendower, Oxforc-street, Paddington.

Smith, G. P. Darnell, B.Sc. Mining Museum, George-street, North Sydney.

Smith, H. A. Bureau of Statistics, Young-street.

Smith, H. G., F.C.S. Dunbourne, Ilawarra-road, Marrickville.

Smith, Mrs. H. G. Dunbourne, Illawarra-road, Marrickville.

Smith, Irwin. Cora Lynn, Woolwich.

Smith, Mrs. Irwin. Cora Lynn, Woolwich.

Smith, Miss Irwin. Cora Lynn, Woolwich.

Smith, Miss Lily Elliot. Willesden, Killara.

Smith, Dr. 8. A. Victoria-road, Bellevue Hill.

Smith, Mrs. 8S. A. Victoria-road, Bellevue Hill.

Smith, 8S. H. Department of Public Instruction, Bridge-street.

Smith, Thomas H. Mining Museum, George-street North.

Smith, Miss V. M. University.

Smythe, Mrs. A. M. C/o John Sands & Co., 574 George-street.

Smythe, Miss M. K. C/o John Sands & Co., 574 George-street.

Smythe, Miss 8. K. C/o John Sands & Co., 574 George-street.

Snow, W. K. 9 Bridge-street.

Soar, Charles T. Sydney Grammar School, College-street.

Somerset, H. St. J. Brown-street, Hunter’s Hill.

Spain, Lieut.-Colonel Alfred. 16 Spring-street.

Spencer, J. A., F.C.P.A. Royal Insurance Buildings, Pitt-street.

Spencer, Mrs. J. B. Clifton-avenue, Burwood.

Spooner, Cyril. Grafton, Aubin-street, Neutral Bay.

Spooner, Mrs. Cyril. Grafton, Aubin-street, Neutral Bay.

Stacey, Dr. H. 8. St. Mark’s-road, Darling Point.

Stacey, Mrs. St. Mark’s-road, Darling Point.

Stacey, M. J. Morven, Park-road, Auburn.

Stafford, G. 139 Queen-street, Woollahra.

Starr, Mrs. C/o Mrs. Pooley, 18 Mount-street, North Sydney.

Statham, E. J. Nerriba, Parramatta.

Steel, Thos., F.L.S. C/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Ltd,, O’Connell-street.

Steel, Mrs. Thos. C/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Ltd., O’Connell-street.

Steele, Miss B. Clarmore Private Hospital, 248 Liverpool-street, Darlinghurst.

Stenning, A. J. Department of Agriculture.

Stephen, Rev. Alexander. The Parsonage, Leichhardt-street, Leichhardt,

Stephen, Miss Cecilia H. Ardenbraight, Edgecliff.

Stephen, Miss Dorothy. Ardenbraight, Edgecliff.

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. 159

Stephen, Alderman E. Milner. 2 Manning-street.

Stephen, Mrs. E. Milner. 2 Manning-street.

Stephen, Miss Janet. Rydalmount, Webb’s-avenue, Ashfield.
Stephen, Mrs. K. M. Wallawa, Raymond-road, Neutral Bay.
Stephen, Miss Nancy Consett. 15 Billyard-avenue, Elizabeth Bay.
Stephen, Rey. P. J. 139 Castlereagh-street.

Stephen, T. M. Wallawa, Raymond-road, Neutral Bay.
Stephens, Alfred E. Culwulla Chambers, 67 Castlereagh-street.
Stephens, Harry. Department of Agriculture, George-street, North Sydney.
Stephenson, H. 56 Wemyss-street, Marrickville.

Stewart, A. H. Technical College.

Stewart, D. Workers’ Educational Association, Trades Hall.
Stewart, Miss E. Lennox. Cutzean, Cameron-street, Paddington.
Stewart, Prof. J. Douglas. University.

Stewart, Mrs. J. Douglas. University.

Stewart, John Roy. Doonside, Botany-street, Randwick.

Stilman, W. W. Kensington.

Stitt, G. A. Branksome, Findlay-avenue, Chatswood.

Stokes, Dr. E.G. 18 Ben Boyd-road, Neutral Bay.

Stokes, Mrs. E. G. 18 Ben Boyd-road, Neutral Bay.

Stone, W.G. Department of Mines, Geological Branch, Chemical Laboratory.
Stonier, Miss. Addison College, Rowley-street, Strathfield.
Stoops, Miss. C/o W. Gardiner, Esq., 15 Mona-road, Darling Point.
Stopford, Dr. Robert. 428 Darling-street, Balmain.

Strang, W. 8. Burns-road, Wahroonga.

Strang, Mrs. W. S. Burns-road, Wahroonga.
§Street, Mr. Justice. Judges’ Chambers, Supreme Court.

Struthers, Miss Dorothy C. Karoola, Waters-road, Neutral Bay.
Stuart, J. H. C. 56 Pitt-street.

Stuart, Sir Thomas Anderson, M.D. Lincluden, Fairfax-road, Double Bay.
Stuart, Lady Anderson. Lincluden, Fairfax-road, Double Ray.
Stuckey, Dr. F. 8S. Inverell.

Studdy, Miss, B.A. Lindfield College, Lindfield.

Suckling, F. M., M.B. 18 Burroway-street, Neutral Bay.

Sulman, John. Burrangong, McMahon’s Point.

Sulman, Mrs. A. E. Burrangong, McMahon’s Point.

Sulman, Mrs. Arthur. Burrangong, McMahon’s Point.

Sulman, Miss Florence. Kihilla, Lawson.

Summers, Ralph. Kenilworth Lodge, Wallis-street, Woollahra.
Sitissmilch, C. A., F.G.S. Technical College, Newcastle.
Sutherland, Miss E. L. 28 Ross-street, Forest Lodge.

Suttor, Sir Francis. Australian Club.

Swallows, Mrs. W. H. Northwood-road, Lane Cove.

Swann, Miss Margaret. Elizabeth Farm House, Granville.
Swanton, W. Public School, Glenmore-road, Paddington.

Sweet, Miss. The Bungalow, Hill-street, Orange, N.S.W.

Sydney, His Grace the Archbishop of. Bishops Court, Darling Point.
Symonds, Miss. St. Veronica, Edgecliffe-road, Woollahra.

Talbot, Very Rev. A. E., M.A. 86 Elizabeth Bay-road.

Taylor, Chas. Tarragindi, Brook-street, Coogee.

Taylor, Mrs. C. Tarragindi, Brook-street, Coogee.

Taylor, H. B. Department of Public Health, Macquarie-street.
§Taylor, J. M., M.A. Public Service Board, 4 O’Connell-street.
Taylor, Miss Kathleen. Woonona, East Crescent-street, McMahon’s Point.
Tebbutt, Dr. Hamilton. Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown.
Teece, Miss. Strathallan, Kuringai Chase-avenue, Turramurra.

Teece, R., J.P. 87 Pitt-street.

Teece, R. Clive. Orrong, Fairfax-road, Bellevue Hill.

Teece, Mrs. R. Clive. Orrong, Fairfax-road, Bellevue Hill.

Telfer, J. B. Armidale.

Terry, H. C. C/o C.S.R. Co., Ltd., O’Connell-street.

160 BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Terry, H. M. Dubbo, N.S.W.

Thane, Edgar H., M.D. Moorcroft, Lane Cove-road, Gordon.
Thane, Mrs. Pauline Willis. Rothbury, 74 Newcastle-street, Rose Bay.
Thane, Dr. Philip Thornton. Rothbury, 74 Newcastle-street, Rose Bay.
Thomas, A. Brynglas, West Maitland.

Thomas, Dr. David, J.P. 39 East Esplanade, Manly.

Thomas, Mrs. E. Arding. Wivenhoe, Wellesley-road, Mosman.
Thomas, F. J. Lovat, 44 Nelson-street, Woollahra.

Thomas, Mrs. Mary. Lovat, 44 Nelson-street, Woollahra.
Thomas, N. M. C/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Ltd., O’Connell-street.
Thomas, W. George. Moss Vale.

Thompson, Miss. Littlebridge, William Henry-street, Ultimo.
Thompson, Miss A. C/o R. H. Cambage, Park-road, Burwood.
Thompson, Alex. Girls’ Industrial School, Parramatta.
Thompson, Dr. Ashburton. 52 Macleay-street, Pott’s Point.
Thompson, Mrs. Ashburton. 52 Macleay-street, Pott’s Point.
Thompson, G. Wilverley, Woodward-avenue, Strathfield.
Thompson, Joseph. Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-street.
Thompson, Mrs. N. Littlebridge, William Henry-street, Ultimo.
Thompson, Rev. R. A., B.A. ‘Toorak, Ethel-street, Burwood.
Thomson, Dugald. Wyreepi, Milson’s Point, North Sydney.
Thornton, 8. W. 118 Pitt-street.

Thorpe, W. W. Australian Museum, College-street.

Throsby, Dr. H. Z. 219 Miller-street, North Sydney.

Tidswell, Dr. Frank. Deloraine, Point Piper.

Tietkens, W. H. Upna, Rutledge-street, Eastwood.

Tildesley, Miss E. M. Normanhurst, Ashfield.

Tillan, G. H. Cambridge, Stanley-road, Hunter’s Hill.
Tillyard, Mrs. Patricia. Kusanda, Mount Errington.

Tillyard, R. J.. M.A. Kusanda, Mount Errington.

Tipping, Miss E. Barney-street, Armidale.

Todd, Miss Eva. 17 Sloane-street, Summer Hill.

Todd, Dr. Frederick A. University.

Todd, Dr. Robert H. 163 Phillip-street.

Tolley, Howard G. Lake Cudgellico.

Tollis, B. J. Hurlstone Agricultural High School, Ashfield.
Tonkin, W. H., B.A. The Union, The University.

Towns, J. R. Public School, Cleveland-street.

Tratman, Dr. F. Box 2195, G.P.O.

Tratman, Mrs. Mary. Box 2195, G.P.O.

Trivett, John B., F.R.A.S., F.S.A. Bureau of Statistics, Young-street.
Tunnicliffe, J. A. Library, University.

Turner, Miss A. E. 124 Womerah-avenue, Darlinghurst.

Turner, Dr. A. J. Brisbane, Queensland.

Turner, Fred, F.L.S. 124 Womerah-avenue, Darlinghurst.
Tynan, Miss. Tara, Park-road, Marrickville.

Tyson, R. H. Ulverston, Edmund-street, Chatswood.

Uhr, C. I. K. Chesterfield Parade, Waverley.

Valder, George, J.P. Department of Agriculture.

Vallack, Arthur S., M.B., Ch.M. 230 Miller-street, North Sydney.
Vallentine, Miss. The Bungalow, 8 Magney-street, Woollahra.
Van Someren, B. 247 Military-road, Mosman.

Vane, H. Dunstan. 16 O’Connell-street.

Vicars, James, M.E. Challis House, Martin-place.

Vicars, Mrs. J. Challis House, Martin-place.

Vickers, Dr. Wilfred. Kimbolton, Lyons-road, Drummoyne.
Vickery, Joseph. Strathfield, Strathfield.

Vickery, Mrs. Joseph. Strathfield, Strathfield.

Vickery, Miss Lilian. Strathfield, Strathfield.

Victor, Mrs. Yarrastane, East Crescent-street, McMahon’s Point,

LIS. OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. 161

Vonwiller, O. U., B.Sc. University.

Vonwiller, Mrs. O. U. University.

Von Goes, Hon. 8. T. Greathead, Nelson-street, Woollahra.

Vout, W. C/o W. Peirce, Esq., Fairmount, Albert-street, Petersham.

Waddell, James. Yass, New South Wales.

Waddy, Rev. Stacy, M.A. King’s School, Parramatta.

Wade, Mrs. 2 Woolcot-street, Darlinghurst.

Wade, L. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. 29 Elizabeth-street.

Wait, W. T. Railway-avenue, Wahroonga.

Walker, Miss A. S. Stratford, Chelmers-street, Belmore.

Walker, Major H. H. Vermont, Belmore-road, Randwick.
Walker, Miss May. Colonsay, New South Head-road, Edgecliff.
Walker, T. Chelmsford, Vernon-street, Strathfield.

Walker, W. A. 22 Wentworth-court, Elizabeth-street.

Wall, George. Medina, Rae-street, Randwick.

Wallas, T. J. 175 Macquarie-street.

Wallas, Mrs. T. J. 175 Macquarie-street.

Wallis, F. C/o Jas. Bell & Co., 109 Pitt-street.

Walsh, H. D. Harbour Trust.

Walters, J. H. The Pines, Dundas.

Walton, R. H. Martin’s-avenue, Bondi.

Walton, T. W. Gladstone-street, Burwood.

Walton, Mrs. T. W. Gladstone-street, Burwood.

Warden, R. A., J.P. Government Savings Bank, Moore-street.
Wardlaw, H1., B.Sc. University.

Wark, Wm. The Ridge, Kurrajong Heights.
§Warren, Prof. W. H., M.Inst.C.E. University.
§Waterhouse, G. A., B.Sc. Royal Mint.

Waterhouse, Mrs. G. A. Allowrie, Stanhope-street, Killara.
Waterhouse, J., M.A. Cairnleith, Archer-street, Chatswood.
Waterhouse, W. L. University.

Watkins, Miss G. M. Holmer, Campbell-street, Parramatta.
Watkins, Dr. Sydney C. Glenella, George-street, Hornsby.
Watson, F. Midhurst, Woollahra.

Watson, Hon. J. C. 321 Pitt-street.

Watson, Miss Margaret 8S. C/o Rev. R. Scott West, The Manse, Gladstone-

street, Burwood.

Watson, Mrs. Tom. Cadaxton, William-street, Double Bay.
Watt, Professor R. D., M.A., B.Sc. University.

Watteeuw, Maurice. Hawthornden, Edgeclifi-road, Woollahra:
Watteeuw, Madame M. Hawthornden, Edgecliff-road, Woollahra.
Watts, Rev. Wm. W. The Manse, Gladesville.

Waugh, Rev. R. H., M.A. 10 Barry-street, Neutral Bay.

Way, Frank. C/o Messrs. Allard, Way, & Hardie, 12-14 O’Connell-street.
Way, Mrs. Frank. Narbethong, Clifford-avenue, Manly.

Webb, Arthur C. F. 1105 Culwulla-chambers, Castlereagh-street.
Welch, Miss. Public School, Minmi.

Welch, J. St. Vincent, J.P. Standish, River-road, Greenwich.
Welch, William, F.R.G.S. Roto-iti, Boyle-street, Mosman.
Welsh, Professor D. A., M.D. Department of Pathology, University.
Welsh, Marcus B. Roto-iti, Boyle-street, Mosman.

Welsh, Mrs. W. Roto-iti, Boyle-street, Mosman.

Wenholz, G. Lorella, 44 Middleton-street, Stanmore.

Yenholz, H. Department of Agriculture, Grafton Experiment Farm, N.S.W.

Wentworth, D. 3 Onslow-avenue, Elizabeth Bay.

Wentworth, W. C. 163 Phillip-street. ;

West, Rev. R. Scott, The Manse, Gladstone-street, Burwood.
West, Mrs. R. Scott. The Manse, Gladstone-street, Burwood.
Wheatley, G. F. Canberra, Murdock-street, Cremorne.
Wheaton, F. F. 31 Church-street, Ashfield.

1914. L

162 BRITISH ASSOCTATION.

Wheen, Miss Agnes. Loxton, Bright-street, Marrickville.

Whistler, Mrs. L. C/o Dr. H. G. Chapman, Tivoli, Spit-road, Mosman.
White, Miss. C/o Lady Cullen, Tregoyd, Raglan-street, Mosman.
White, C. J. Teachers’ College, Blackfriars.

White, Mrs. E. J. Boandabah, Raglan-street, Mosman.

White, Harold P. Mining Museum, Dawes’ Point.

White, Henry E. Equitable Buildings, George-street.

Whitelegge, T. 36 Waterloo-street, Surrey Hills.

Whiteman, Mrs. J. Cottenheim, Strathfield.

Whiteman, Dr. R. J. Boulevarde, Strathfield.

Whitfeld, G. A. Sellinge, 20 Bathurst-street, Woollahra.
Whitfield, Miss Caroline A. Rowfant, Mowbray-road, Chatswood.
Whitney, Mrs. Coombing Park, Carcoar.

Whitton, Mrs. K. Maiala, Whitton-road, Chatswood.

Wickham, C. H. Broowena, Nelson-street, Gordon.

Wilbred, Rev. Bro. St. Joseph’s College, Hunter’s Hill.

§Wilcock, J. L. 9 East-road, Lancaster, England.

Williams, Miss Amy. Brockley, Meredith-street, Homebush.
Williams, Mrs. Florence. Brockley, Meredith-street, Homebush.
Williams, Harold. Meredith-street, Homebush.

Williams, H. Superior Public School, Nowra.

Wiliams, H. K. Sydney Morning Herald.

Williams, Mrs. Jamieson. The Manse, Tamworth.

Williams. John H. Sydney Technical High School, Ultimo.
Williams, L. Cambria, Fairlight-street, Manly.

Williams, Miss Margaret. University.

Williams, W. Yass.

Williamson, W. Roto-iti, Killara.

Williamson, Mrs. W. Roto-iti, Killara.

Willis, Dr. C. 8., M.R.C.S. Department of Public Instruction.
Willis, Mrs. C. Savill. Willisdene, Peel-street, Kirribilli, North Sydney.
Willis, J. Thomas. Narara, N.S.W.

Wilmott, J. P. Boys’ High School, East Maitland.

Wilshire, E. H., J.P. 40 O’Connell-street.

Wilshire, Mrs. James. Coolooli, Neutral Bay.

Wilson, E. G. Garrawilla, Montgomery-street, Kogarah.

Wilson, Miss Ivy. Garrawilla, Montgomery-street, Kogarah.
Wilson, J. Bowie. Woolwich-road, Hunter’s Hill.
§Wilson, Professor J. T., M.B., Ch.M. University.

Wilson, Mrs. 116 Ruthven-street, Waverley.

Wilson, Samuel. Lake Cowal, Marsden, N.S.W.

Wilson, W. Claude. B.M.A. Building, Elizabeth-street.

Wilson, W. G. C/o Farmer & Company, Ltd., Pitt and George-streets.
Wilton, Rev. E. N., B.A. St. Andrew’s Cathedral, George-street.
Wiltshire, H. Waterview, Ellamatta-avenue, Mosman.

Wimble, A. R. J. Box 2031, G.P.O.

Windeyer, Miss. Toocooya, 25 Newcastle-street, Rose Bay.
Windeyer, Miss Lucy A. 25 Newcastle-street, Rose Bay.

Wise, Mrs. B. R. Elizabeth Bay.

Wiseman, Wm. Moira, Toxteth-road, Glebe Point.
Wolstoneholme, E. J. Montavella Orchard, Bathurst.

Wood, Miss Amy. Brundah, Carabella-street, Kirribilli Point.
Wood, Fred W. Branxholme, 320 Alfred-street, North Sydney.
Wood, Mrs. Catherine T. Branxholme, 320 Alfred-street, North Sydney.
Wood, Wm., F.C.S. Burroughs, Wellcome, & Co., Victoria-street, Waterloo.
Woodhouse, Mrs. E. 83 Old South Head-road, Waverley.
Woodhouse, Rev. J. Warnucliffe, Lindfield.

Woodhouse, Professor W. J., M.A. University.

Woore, J. M. S., B.E., A.M.Inst.C.E. Irrigation Offices, Leeton, via Yanco.
Worrall, Mrs. A. Ideraway, Elizabeth Bay.

Worrall, Ralph, M.D. 183 Macquarie-street.

Wright, Mrs. Bishopscourt, Darling Point.

LIST OF MEMBERS: SYDNEY, 1914. 163

Wright, Mrs. Boombilla, Ourimbah-road, Mosman.
Wright, Miss. Boombilla, Ourimbah-road, Mosman.
Wright, A. H. 3 Walker-street, North Sydney.
§Wright, A. M. Islington, Christchurch, New Zealand.
Wright, Frederick. C/o Elliott Bros., Ltd., O’Connell-strect.
§Wright, Gilbert. Agricultural Department, University.
Wright, Miss Jessie. Corrie, College-street, Drummoyne.
Wright, Miss M. 15 Norfolk-street, Paddington.
Wright, S., B.A. Blackheath.
Wrigley, Mrs. E. W. Wilpena, Napier-street, Lindfield.

Yabsley, A. H. Brantwood, Strathfield.

Yabsley, Mrs. A. H. Brantwood, Strathfield.

Yarnold, A. H., M.A. Church of England Preparatory School, Shadforth-
street, Mosman.

Yarwood, Miss. Waimea House, Queen-street, Woollahra.

Yates, Arthur. Didsbury, Shaftesbury-road, Burwood.

Yates, Mrs. Arthur. Didsbury, Shaftesbury-road, Burwood.

Young, Dr. H. C. Taylor. 221 Macquarie-street.

BRISBANE.
Allen, J. C/o Messrs. Allen & Stark.

§Bage, Miss Freda. Women’s College.
Ball, L. C. Geological Survey Office.

§Barton, E. C. City Electric Light Company, Brisbane.
Bell, Mrs. G. A. Coochin Coochin, Boonah, Queensland.
Bell, Norman M. 83 Eagle-street.

Bennett, F. State School, Toowong, Queensland.

Bousfield, F. N. 8. Boys’ Grammar School.

Bradfield, J. J. C. Public Works Department, Sydney.
Brunswick, J. C., F.I.C. Agricultural Department.

Brydon, Mrs. M. H. Ebor, High-street, Toowong, Queensland.
Buchanan, Dr. J. D. Ann-street.

Bundock, Mrs. C. W. Kooralbyn, Beaudesert, Queensland.
Bunning, G. E. Commercial Chambers, Eagle-street.

Cameron, Dr. D. A. Wickham-terrace.

Cameron, Dr. J. A. East-street, Ipswich, Queensland.
Cameron, Walter E. Geological Survey Office.

Carter, Hon. A. J. Nunnington, Main-street, Kangaroo Point.
Carvosso, Dr. A. B. Ann-street.

Chisholm, Mrs. A. 8. Strathfield, Toowong.

Clewett, Miss M. K. Montpelier, Wickham-terrace.

Collidge, W. R. Associated Friendly Societies’ Dispensary.
Comyn, Miss M. F. Kilcorney, Tingal Hill, Wynnum, Queensland.
Connah, Frank, Assistant Government Analyst, Brisbane.
Cowley, Sir Alfred. Toowong, Queensland.

Cowley, R. C. College of Pharmacy.

Cribb, Miss E. M. B. Gooloowa, Ipswich, Queensland.

Cribb, J. G. River-road, Melton, Queensland.

Dixon, G. P., M.B. 71 Wickham-terrace.

Doak, W. J. Ascog-terrace, Toowong.

Donaldson, A. A. Avonleigh, Franz-road, Ascot.

Dunstan, B. Government Geological Department.
L2

164 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Flint, Rev. A. C. St. James’ Church, Toowoomba, Queensland.
Foxton, J. F. G. Albert-chambers, Albert-gardens.

Fraser, H. Barron. Holyrood, Gregory-terrace.

Furer, Friulein. Women’s College.

Gibson, Professor A. J. University of Queensland.
§Gibson, A. J., Ph.D. Central Sugar Mills.
Gibson, Dr. Lockhart. Wickham-terrace.
Gibson, Mrs. Lockhart. Wickham-terrace.
Goldsmith, A. G. Lillingston, Moray-street, New Farm.
Grant, K. M. London Bank-chambers, Queen-street.
Gray, W. E. Emmanuel College.
Greenwood, Rev. Fred. Kingsley-terrace, Wynnum South, Queensland.
Gurney, E. H. Welham-street.

Halford, Dr. A. C. F. Turrawan, Clayfield.

Hamilton, R. C., B.A. Technical College, Warwick, Queensland.
Hardie, Sir David. Wickham-terrace.

Hardie, Lady. Wickham-terrace.

Harris, Dr. Hamlyn. Queensland Museum.

Harris, John J. Laboratory of Microbiology, College-road.
Hart, G. Stephen, F.G.S. Technical College, Mt. Morgan, Queensland.
Henderson, J. B., I'.C.S., F.I.C. Brisbane.

Hertzberg, A. M. Memmorah, Bowen-terrace.

Hill, Mrs. Lumley. Bellevue, Esk, Queensland.

Hirschfeld, D. E. 33 Wickham-terrace.

Jarrett, Miss M. K. High School for Girls,
Jones, T. E. University of Queensland.

Keir, F. L. C/o Construction Engineer’s Office, Queensland Railways.
Kemp, C. Hadleigh, Indooroopilly, Queensland.

L’Estrange, Dr. Guy. George-street.
Lightoller, Dr. H. M. Highlands, Albion.
Longman, H. A. Queensland Museum.
Love, D. Wilton. Wickham-terrace.
Love, Mrs. Wilton. Wickham-terrace.

Macartney, E. H. Glenallan, Fernberg-road, Rosalie.

McColl, T. Government Chemical Laboratory.

McDonnell, A. J.. M.D. Rathdonnell, Toowoomba, Queensland.
McGregor, J. G. Boundary-street, South Brisbane.

McMeekin, R. S. Taylor-street, Toowoomba, Queensland.
§Maitland, A. Gibb. Geological Survey, Perth, Western Australia.
Malaher, Dr. Viti Levu, Nambour, Queensland.

Marks, Dr. Alexis. Wickham-terrace.

Marsden, A. J., B.Sc. Teachers’ Training College.

May, Herbert W. Swann-road, Taringa, Queensland.

Mayo, G. E. University of Queensland.

Merrington, Dr. E. N. Talmoi, O’Connell-street, Kangaroo Point.
Michie, Professor J. L. University of Queensland.

Morris, Leonard. Education Department, Treasury Buildings.
Morrow, W. A. Toorak-road, Hamilton.

§Murray, John. Tullibardin, New Farm.

Newman, K. I. Montpelier, Wickham-terrace.
Nicoll, Dr. Jas. R. Hospital for Insane, Toowoomba, Queensland.

O’Sullivan, Hon. T. Toowong, Queensland,

LIST OF MEMBERS: BRISBANE, 1914. 165

Pagan, Colonel.

Parker, W. R., L.D.S. Stanwell, Aberleigh-hill, Kelvin-grove.
Parnell, T. University.

Pearce, T. R. Elizabeth-street, Toowong, Queensland.
Pemberton, C. Railway Department, Ipswich, Queensland.
Price, Dr. T. A. Toowoomba, Queensland.
§Priestley, Professor H. J. Edale, River-terrace, Kangaroo Point.

Richards, H. C. University.

Riddell, R. Central Technical College.

Robertson, Dr. W. N. 69 Wickham-terrace.

Roe, R. H. Queensland Club.

Rowe, Rev. G. E. Albert-street Methodist Church.
Rudd, Arthur. Clayfield College, Clayfield.
Rutherford, Miss I. M. Craigard, Albert Hall.

Saunders, G. J. Yabba-street, Ascot.
Schindler, Ch. 288 Queen-street.
Scott, Herbert W. 184 Queen-street.
Scott, Mrs. Kerr. Brunswick-street, New Farm.
Scott-Fletcher, Rev. M. King’s College.
Seymour, P. A. University.
Shirley, Dr. John. Teachers’ Training College.
Spowers, Allan A. Stamp Office.
§Steele, Professor B. D., D.Sc. University.
Story, J. D. Department of Public Instruction.
Sussmilch, C. A. C/o B. Dunstan, Esq., Government Geologist.

Taylor, W. F. Westbourne, George-strect.

Thompson, Dr. Robert. Wickham-terrace.

Thomson, J. P., LL.D. Royal Geographical Society.
§Turner, Dr. A. J. Wickham-terrace.

§Walkom, A. B. University.

Warren, C. C. C/o The Warren Importing Co., Wharf-street.
Wates, Oliver. School-road, Yeronga, South Coast Line, Queensland.
Wearne, R. A. Technical College, Ipswich, Queensland.
White, Miss Helen. Girls’ Grammar School, Ipswich, Queensland.

*White, Dr. Jean. Prickly Pear Experimental Station, Dulacca, Queensland.
Wilson, A. B. Eldon Chambers, Queen-street.

166 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887. Professor Cleveland Abbe. Local Office, U.S.A. Weather Bureau,
Washington, U.S.A.

1892. Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm. (Bergs-
gatan 18.)

1913. Dr. O. Backlund. Pulkowa, Russia.

1913. Professor C. Barrois. Université, Lille, France.

1897. Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A.

1887. Hofrath Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Anilenfabrik, Ludwigshafen,

Germany.

1913. Professor K. Birkeland. Universitet, Christiania.

1890. Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Friedrichstrasse 11, Miinchen.

1893. Professor Dr. W. C. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Christiania, Norway.

1894. Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, U.S.A.

1897. M. C. de Candolle. 3 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland.

1887. Professor G. Capellini. 65 Via Zamboni, Bologna, Italy.

1913. Professor H. S. Carhart. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, U.S.A.

1894. Emile Cartailhac. 5 rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France.

1901. Professor T. C. Chamberlin. Chicago, U.S.A.

1894. Dr. A. Chauveau. 7 rue Cuvier, Paris.

1913. Professor R. Chodat. Université, Geneva.

1887. F. W. Clarke. Care of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C., U.S.A.

1913. Professor H. Conwentz. Elssholzstrasse 13, Berlin W. 57.

1873. Professor Guido Cora. Via Nazionale 181, Rome.

1889, W. H. Dall, Sc.D. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
D.C., U.S.A.

1872. Dr. Yves Delage. Faculté des Sciences, La Sorbonne, Paris.

1901. Professor G. Dewalque. 17 rue de la Paix, Liége, Belgium.

1913. Professor Carl Diener. Universitat, Vienna.

1876. Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

1894. Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Netherlands.

1892. Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.

1901. Professor J. Elster. Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

1913. Professor A. Engler. Universitat, Berlin.

1913. Professor Giulio Fano. Istituto di Fisiologia, Florence.

1901. Professor W. G. Farlow. Harvard, U.S.A.

1874. Dr. W. Feddersen. Carolinenstrasse 9, Leipzig.

1913. Professor Chas. Féry. Ecole Municipale de Physique et de Chimie
Industrielles, 42 rue Lhomond, Paris.

1886. Dr. Otto Finsch. Altewiekring, No.19b, Braunschweig, Germany.

1894. Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 34, Berlin, S.W.48.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS: 1914. 167

Year of
Election.

1872.
1901.
1894,
1913.
1892.
1881.
1901.
1889.
1913.
1889.
1884,

1913.
1892.

1913.
1876.
1881.
1913.
1913.
1893.
1894.
1893.

1897.
1913.
1881.

1887.
1884,

1876.
1881.

1887.
1876.
1913.
1913.
1913.

1884.
1873.
1894.
1894,
1913.
1913.
1894,
1913.

1887.
1872.

1901.
1883.

1887
1913

1894,

W. de Fonvielle. 50 rue des Abbesses, Paris.

Professor A. P. N. Franchimont. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor Léon Fredericq. 20 rue de Pitteurs, Liége, Belgium.

Professor M. von Frey. Universitit, Wiirzburg.

Professor Dr. Gustav Fritsch. Berlinerstrasse 30, Berlin.

Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 rue Edouard Détaille, Paris.

Professor Dr. H. Geitel. Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

Professor Gustave Gilson. I’ Université, Louvain, Belgium.

Professor E. Gley. 14 rue Monsieur le Prince, Paris.

A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

General A. W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington,
U.S.A.

Professor P. H. von Groth. Universitit, Munich.

Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.

Yves Guyot. 95 rue de Seine, Paris.

Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 30 Langdon-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Professor A. Haller. 10 rue Vauquelin, Paris.

Professor H. J. Hamburger. Physiological Institute, Groningen.

Professor Paul Heger. 23 rue de Drapiers, Brussels.

Professor Ludimar Hermann. Universitit, KGnigsberg, Prussia.

Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie,
Munich.

Dr. G. W. Hill. West Nyack, New York, U.S.A.

Professor A. F. Holleman. Universiteit, Amsterdam.

Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., D.Sc., C.M.Z.S. The
University, Utrecht, Netherlands.

Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, R.I., U.S.A.

Professor C. Loring Jackson. 6 Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

Dr. W. J. Janssen. Soldino, Lugano, Switzerland.

W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States,
Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A.

Professor C. Julin. 159 rue de Fragnée, Liége.

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. Bastions Vittoria 41, Milan.

Professor Hector Jungersen. Universitet, Copenhagen.

Professor J.C. Kapteyn, Universiteit, Groningen.

Professor A. E. Kennelly. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

Professor Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm-Weberstrasse 3, Gottingen.

Professor Dr. L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 186-7, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin.

Professor J. Kollmann. St. Johann 88, Basel, Switzerland.

Professor D. J. Korteweg. Universiteit, Amsterdam.

Professor A. Kossel. Physiologisches Institut, Heidelberg.

Maxime Kovalevsky. 13 Avenue de ]’Observatoire, Paris, France.

Ch. Lallemand, Directeur-Général des Mines. 58 Boulevard
Emile-Augier, Paris.

Professor J. W. Langley. 2037 Geddes-avenue, Ann Arbor, Michi-
gan, U.S.A.

M. Georges Lemoine. 76 rue Notre Dame des Champs, Paris.

Professor Philipp Lenard. Schlossstrasse 7, Heidelberg.

Dr. F. Lindemann. Franz-Josefstrasse 12/I, Munich.

Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. Riimistrasse 56, Zurich, V.

Professor F. von Luschan. Universitit, Berlin.

Professor Dr. Otto Maas. Universitat, Munich.

168 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1913. Professor E. Mahaim. Université de Liége, Belgium.

1887. Dr. C. A. von Martius. Voss-strasse 8, Berlin, W.

1884, Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A.

1887. Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1894. Professor G. Mittag-Lefiler. Djursholm, Stockholm.

1897. Professor Oskar Montelius. St. Paulsgatan 11, Stockholm, Sweden.

1913. Professor E. H. Moore. University of Chicago, U.S.A.

1897. Professor E. W. Morley, LL.D. West Hartford, Connecticut,
U.S.A. .

1887. E. S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem. Mass., U.S.A.

1913. Professor F. R. Moulton. University of Chicago, U.S.A.

1889. Dr. F. Nansen. Lysaker, Norway.

1894. Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico, Via S. Maria, Pisa, Italy.

1913. Professor E. Naville. Université, Geneva.

1887. Professor Emilio Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass, Germany.

1894. Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A.

1890. Professor W. Ostwald. Linnéstrasse 2, Leipzig.

1890. Maffeo Pantaleoni. 13 Cola di Rienzo, Rome.

1895. Professor F. Paschen. Universitat, Tiibingen.

1887. Dr. Pauli. Feldbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a/Main, Germany.

1901. Hofrath Professor A. Penck. Georgenstrasse 34-36, Berlin, N.W. 7.

1890. Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockholms Hogskola, Stockholm.

1894. Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. Linnéstrasse 11, Leipzig.

1886. Professor F. W. Putnam. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

1887. Professor Georg Quincke. Bergstrasse 41, Heidelberg. é

1868. L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Sonnenstrasse 7.

1913. Professor Reinke. Universitit, Kiel.

1895. Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.

1913. Dr. Hans Reusch. Universitet, Christiania.

1897. Professor Dr. C. Richet. 15 rue de |’ Université, Paris, France.

1896. Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Parklaan 3, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

1892. Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

1913. Professor A. Rothpletz. Universitit, Munich.

1913. Professor H. Rubens. Universitit, Berlin.

1895. Professor Carl Runge. Wilhelm Weberstrasse 21, Géttingen,
Germany.

1901. Gen.-Major Rykatchew. Perspective Sredny 34, Wass. Ostr.,
Petrograd.

1913. Dr. C. Schoute. De Biet, Holland.

1874. Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Kaiser Friedrichstrasse 8, Berlin.

1897. Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.

1887. Professor H. Graf Solms. Botanischer Garten, Strassburg.

1887. Ernest Solvay. 25 rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.

1888. Dr. Alfred Springer. 312 East 2nd-street, Cincinnati, Ohio,
U.S.A.

1881. Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. The University, Athens.

1887. Professor John ‘Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1889. Wladimir Vernadsky. Imperial Academy of Sciences, Petrograd.

1913. Professor M. Verworn. Universitit, Bonn.

1886. Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 21 rue Belliard, Brussels, Belgium.

1887. Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Moltkestrasse 60, Kiel.

1913. Professor Max Weber. Universiteit, Amsterdam.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS: 1914. 69

z lect a :

1887. Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.

1881. Professor H. M. Whitney. Branford, Conn., U.S.A.

1887. Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen.

1887. Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-
Breisgau, Baden.

1887. Dr. Otto N. Witt. Ebereschen-Allée 10, Westend bei Berlin.

1913. Professor R. W. Wood. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.

1913. Professor P. Zeeman. Universiteit, Amsterdam.

170

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Belfast, Queen’s University.
Birmingham, Midland Institute.
Bradford Philosophical Society.
Brighton Public Library.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

——, The Museum.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Cardiff, University College.
Chatham, Royal Engineers’ Institute.
Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.
Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.

——, Royal College of Surgeons in |

| ——, Royal Institution.

| ——, Royal Meteorological Society.

| ——, Royal Sanitary Institute.

| ——, Royal Society.

| ——, Royal Society of Arts.

| ——, Royal Statistical Society.
——, United Service Institution.

Treland.

——, Royal Irish Academy.

——, Royal Society.

——., National Library of Ireland.

Dundee, University College.

——, Albert Institute.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

——, Royal Medical Society of.

——, Scottish Society of Arts.

Exeter, Royal Albert Memorial
College Museum.

Glasgow, Royal Philosophical Society
of.

——, Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland.

Leeds, Institute of Science.

——, Philosophical and Literary
Society of.

Liverpool, Free Public Library.

——, Royal Institution.

——, The University.

London, Admiralty, Library of the.

» Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries.

——, Chemical Society.

——-, Civil Engineers, Institution of.

——, Geological Society.

——. Geology, Museum of Practical.

——, Greenwich Royal Observatory.

—, Guildhall Library.

—, Institution of Electrical
Engineers.

——, Institution of Mechanical
Engineers.

——,, Intelligence Office, Central De-
partment of Political Information.

| London, King’s College.
| ——, Linnean Society.

——, London Institution.

| ——, Meteorological Office.

——, Physical Society.

——, Royal Anthropological Insti-
tute,

——, Royal Asiatic Society.

——, Royal Astronomical Society.

——, Royal College of Physicians.

——, Royal College of Surgeons.

——, Royal Geographical Society.

——, University Coilege.

——, War Otiice, Library.

——, Workers’ Educational
ciation.

——, Zoological Society.

Manchester Literary and Philosophi-
cal Society.

——, Municipal School of Technology.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Scciety.

——, Public Library.

Norwich, The Free Library.

Nottingham, The Free Library.

Oxford, Ashmolean Natural History
Society.

——, Radcliffe Observatory.

Plymouth Institution.

——, Marine Biological Association.

Salford, Royal Museum and Library.

Sheffield. University College.

Southampton, Hartley Institution.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.

Surrey, Royal Gardens, Kew.

, Kew Observatory, Richmond.

Swansea, Royal Institution of South
Wales.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

The Corresponding Societies.

Asso-

SOCIETIES, ETC., RECEIVING REPORT: 1914. 171
EUROPE.

Borbnereratrat- Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Munich....... University Library.
demie der Wissen- Naples....... Royal Academy of
schaften. Sciences.

BONH, “ sreieieies University Library, | —— .....-- Zoological Station.

Brussels ....Royal Academy of Paris......... Association Frangaise
Sciences. pour l Avancement

Charkow .. University Library. des Sciences.

Coimbra ..... Meteorological Ob- —— ........ Geographical Society.
servatory. Ml Parstctatelolate Geological Society.

Copenhagen...Royal Society of —— ........ Royal Academy of
Sciences. Sciences.

Dorpat, Russia University Library. = —— ......., School of Mines.

Dresden ..Royal Public Library. Petrograd .... University Library.

Frankfort ...Natural History So- —— ........ Imperial Observatory.
ciety. Pultova ...... Imperial Observatory.

Geneva....... Natural History So- Rome ....... Accademia dei Lincei.
ciety. —— see eeee Collegio Romano.

Gottingen ....University Library. = ithe dere Italian Geographical

GEER dsc Naturwissenschaft - Society.
licher Verein. —— cee eee Italian Society of

LE eae Iria Leopoldinisch - Caro - Sciences.
linische Akademie. Rumania ....Rumanian Association

Harlem ...... Société Hollandaise for the Advance-

des Sciences.

ment of Science.

Heidelberg... . University Library. SPalbyalsiele sist. « Asociacion para el
Helsingfors ...University Library. Progreso de las
GHAI Tie. sic 0! University Library. Ciencias.
Kazan, Russia University Library. Stockholm ...Royal Academy.
taligetscisiesis"s Royal Observatory. Purine stele Royal Academy of
IGE qe eCOgine University Library. Sciences.
Lausanne ....The University. Upsala: 5. -2 5.3 Royal Society of
Leiden ....... University Library. Science.
WAOOEN s aicteis a0 University Library. Utrecht ...... University Library.
Jone ies SSbacee Academia Real des Vienna ...... The Imperial Library.
Sciences: je) |S Sewctlas Central Anstalt fiir
WEEN -ccpenadae The Institute. Meteorologie und
Modena ...... Royal Academy. Erdmagnetismus.
Moscow ...... Society of Naturalists. Zurich........ Naturforschende Ge-
prelates University Library. sellschaft.
ASIA.
IA or eite temic s/ 8) ate The College. Calcutta ..... Medical College.
Bombay ..... Elphinstone Institu- —— ....... Presidency College.
tion. Ceyloniy 3... . The Museum, Co-
—— seeeeeee Grant Medical Col- | lombo.
lege. Madras ...... The Observatory.
a aeieiee oe Royal Asiatic Society. | —— ........ University Library.
Calcutta ..... Royal Asiatic Society. Tokyo ....... Imperial University.
—— iseeeeee Hooghly College.
AFRICA.
Cape Town ....National Botanic Gardens, Newlands.
Fant ae aha Gio a iohe The Royal Observatory.
oe Saneocde South African Association for the
Advancement of Science.
== eigie sisinis a)aie South African Public Library.
Grahamstown ..Rhodes University College.
Kimberley ....Public Library.

Albany ......
Ambherst......
Baltimore ....

Boston ......

California.....

Cambridge ...

Edmonton....
Kingston .....
Manitoba ....

a2 Field Museum of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

AMERICA,

The Institute. New York
The Observatory.
Johns Hopkins Uni- | —— .......
versity. Ottawa.......
American Academy of
Arts and Sciences. _ Philadelphia
Boston Society of |
Natural History. SS oor
The University. | —— sen eeee
Lick Observatory. |
Academy of Sciences. Toronto ....
Harvard University |} —— .......
Library.
American Medical |—— .......
Association. Uruguay......

Natural] History.
University of Alberta. | Washington. .
Queen’s University. —— seeeeee
Historical and Scien- _—— .......

tific Society.
The University.

Massachusetts .Marine Biological P55 5 eee
Laboratory, Woods
Holl. Sn a at

Mexico ...... Sociedad Cientifica |-——_.......
‘ Antonio Alzate.’ | --— .......

Missouri ..... Botanical Garden.

Montreal ..... Council of Arts and | —— .......
Manufactures.

Montreal ..... McGill University.

-.American Society of

Civil Engineers.
Academy of Sciences.
Geological Survey of

Canada.

.. American Philosophi-

cal Society.
Franklin Institute.
University of Penn-
sylvania.

- The Observatory.

The Canadian Insti-
tute.

The University.

General Statistical
Bureau andLibrary,
Montevideo.

-Board of Agriculture.

Bureau of Ethnology.
Bureau of Standards, —
DepartmentofCom-

merce and Labour.
Coast and Geodetic —
Survey.
Library of Congress.
Naval Observatory.
Smithsonian Institu-
tion.
United States Geolo-
gical Survey of the
Territories.

AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide iriccctteiatet te Public Library of South Australia.
Saad PEM: Seen Royal Geographical Society.
Brisbane .......... Queensland Museum.

Che eae ete eet Queensland Public Library.
Melbourne ........ Public Library.
SyGuey,.v.cvac. see e Public Works Department.
ety one Aree Australian Museum.

Jysetio aeloeea tes Library, Department of Mines.
Tasmania .......... Royal Society.
Wictoriai i secs ee The Colonial Government.

NEW ZEALAND.

Canterbury ........ The Museum.

Wellington ......... New Zealand Institute
(Dominion Museum),

PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWCODR AND CO. LTD., LONDON
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